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BHAVAN’S BOOK UNIVERSITY

THE HISTORY AND CULTURE

OF THE

INDIAN PEOPLE

THE AGE OF

IMPERIAL

KANAUJ

BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAVAN

MUMBAI

Agartala * Ahmedabad * Allahabad * Amritsar * Andheri * Aurangabad
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Indore * Irinjalakuda * Jabalpur * Jaipur * Jalgaon * Jammu Tawi * Jamnagar
Jodhpur * Kakinada * Kammam * Kanchipuram * Kannur * Kanpur * Khor * Kochi
Kodagu * Kodaikanal * Kodinar * Kodungallur * Kolhapur * Kolkata * Kollam
Korba * Kosamba * Kota * Kottayam * Kozhikode * Kurkunta * Kutch * Lucknow
Machilipatnam * Madurai * Malkhed * Mangalore * Mankapur * Modipuram
Mukundgarh * MUMBAI H.O. * Mysore * Nadiad * Nagercoil * Nagpur * Nasik
Noida * Navi Mumbai * New Delhi * Ottappalam * Palakkad * Panchkula * Patna
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Ratangarh * Reddipalayam * Renukoot * Roorkee * Rourkela * Salav * Satna
Secunderabad * Serampore * Shimoga * Siliguri * Suchindram * Surat
Tadepalligudam * Thaliparamba * Thirunavaya * Thiruvananthapuram * Thrissur
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The history of the period covered by this
volume revolves round the pivot of Kanauj —
from which it derives its name. The Pratiharas,
the Palas and the Rashtrakutas constitute the
triangle of forces fighting for supremacy, with
the imperial city as the trophy. Incidentally the
theory that Harshavardhana was not the last
empire-builder is further sustained by the larger,
and the more stable empire of the Gurjara
Pratiharas which receives detailed treatment.
The Rashtrakutas emerge in brilliant colours
against the background of ancient Deccan. The
part played by Kabul and Zabul in resisting
Muslim infiltration has for the first time been
brought into proper perspective.

On the cultural side we see Buddhism and
Jainism eddying into regional backwaters, the
pure founts of Brahmanism and Buddhism
coloured by Tantrikism. At the same time an
interpretative phase in the religious and secular
spheres ushers. In an otherwise dull firmament
we notice the stars Sankara and Medhatithi
lighting the paths of religion and law. In
Visakhadatta and Rajasekhara the literature of
the period finds an ornate phase. Udbhata,
Vamana and Abhinavagupta are names to
conjure with in rhetorics. The Champu finds its
orientation. Indian pathology and materia
medica find their categorical enunciation in
Madhavakara and Dhanvantari, The Nagara and
Dravida types of architecture take definite
shape. The monolith Kailasa temple at Ellora
remains a unique achievement with no parallel
in the history of Indian architecture. The volume
ends up with a brilliant chapter on the trans¬
oceanic cultural activities of the period. A
comprehensive index, exhaustive bibliography,
chronology, genealogy and maps complete the
uniqueness of the volume.

The contributors to this volume include: A.S.
Altekar, M.A., LL.B., D. Litt. R.C. Majumdar,
M.A., Ph.D., (London); D.C. Sircar, M.A., Ph.D.;
R. Sathianhathaier, M.A.L.T.; G.V. Devasthali,
M.A.;B.T., Ph.D.;' H.D. Velankar, M.A.; A.D.
Pusalker, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.; H.L. Jain, M.A.,
LL.B., D. Litt.; K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar, M.A,
D.Litt; U.N. Ghoshal, M.A., Ph.D.; Nalinaksha
Dutt, M.A.,B.L.,P.R.S.,Ph.D; T.M.P. Mahadevan,
M.A., Ph.D.; H.D. Bhattacharya, M.A.; I.J.S.
Taraporewala, B.A., Ph.D., Bar-at-Law; and U.C.
Bhattacharjee, M.A.

Foreword by Dr. K.M. Munshi.

Rs. 500/-

3TTTT^rr:

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— Rigveda, I-89-i

BHAVAN S BOOK UNIVERSITY

THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE INDIAN PEOPLE

THE AGE OF

IMPERIAL

KANAUJ

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
Public.Resource.Org

https://archive.org/details/ageofimperialkan04bhar

BHA VAN'S BOOK UNIVERSITY

The History and Culture of the Indian People

THE AGE OF

IMPERIAL

KANAUJ

FOREWORD BY

K. M. MUNSHI

B.A., LL.B., D.LITT. LL.D.

President, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan

GENERAL EDITOR

R. C. MAJUMDAR

M.A., PH.D., F.A.S., F.B.B.R.A.S.

Ex. Vice-Chancellor and Professor of History
Dacca University

Hon. Head of the Department of History
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan

ASSISTANT EDITORS

A. D. PUSALKER

M.A., LL.B., PH.D.

Assistant Director and Head of the
Department of Ancient Indian Culture
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan

AND

A. K. MAJUMDAR, m.a., d. phill

Director,

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Delhi Kendra

2009

BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAVAN

Kulapati K. M. Munshi Marg
Mumbai-400 007

1st Edition

1955

2nd Edition

1964

3rd Edition

1984

4th Edition

1993

5th Edition

2009

Price Rs. 500.00

PRINTED IN INDIA

By Atul Goradia at Siddhi Printers, 13/14, Bhabha Building, 13th Khetwadi Lane,
Mumbai - 400 004, and Published by P. V. Sankarankutty Additional Registrar (Publications),
for Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Kulapati Munshi Marg, Mumbai - 400 007.

E-Mail : bhavan@bhavans.info • Web-site : www.bhavans.info

Contributors

A. S. ALTEKAR

M.A., LL.B., D.LIJT.

Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History and CultlfiP&

* in the Patna University

R. C. MAJUMDAR

M.A., PH.D., F.A.S., F.BtB.R.A.S.

D. C. GANGULY

M.A., PH.D. (LONDON)

Secretary, Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta

D, C. SIRCAR

M.A., PH.D.

Superintendent for Epigraphy, Government of India, Ootacamund;
formerly Lecturer in Ancient Indian History and Culture in the

University of Calcutta

R. SATHIANATHAIER

M.A.,- L.T.

Professor of History and Politics Jn the Annamalai University

G. V. DEVASTHALI

M.A., B.T., PH.D.

Professor of Sanskrit in the H. P. T. College, Nosik

H.° D. VELANKAR
M.A.

Joint Director, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan; formerly Professor of Sanskrit,

Wilson College, Bombay

A. D. PUSALKER

M.A., LL.B., PH.D.

Assistant Director and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian Culture,

Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan

H. L. JAIN

M.A., LL.B., D.LITT.

Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali andPrakrit in the Nagpur University

K. R. SRINIVASA IYENGAR

M.A., D.LITT.

Professor and Head of the Department of English in the Andhra University, Walt air

U. N. GHOSHAL

M.A., PH.D.

Formerly Professor of History in the Presidency College, Calcutta

NALINAKSHA DUTT

MA, B.L., P.R.S., PH.D., D.LITT. (London)

Professor of Pali in the University of Calcutta

J. N. BANERJEA

M.A., PH.D.

Carmichael Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture in the

University of Calcutta

T. M. P. MAHADEVAN

M.A., PH.D.

Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy in the University of Madras

H. D. BHATTACHARYYA

M.A.

Formerly Head of the Department of Philosophy, Dacca University, and
Honorary University Professor of Indian Philosophy and Religion,

Banaras Hindu University

I. J. S. TARAPOREWALA

B.A., PH.D., Bar-at-Law

Formerly Professor of Comparative Philology in the University of Calcutta,
and Director, Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute, Poona

U. G BHATTACHARJEE

M.A.

Formerly Professor of Philosophy in the Presidency College, Calcutta

FOREWORD

By Dr, K. M. Mxjnshi

The Age of Imperial Kanauj, with which this Volume deals,
deserves a more important place in Indian history than it has been
given so far. I should, therefore, be forgiven if I gave in my own
way a. picture as I see it.* *

The Age begins with the repulse of the Arab invasions oh the
mainland of India in the beginning of the eighth century and ends
with the fateful year A.D. 997 when Afghanistan passed into the
hands of the Turks.

With this Age, ancient India came to* an end. At the turn of
its last century, Sabuktigm and Mahmud came to power* in Ghazni.
Their lust, which found expression in the following decades, was to
shake the very foundations of life in India, releasing new forces.
They gave bhrth to medieval India. Till the rise of the Hindu power
in Maharashtra in the eighteenth century, India was to pass through
a period of collective resistance.

This Age of Imperial Kanauj, on the other hand, was an era
of great strength and achievement for India. The Arabs who were
on a march in three continents were repulsed. Throughout they
were held on the frontiers- The Tibetan power was eliminated
from Nepal. The South emerged effectively in the political life of
the country, as it had emerged in the earlier age in its religious and
cultural life.

This Age saw the rise and fall of three great Empires in the
country: of the Rashtrakutas, founded by Dantidurga (c. A.D. 733-
757) and his successor, Krishna I (c. A.D. 757-773), which domi¬
nated the South till its collapse in the year A.D. 974; of the Palas
in the East, which saw its zenith under Dharmap&la (c, A-D. 770-
8l0), though it revived a little at the end of the tenth century; of
the Pratiharas of the West and North, founded by Niagabhata I,
which saw its zenith during the reigns of Mihira Bhoja (c. A.D.
836-885) and Mahendrapala (c. A.D. 885-908), went under on account
of the catastrophic blows dealt by the Bashfrakuta raids, but retain¬
ed a shadowy imperial dignity to the end.

* I have incorporated without quotation marks several paragraphs from
my study of the period in The Glory that was Gurjaradesa (2nd Ed. Revised and
in part re-written),

•

VII

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

It was the Age of Kanauj or, Kanyakubja, the imperial city of
Isanavarman, which dominated Madhyadesa, the heartland of India.
It was the coveted prize of the three imperial powers racing for all-
India supremacy. Ultimately it passed into the hands of the Prati-
bara Gurjaresvaras about A.D- 815; remained the metropolis of
power till A.D. 950, and continued to be the most influential centre
of culture till A.D. 1018 when it was destroyed by Mahmud of
Ghazni.

By inheritance Kanauj was the home of Indo- Aryan traditions.
In the post-Vedic ages the region from Hard war to Unnao, near
Lucknow, was known as Aryavarta. Later with the spread of Indo-
Aryan culture, first, north India, and then the whole country, came
to be called by that name. The original Aryavarta, then come to
be known as Brahmavarta, with accretions, was called Madhyadesa
during this age.

When Hastinapura met with disaster due to floods, as the recent
excavations at Hastinapura corroborative of the Puranic testimony
show, Nichakshu, the descendant of Janamejaya Parlkshita led the
Kurus to Kausambi. In the early sixth century when the Maga-
dhan Age opened, it was the capital of a powerful Aryan kingdom;
Vatsaraja, who could lure elephants by his music, was then its ruler-
It remained such capital till the end of the sixth century of the Christ¬
ian Era. Then North India was overrun by the Hunas. Kausambi
was destroyed. But with Isanavarman, the liberator v/ho drove out
the Hunas, Kanauj came into prominence, as the centre of power in
Madhyadesa, no longer a principality of the Gupta Empire.

In the seventh century the kings of Bengal and Mialava destroy¬
ed the power of Kanauj, then in the hands of the descendants of
Isanavarman. On the ruins of the Maukhari kingdom, Sri Harsha
built his short-lived empire of Madhyadesa. During his forty-two
years’ rule (A.D. 606-647), Kanauj grew into the foremost city of
India. Sri Harsha, however, could not create a hierarchy pledged
to support his imperial structure. He left no able successor. His
empire was dissolved soon after he died-

For more than half a century thereafter, the history of Kanauj
is wrapt in obscurity. At the end of it, Yasovarman, a great con¬
queror and the patron of Bhavabhuti and Vakpati, is found ruling
Kanauj. Both Yasovarman and Lalitaditya of Kashmir joined hands
against the inroads of the Arabs and Tibetans. But the allies soon
fell out and Lalitaditya destroyed the power of Yasovarman.

The Classical Age of India closed with the reign of Yasovarman.
This Age then opened with one Indrayudha on the throne of Kanauj,

• • •
vm

FOREWORD

which had retained its metropolitan and symbolic importance as
the capital of India. And the stage was set for the triangular strug¬
gle for it between the Rashtrakutas of the South, the Pratiharas of
Gurjaradesa and the Palas of Bengal-

Ill

The first great conqueror to emerge on the scene, with the Age,
was the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga. The son of Indra I by a Cha-
iukyan princess of Gujarat, he began his Napoleonic career in
c. A.D. 733, became the master of the whole of Maharashtra by 753,
and destroyed the Chalukyan Empire to assume an imperial status.
He was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. the builder of the Kailasa
temple of Eliora. In a reign of fifteen years, he added to the empire
what are the modern states of Hyderabad and Mysore,

About the same time, Gopala, elected to the position of a chief¬
tain, consolidated Bengal. His son Dharmapala (c. A.D. 770-810)
led his conquering army through the whole valley of Gangfa; re¬
duced the ruler of Kanauj to a puppet; held courts at Kanauj and
Pataliputra- For long he commanded the allegiance of most of the
kings of the north.

There was ferment also in the west. In A.D. 712 the Arabs
conquered Sindh. About A.D. 725 Junaid, its governor, under the
orders of Caliph Hasham of Baghdad, sent an army for the con¬
quest of India. It overran Saur&shtra, Bhillamala, the capital of
Gurjara (the Abu Region), and reached Ujjayim.

Then arose an unknown hero, Nagabhata by name; possibly he
belonged to a branch of the royal Pratihara family of Bhillamala,
the capital of Gurjaradesa. He rallied to his banner the warriors
of the allied clans of Pratiharas, Chahamanas and also, perhaps,
Guhilaputras, Chalukyas and Paramaras, all of whom had their
home in the region of Mount Abu- Nagabhata fought the invading
army, flung it back, destroyed it.

This victory welded the clans of Gurjaradesa into a hierarchy.
It gave them self-assurance and the will to conquer. With a leader
and a destiny, they laid the foundations of a new power that was
destined to play an important part in history.

During Nagabbata’s time Dantidurga with his conquering army
swept over the north, captured Ujjayim, where the Pratihara, his
fortunes temporarily eclipsed, played the host to the conqueror.

Vatsaraja, the son of a nephew of Nagabhata I, styled “the pre¬
eminent among valiant Kshatriyas”, waxed strong and entrenched

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

himself in a strong position in north India. The allied clans were
now a well-knit hierarchy. He, however, suffered a disastrous de¬
feat at the hands of Rashtrakuta Dhruva and 'had to take refuge in
some unaccessible region.

Under the Pratiharas, Kanauj reached the zenith of power,
learning and culture, between A.D. 815 and 940. Its rulers were
called Gurjaresvaras; in a late inscription. Cur j ara-Pratlbaras. One
of them, as we know, was styled Maharajdd hirdj a of Aryiavarta.
One of the last emperors of the line, when the empire was no more
than a symbol, was referred to as the Raghukula^bhu-chakravarti,
Universal Overlord of Raghu’s race; for these Pratiharas claimed
their descent from Lakshmana, the brother of £ri Rama chandra of
the Ikshvaku race. They were also called kings of Jurz or Gurjara
by the Arab travellers, and their empire was called Gurjara.

Undaunted by reverses, the next ruler, Nagabhata II, consoli¬
dated the territory which comprised Mar wad, M’alava and modern
North Gujarat. Having secured a base, he entered the race for all-
India supremacy with the Pala kings of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas
of the South.

Dharmapala marched on Kanauj, removed Indrayudha from
the throne of Kanauj and installed Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II,
in his turn, marched against Chakrayudha, overthrew him and made
Kanauj his capital- Soon after Rashtrakuta Govinda III invaded
Kanauj and inflicted a defeat on Nagabhata which, however, did not
cripple his strength. Ultimately Kanauj passed into the hands of
the Pratiharas. About A.D. 815 it became the capital of the Pratl-
hara empire.

In c. A.D. 834 Nagabhata II died. Ramabhadra, his son and suc¬
cessor, was in his turn, succeeded in c. A.D. 836 by Mihira Bhoja.

The new ruler of Kanauj was called Mihira Bhoja as he was
born by the favour of God Surya; Adi Varaha, because he uplifted
the realm like the Divine Boar, the incarnation of Vishnu; Vriddha
Bhoja by later writers to distinguish him from the later Bhoja the
Paramara. The Arab travellers called him Bauura, possibly a cor¬
ruption of Varaha or Baraha; they also referred to him as the king
of Jurz, an Arab corruption of the wdrd Gurjara.

When he came to the throne, Mihira Bhoja, then a youth, was
faced with a grave situation. Under the feeble rule of his father
Ramabhadra, the power and prestige of the* empire had suffered. Its
outlying parts had become independent. Even Gurjaradesa, the
homeland, was in open revolt. The imperial possessions extended

FOREWORD

no further than Kanauj and a small area surrounding it. Only a
few of his father’s feudatories stood loyal to the new ruler.

The first act of the young ruler was to restore his authority over
his homeland; raise the morale of the allied clans of Gurjaradesa
and make them into a compact and invulnerable hierarchy. He
did this with such success that the tenacity and vigour of the hierar¬
chic dynasties survived more than a thousand years after the fall of
the empire. Many of the Rajput rulers who surrendered power in
the great integration of 1947-48 were descendants of the feudatories
and generals of Mihira Bhoja.

The career of Mihira Bhoja, pieced together from stray refe¬
rences by modern scholars, was a great factor in making Kanauj a
radiating centre of political and cultural activities which made for
the integration of life.

In A.D. 836, Ral-pa-can, the Tibetan conqueror of Nepal, died.
A civil war followed. Nepal shook off the foreign rule and became
part of the political system of India. Sarasv at a-mandala in the Ne¬
pal Terai and other Himalayan areas were merged in the empire of
Kanauj.

Bihar was also annexed to the empire of Kanauj. By A.D. 876,
Mihira Bhoja had burnt ‘the powerful people of Bengal in the fire
of his rage’, obtained a decisive victory over Narayanapala and an¬
nexed considerable parts of the Pala dominions to his empire- In
the time of the next ruler, Mahendrapala, the empire included parts
of North Bengal.

During the reign of Mihira Bhoja, the Rashfrakutas, the invete¬
rate enemies of Kanauj, were pre-occupied with troubled conditions
in their own realm. And with occasional reverses, the armies of
Bhoja and his allies pressed continually southwards till they domi¬
nated the whole of what is modem Gujarat.

A Turkish Shahiya family ruled in Kabul for a long time. The
last king of this dynasty, Lagaturman, was overthrown by his
Brahmana minister, Kallar or Dalllya Shahi. He was possibly
supported by Mihira Bhoja. Lalliya, however, lost Kabul to the
$affarid Ya’qub ibn Layth in A.D. 870 and transferred his capital
to Udabhanda, on Sindhu near Attock.

The Arab conquest of Sindh was no more than ‘a mere episode
in the history of India which affected only a fringe of that vast
country’. Within a year of Bhoja’s accession, ‘Imran ibn-Musa, the
Arab Governor of Sindh, tried to extend his hold over the adjoin-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ing territory. The Arabs, however, were driven out of Kutch bet¬
ween A.D. 833 and 842. A few years later, they lost the best part
of Sindh.

Two petty principalities only remained to the Arabs of which
Multan and al-Mansurah were the capitals. The Hindus, who had
been forcibly converted to Islam, went back to their ancestral fold.
Baled hurl says that in the time of al-Hakim ibn-'Awanah. “the peo¬
ple of al-Hind apostatised with the exception of the inhabitants of
Qas^ah. A place of refuge to which the Moslems might dee was not
to be found, so he built on the further side of the lake, where it bor¬
ders on al-Hind, a city which he named al-Mahfuzah (the guarded),
establishing it as a place of refuge for them, where they should be
secure and making it a capital.55

Sulaiman who visited India in A\D. 851 refers to Bhoja in vivid
terms. “Among them is the king of Jurz (Gurjara). This king
maintains numerous forces and nOx other Indian prince has so fine
a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that
the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings. Among the princes
of India there is no greater foe of the Muhammadan faith than he.
His territories form a tongue of land (Saurashtra?). He has great
riches, and his camels and horses are numerous. Exchanges are car¬
ried on in his state with silver (and gcldi in dust, and there are said
to be mines (of these metals) in the country. There is no country in
India more safe from robbers.55

In A.D. 916, Abu Zaid, while completing the Silsilat-ut Tawa-
rikh of Sulaimsan, also attests to the excellent social conditions in
India. “These observations”, he says, “are especially applicable to
Kanauj, a large country forming the empire of Jurz.”

AL-Mas’udl of Baghdad, who visited India more than once
between A.D. 900 and 940, refers to the Bauiira as ‘the lord of the city
of Kanauj’ and as ‘one of the kings of Sindh5. “He has large armies
in garrisons on the north and on the south, on the east and on the
west; for, he is surrounded on all sides by warlike kings. . . .Bauiira,
who is the king of Kanauj, is an enemy of the Baiharia (Vallabha Raja,
the title of Rashtrakuta emperors), the king of India.” He adds:
Bauiira, the king of Kanauj, “has four armies, according to the four
quarters of the wind. Each of them numbers 700,000 or 900,000 men.
The army of the north was against the prince of Multan, and with
the Musulmans, his subjects, on the frontier. The, army of the south
fights against the Balhara, king of Mankir (Manyakheta) .” Accord¬
ing to him, Balhara is at war with Jurz, “a king who is rich in horses
and camels, and has a large army.”

xii

FOREWORD

Sindh was evidently rescued by Mihira Bhoja. for, according to
Mas’udI, the Indus ran right through one of the cities within the
kingdom of Jurz (Gurjara).

The last known date of Bhoja is A-D. 882; possibly, he died in

A.XX 888.

At the time of his death, the banner of the Ikshvaku Gurjares-
varas flew over an empire larger than those of the Guptas and Sri
Harsha. It comprised north India from the Himalayas to a little
beyond the Narmada, from East Punjab and Sindh to Bengal. South
was quiescent. The Balas were no longer a, power. The Arabs on
the north-west frontier were kept at bay; Sindh had been wrested
from them, Madhyadesa was at the height of its power.

Bhoja, unlike ancient chakra vartis, did not rest content by
establishing an evanescent military supremacy. His empire was
built on the strength of regularly paid standing armies, the loyalty
of his hierarchs and, it appears, the support of popular enthusiasm.
Considerable parts of his empire were governed directly from
Kanauj. What he conquered he consolidated as well.

IV .

The Huna incursions had a devastating effect. The Classical
Age lost its vitality. The tottering Gupta Empire was dissolved.
Its hierarchs were left with little cohesion and less vigour. The
race of the Kshatriyas of Madhyadesa, who formed its martial back¬
bone, lost their vigour; perhaps it paid a heavy price in blood during
the last heroic efforts it put forward to drive out the Hunas.

Vast social and cultural changes followed. Varndsra'nia--dharma>
instead of being a social organisation of three higher castes more
or less homogeneous in culture and traditions, became rigid. Inter¬
marriages between the castes came to he looked upon with disfavour.
Instead of being associated with the masses as its natural leaders, the
Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas became dominant minorities.

In the South, the Brahman as, from the beginning, were a domin¬
ant minority. Their vast influence imposed the Smriti pattern of
social life there but in a form different from North India. In the
South the dialects were alien in structure and vocabulary to Sanskrit-
Sanskrit, therefore, from the beginning, was the language of the learn¬
ed only influencing the development of the dialects.

Naturally Sanskrit, though still a powerful integrating force,
instead of being the language of the educated throughout the land,
developed a learned character, removed still further from the spoken
dialects even in the North.

!•*

Xlll

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Dharma-sastras, as the source of the fundamental law in tne
country, were looked upon as sacred and unifying factors. A new
Saivism had, through its strength derived from its popular contacts
and beliefs, become the symbol of national resurgence. Aryavarta
consciousness, which related dharma to India as a whole, also con¬
tinued as an effective group sentiment, particularly in north India.

The Age of Imperial Kanauj saw a vast religious and cultural
resurgence in the country, of which the Puranas were the gospels.
It harmonised beliefs and practices of most of the cults which accept¬
ed as the final source, also Buddhism. The temple architecture, which
began with the majestic Kailasa of Ellora and developed into the
exquisite beauty of Chandella Dhanga’s Siva temple at Khajuraho,
was its symbol. The cult of tirthas as a fundamental institution of
religio-social significance strengthened the unity of India, carrying
forward the consciousness that Aryavarta was the inviolate land of
dharma . The sweeping movement of the spirit was led by Sankara-
charya, the prophet of the Age and the intellectual architect of ages
to come.

It was an age of catholicity. The different creeds join¬
ed hands to respect each other. The gods of differing cults were all
worshipped; Siva was worshipped with his whole family, and so were
the Trimurtis, the Panchayatana and the Matrikas. The kings
generally patronised all religions and different rulers of the same
dynasty are known to belong to different religious persuasions. Even
the Arab traders were found happily settled in some parts of the
country.

Though the Pala Kings were great patrons of Buddhism, Bud¬
dhism was on the decline since the days of Harshavardhana. Its
disappearance from India during this period was hastened by the
growing unpopularity of the Tantrik practices which it had adopted;
by the Puranic pantheon accepting Buddha as an avatar a of Vishnu
and adopting several of its practices and beliefs; above all, by the
evangelical triumphs of Sankarachiarya.

The Pratlhara emperors formed the spearhead of this religio-
cultural upsurge. Some of them, like Mihira Bhoja, worshipped
Bhagavati as their guardian deity; others Vishnu and Siva. They
were of the people and did not stand away from their hopes, aspira¬
tions and traditions. Like the Gupta Emperors, they received the
full co-operation of the Bnahmanas, who, through their intellectual
achievements and religious and social influence, could maintain a
sense of identity between the dominant minorities and the people.

xiv

FOREWORD

The ruling dynasties of Gurjaradesa also maintained the tradi¬
tion of being the protectors of dharma. They did not treat the old
social order with contempt, nor did they deprive it of its inherent
tenacity by imposing unfamiliar lines of development; in the result,
they strengthened it. While they led the country to progress, they
drew upon the social and spiritual energy of the people.

The reciters of the Purainas became as powerful, if not more, as
Brahmanas specialising in ritualism, philosophy, or literature. Par¬
ticularly the Brahmanas of Kanyakubja played a great role during
this period. Even today after a thousand years, they are found all
over Northern India. The Kulma Brahmanas of Bengal, for
instance, and the Anavil Brahmanas of South Gujarat both claim
their descent from the Brahmanas of Kanyakubja.

An illustrati0n of the prevailing Puranic atmosphere in royal
courts is furnished by the Gwalior -prasasti of Mihira Bhoja com¬
posed by the poet Baladitya on the occasion of the construction of
a temple of Vishnu. The whole poem pulsates with the fervour of a
living belief. Manu, Ikshvaku, Kakutstha and Prithu provide the
background. The primeval Narayana is born twice, as Nagabhata I,
and again as Nagabhata II, descended from Lakshmana the son of
Dasaratha of the line.

The prasasti begins with an invocation to Vishnu, to whom the
temple is also dedicated, as the destroyer of the demon Naraka, the
embodiment of evil.

The Gurjaresvaras, if the prasasti tells the truth, were cultured.
Each possessed a distinct personality. Nagabhata I was a warrior;
Kakkuka had a keen sense of humour; Vatsaraja was compassionate,
generous and of flawless conduct. Nagabhata II, short and modest,
was of resistless energy. He was virtuous, and worked for the wel¬
fare of the people and performed many sacrifices. He possessed
dtmavaibhava , true greatness of soul. Ramabhadra was brave and
virtuous, a pure soul, opposed to worldliness and a defender of the
faith.

But Bhoja was the greatest of all. Famous as he was, he was
always unperturbed. Though an adept in rooting out evil, and
wooed by Lakshml, the guardian goddess of sovereignty, he was
untainted by arrogance, and spotless in character. He was an
ardent and unmatched administrator and a receptacle of pleasant
and sweet words. When Brahma himself wanted to discover another
such man, whom else could he find but Sri Ramachandra himself?

So that his life may extend beyond the ordinary span everyone
desired to serve him; the ascetics in return for his protection; the

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

preceptors from affection, the servants from devotion; his many
foes out of policy; all men in the interest of their own well-being
and livelihood. And he was as worthy a recipient of these offerings
as the Creator Himself- "

Men of intellect, of honesty and of virtuous deeds helped to in¬
crease his prosperity, while enemies were scorched by the flame of
his anger. The oceans were guarded by his valour. Like unto
Karttikeya, the god of war, he was of unbounded energy and the
Earth waited upon him to hear her fate from his lips.

Thus, Baladitya the poet sings of Bhojadeva with the vanity
of the poet. He expresses the hope that his prasasti would last till
the end of Creation. His prayer was granted. The prasasti will
last till the end of time and through it Mihira Bhoja will live down
the ages.

Mihira Bhoja was not merely a Caesar, nor a pontiff, as were
imperators of Rome and Byzantium. He was a conqueror and a
great emperor. He was the protector of dharma. He was an Iksh-
vaku, a family in which God Himself had chosen to be born-

Aryavarta was thus a pyramid of culture. At its apex stood
Vishnu Himself, the upholder of an evenly ordered realm, the pro¬
tector of happy and well-ordered governance. That is why Bhoja
bore the epithet (Adi Vardha’.

The Puranic Renaissance gave added sanctity to the Dharma-
sastras. In this Age, learning tended more and more to live on the
past, the commentators and the writers of digests took the place of
the law-givers. Of them, the most outstanding was Medhatithi, who
wrote a commentary on the Manu-smriti.

The spirit of the Age found expression in relating Varndsrama-
dharma which was dynamic to the virile concept of Aryavarta.
Aryavarta, says Medhatithi, is not limited to geographical boun¬
daries; it is not confined to the four corners of India; it is so called
because the mlechchhas, though they frequently invade the country,
are not able to abide in it.

If any prince of good character belonging to the Kshatriya or
other castes subdues the mlechchhas and reduces them to the posi¬
tion of chandalas, as in Aryavarta, and introduces chcLtv!rvarnya in
the conquered country, it would be fit for Vedic sacrifices to be per¬
formed. No sanctity attaches to Brahmavarta as such; it would
be mlechchhadesa if the mlechchhas subjugated it and lived there.

xvi

FOREWORD

Impurity does not attach to the land, but to the people. Va'nidsrama-
dharma is a dynamic and expansive social organisation to be main¬
tained and spread- Arvavarta extended wherever the dharma is
enforced and maintained.

* ' - •

This concept did not remain a mere theory; it was in active

operation. The culture having come to dominate India was on a
march to wider expansion. Indians crossed the fr on liars and estab¬
lished kingdoms, carrying religious, literary and cultural traditions
with them to. far-off lands. In this way came into existence the
Sailendra Empire in Java, Sumatra and Malay Peninsula (c. A.D.
778-13th century); the dynasty of Pandurahga (c. A.D. 757-860) and
the Bhrigu dynasty (c. A-D. 860-985) in Champa, the dynasties of
Jaya-varman II (A.D. 802-877) and Xndra-varman (e. A.D. 877-1001)
in Kambuja, the dynasty of Sahjaya (c. A.D. 732-928) in Central
Java, and the dynasty of Sin$ok (c. A.D- 929-1007) in Eastern Java.

This dynamic outlook was followed in actual practice in India
as would appear from the Arab chroniclers and the Devala-smriti ,
Even though converted to Islam, Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and &udras; who had been forced to do forbidden or unclean things,
could be reclaimed by .purification. A woman carried away by the
mlechchhas could become pure by abstention from food and sexual
intercourse for three nights. •

A king, says Medhatithi, has responsibility to maintain dharma
in the land. He is under a paramount duty to resist foreign inva¬
sion at all cost. There can be no compromise with the invader: if
his realm is invaded and its people massacred, the king must die
fighting.

For a king, the law-giver says, fame should have no meaning;
what matters is securing the submission of other kings. An enemy
is an enemy; he should not be given time to prepare for war; his
difficulties are no concern to a king. The best time for attack is
when the king feels confident of his own strength; when the morale
of his forces is high; when the crop in his country is plentiful; when
the subjects of the enemy are in indifferent circumstances or are
to be alienated.

Once a war is declared, there should be no weakening; no con¬
sideration for the enemy’s weakness; no regard for consistency, for
friend or foe- In pursuit of his aim he should, if necessary, dismiss
or punish his minister.

xvii

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Once an enemy is conquered, the form in which he submits is
immaterial; what matters is effective surrender. A victorious king
should take care to destroy his enemies, but he should penalise only
the wicked and the treacherous. He should uproot the weeds, but
spare, wherever possible, the inhabitants of the conquered realm.

It is not easy to consolidate gains after victory, says the poli¬
tical sage. The learned and the pious of the conquered country
should be honoured; restraints on the subjects should be removed;
the poor and ailing should be treated with kindness; sports and re¬
joicings should be initiated. Justice and sound finance must be res¬
tored. Wise methods of governance should be introduced. Above
all, a policy of non-interference in the life of the people should be
adopted.

Medhatithi lays stress on sound internal administration. Am¬
bassadors should guard against the lure of women. The king should
not part with the portfolios of finance and home to anyone and in
making war and peace his should be the final voice- Services —both
civil and military — should be paid their salaries regularly. Irriga¬
tion and other works must be carried out to make people independ¬
ent of rains. On a small holding the taxes should be light; heavier
taxes should be borne by larger profits. Then comes the dictum of
a man who knows human nature well. “It is neither possible nor
desirable to prohibit drinking, gambling or hunting absolutely”.

The king owes his position to no divine sanction but to the
wishes of the people. He is only an instrument of maintaining
danda or sovereignty which is based on the fundamental law pro¬
pounded by the Dharma-^sastras. This law is above the king and is
inalienable; nor should custom be permitted to override it. The
king must submit to the ordinances of the Smritis. At the same time
Dharma-sastras are not to be rigidly interpreted. Equity is an equal
authority with the Vedas, Smritis and dchara for determining the
right principle of law. “Satisfaction of the learned and the virtu¬
ous,” says Medhatithi, “is a vital test; it may find what appears to
be dharma as adharma and what appears adharma as dharma.
When those learned in the Vedas feel that a thing is pure, it is to be
deemed as pure”.

Varnasrama-dharma of Medhatithi is a dynamic world force and
not a static social order. A Brahmana can marry the daughter of
a iCshatriya or a Vaisya. An adopted son may be of a caste other
than the father’s; a Brahmana can adopt even a Kshatriya boy. A

xviii

FOREWORD

Kshatriya and a Vaisya have the right to recite the Gdyatri-mantra .
Brahmanahood is not acquired by birth alone.

A &udra has the right to offer oblations to the fire, or to per-
form religious sacrifices, except the Vaivdhika fire at marriage. He
may not be competent to pronounce judgment according to the
Smritis } but he can be one of the sabhyas in a court of justice. If
any Smriti, says Medhatithi, takes away the right of a &udra or
lays down any prohibition, the injunction should be very strictly
interpreted, and its scope is not to be enlarged by inferences from
other texts. Those smritis , which are in favour of the Sudras,
should, therefore, be enforced. But these dicta are more in the
nature of a protest against the growing rigidity of the social order
and cannot be read as reflecting universal practice.

Medhatithi accords to women a position in refreshing contrast
to some of the later authorities who wrote for the succeeding Era
of Resistance. Women can perform all samskaras; only they should
not recite Yedic mantras. At a partition an unmarried sister should
be given one-fourth share of the dividing brothers.

A wife is obtained from God, not secured like cattle or gold,
in the market; a husband, therefore, has no ownership over his wife.
Before the wife could be compelled by the husband to serve him,
he must have the necessary qualifications, among others, a loving
attitude towards her. Medhatithi condemns the dictum of Manu
that one is to protect oneself even at the cost of one’s wife; even
princes should not forsake their wives, says he. The practice of
Sati, according to Medhatithi, is nothing but suicide, and as such,
it is not permissible.

The position which the women occupied during this age, is
also evidenced by other contemporary sources. The general level
of their culture was high. SilamahadevI, wife of the Rashtrakuta
Emperor, Dhruva, described as paramesvari and paramabhattcirik'i,
probably ruled jointly with her husband. She enjoyed the privilege
of granting large gifts without her husband’s consent. Several queens
of the Kara dynasty ruled in Orissa. Sugandha and Didda of Kashmir
administered extensive kingdoms as dowager queens. There were
learned women as well as women administrators. Avantisundarl,
the wife of the poet Rajasekhara, was an exceptionally accomplished
woman. The poet quotes her thrice in the Kdvyamtmdmsd. His
Karpuramafijari was produced at her request and Hemachandra
quotes three of her Prakrit stanzas. Ubhayabharati or Sarasvati,
wife of Mandanamisra, who acted as an arbitrator in her husband’s
disputations with gankaracbarya, was a learned scholar herself.

xix

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KAN ATI J

We have a glimpse of the social conditions of imperial Kanauj
in the works of Rajasekhara, an ardent lover of Kanauj. Its women
did not lag behind men in point of education. According to the poet,
there were several poetesses in Kanauj. “Culture is connected with
the soul and not with the sex” says the poet. The poet had met
princesses and poetesses, daughters of prime ministers, courtesans
and wives of court jestors who were well versed in science.

The dress worn by the ladies of the capital was adorable.
“Women of other countries”, says the poet, “should study the ways
in which the ladies of Mahodaya dress and bedeck themselves, braid
their hair and speak their words”.

The women of Lata were noted for their beauty and elegance.
At the same time, it would be untrue to accept the position of women
as portrayed by Rajasekhara as reflecting the generally prevailing
conditions under which women lived, for whatever it was, it was
distinctly better than the position to which they were reduced under
the painful pressure of the Era of Resistance.

VII

In the field of literature this Age cannot be compared with the
Classical Age with its old masters like Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti.
Under the influence of the rhetoricians external features of litera¬
ture rather than literary beauty came into fashion; scholarship re¬
placed poetic fancy; Sanskrit acquired a learned character.

Even kings, as we find from some notable instances, were highly
educated; several of them were accomplished poets. Most of them
were patrons of learning as well as authors. All branches of litera¬
ture were assiduously cultivated.

There were kavyas in plenty; epics, romances and champHs
were composed in large numbers. Lexicography was cultivated; so
were grammar, poetics, metrics and rhetorics. Anandavardhana
wrote his famous Dhvanyaloka, propounding his famous theory of
Dhvani . The favourite literary form of the Age was the Drama,
though only one classical specimen survives in Visakhadatta’s
Mudrdrdkshasa .

. Literary activity in Sanskrit abounded even in the South.
Rigarthadlpikd by Venkata Madhava, in the reign of the Chola king
Parantaka I, is one of the earliest of its kind in Sanskrit literature.

FOREWORD

6aktibhadra contributed the drama A&charyachudnmani, the first
Sanskrit, drama to be composed in the south, as known so far.

Literature was also cultivated in Prakrit, Haribhadra being
the greatest master of the period. There was a vast non-eanonical
literature in Pali and in Apabhramsa in which the works of several
eminent Jain writers like Dhanapala, Pushpadanta, Kanakamara,
Padmaklrti and Svayambhu have survived. During this period,
several works of great value were composed in Kannada and Tamil,
forming landmarks in the development of these languages. '

Philosophic literature was widely cultivated by the Bauddhas,
the Jains and the Brahmanas. Of them all, gahkaracharya was the
greatest. He provided a philosophic theory which undermined the
barren ritualism of the Mlmarhsakas as well as the decadent Maha-
yana Buddhism and Jainism. He stood for monism; preached the
superiority of samnyasa over ritualism. He purged many religious
beliefs of their grossness. He was also a practical reformer. His
organizational work, which brought cults, practices and rituals under
the direction of the four great Mathas which he founded and which
stood for his Vedantic monism, restored the cultural unity of the
land. He also reorganized the monastic orders and infused a nobler
sense of mission in them.

The Bhdgavata Parana was the culminating point of the strong
theistic movement started by the Alvars and N&yahars in the
South. It became the gospel of hhakti , the intense devotional ecstasy
of the Alvars as well as the teachings of Bhagavadcfita. Its deep
emotion and creative beauty saved the soul of India duing the fol¬
lowing Era of Resistance.

The last literary phase of the Age is represented by Rajasekhara,
who lived in the reign of Mihira Bhoja, for he was the court poet
and teacher of Mahendrapala and Mahipala.

Rajasekhara’s works give us a vivid glimpse of himself and the
time. The poet was born in the family of YayaVaras, a family of
poets. Though a B rah maria, he married into a Chahamana family
and his wife, Avantisundari, was therefore a Kshatriya.

His Bdlardmdyana was staged at the court of Mahendrapala at
Kanauj. Bdlabhdrata was staged at Kanauj after Mahipala com¬
pleted his campaign against the Rashtrakuta emperor Indra III, in
about A.D. 916. The poet thus describes his patron who was pre¬
sent in the audience —

“In the family of Raghu, there was born a glorious Mahlpala-

deva, who lowered the heads of the Muralas; who destroyed

xxi

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the Mekalas; who drove out the Kalingas; who destroyed Kun-

talas as if with an axe; who forcibly seized the royalty of the

Rama-fhas”.

Rajasekhara’s Kdvya-mimdmsd is a work of great value and
gives glimpses of the life and literature of the times.

The poet was a much travelled man, and has some very inter¬
esting remarks to make about the manners and speech of the people
of different parts of the country. The Magadhas and those living
to the east of Banaras spoke Sanskrit well but Prakrit badly. A
Gauda could not speak Prakrit properly; he should, therefore, either
give up the attempt or improve his Prakrit. The Kamatakas recited
poetry proudly with a twang at the end of each sentence irrespective
of sentiment, style or quality. The Dravidas recited prose and
poetry both in a musical way. The people of Saurashtra and Tra-
vana spoke Sanskrit but mixed it with Apabhramsa to add beauty
to their speech. Kashmirians were good poets but their recital
sounded like a mouthful of gaduchL

Rajasekhara had a partiality for Lata (South Gujarat). Accord¬
ing to him, it was the* ‘crest of the earth’. Its people, however,
hated Sanskrit, but spoke elegant Prakrit in a beautiful way. Its
women were noted for their beauty and elegance of speech. Its
poets possessed distinctive literary traits; and favoured the style
called ‘Lati’. Humour was its speciality.

The people of the region enclosed by the Ganga and the Yamuna,
the centre of which was Kanauj, according to the poet, were the
ornaments of the land. They liked new and elegant literary works.
The composition of its poets was well constructed and their recita¬
tion was sweet like honey. To him the city was the centre of the
universe; a sacred place; the home of the imperial Ikshvakus; a
centre from where radiated power, fashion and culture.

The whole country, therefore, in this period, had a unity of
culture. Sanskrit was the language of the cultured, spoken and
understood among the educated throughout the country, but was
most prevalent to the east of Banaras.

VIII

Mihira Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala, a fear¬
less military genius, who extended the empire of Mihira Bhoja add¬
ing to it the Kamal district in the Punjab, the Nepalese terrain and
the Rajsbahi district of Bengal. In A.D. 910 he was succeeded by
Mahipala who also, like his father, was educated by the poet Raja-
iekhara.

xxii

FOREWORD

Within a few years of Mahipala’s coming to the throne of
Kanauj, however, Indra III, the Rashtrakuta emperor, marched to
the north and occupied Kanauj. But he suddenly died, possibly
in battle, and his army withdrew precipitately to the South. Though
the Rashtrakuta empire was already disintegrating in A.D. 940,
Krishna III again re-appeared in the north, overran Malava and
Gurjaradesa, occupied Kalanjara and gave a shattering blow to the
Pratihlara empire.

The two raids of the Rashtrakutas had unfortunate results for

• •

the whole of India. Madhyadesa lay mauled and bleeding. The
empire of the South tottered to a fall. The feudatories of both de¬
clared independence one after the other. The country was pros¬
trate and defenceless, and the Aryavarta Consciousness was sub¬
merged by parochial sovereignties.

Out of the chaos, two powerful feudatories carved out inde¬
pendent kingdoms: the Paramaras of Malava and the Chandeilas of
Jejakabhukti. Kanauj, however, continued to remain the metro¬
polis of culture, but its emperor was no more than a shadow of his
former self.

By about A.D. 974 the Empire of the Rashtrakutas was taken
over by the Chalukya king, Taila II, a feudatory. A bitter and long
drawn out war ensued between Taila II and Paramara Munja of
Malava. Ultimately, Munja was captured and killed between . A.D.
995-997. Taila followed him soon after in A.D. 997-998.

In the fateful year A.D. 997 Abu-l-Qasim Mahmud, son of Sa-
buktigfn, captured Ghazni, developed a marvellous striking power
and turned his attention to India,

Ancient India ended. Mediaeval India began.

My thanks are due to Dr. R. C. Majumdar, the General Editor,
and Dr. A. D. Pusalker, the Assistant Editor, for their indefatigable
and conscientious labours, and to the scholars who have supplied their
learned contributions for this volume. I am specially indebted to the
Associated Advertisers & Printers Ltd., Bombay, who have, in such
a short time, seen the volume through the Press, and to the staff of
the Bhavan and the Press who looked after the preparation and print¬
ing Of this volume with care and zeal. It is difficult to express ade¬
quately the deep debt of gratitude to Shri G. D. Birla, the Chairman,
and other members of the Board of the Krishnarpan Trust who have
so liberally financed the preparation of these volumes.

xxiii

CONTENTS

Foreword by Dr. K. M. Munshi
Preface by the General Editor
List of Maps
Abbreviations

Page

vii

xxxiii .
xxxix
xli

Professor

CHAPTER I

THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE
• •

By A. S. Altekar, m.a., ll.b., d.litt.,
and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History

and Culture in the Patna University

Dantidurga

Krishna I . . . . . . . . . .

Govinda II and Dhrava

Govinda ni . . . .

6arva or Amoghavarsha

Krishna II . . . . . . ...

Xndra ni

Govinda IV and Amoghavarsha III

Krishna III . . . . ....

10.

Khottiga and Karkka II . .

11.

Retrospect and Review

CHAPTER II

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

By R. C. Majumdar, m.a., ph.d., f.a.s., f.b.b.r.a.s.,

1 . Nagabhata I

Vatsaraja

Nagabhata II . . . . . . • •

Bhoja . . . . . . . • • -

Mahendrapala . . . . . . .

Mahipala

Mahipala ’s Successors

The Pratlhara Empire — A General Review

CHAPTER III

THE PALAS

By R. C. Majumdar

The Rise of the Pal as

Dharmapala (c. A.D. 770-810) . .

Devapala (c. A.D. 810-850) ..

Fall of the Fala Empire . . . . ....

XXV

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

CHAPTER IV

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

By R. C. Majumdar

I . Nepal

II . Kamarupa . . • . . . . .

Ill . Utkala (Orissa) . .

1 . The Karas . . . . . .

2. The Bhanjas .. ..

A. The Bhanjas of Khinjali

B. The Bhanjas of Khijjinga

3 . The Minor Dynasties . .

Page

70
74
76

CHAPTER V

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA
By D. C. Ganguly, m.a., ph.d. (london),

Secretary, Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta

I . The Chandella Dynasty . . . . . . • • 83

II . The Kalachuris * . . . . . . . . . . 87

1 . The Kalachuris of Tripur i . . . . . . 87

2 . The Kalachuris of Sarayupara - . . . . 93

III . The Paramaras . * . . . , . . . . 94

IV. The Minor Dynasties of Gujarat and Kathiawar . . 99

1 . The Saindhavas . . . . • • . . 99

2. The Chalukyas . . . . . . . . . 101

3 . The Abhiras . . . . . . ' . . . . 102

4. The Varahas (?) of Saury a-mandala .. 102

5. The Chapas . . . . . . . , . . 102

V. The Chaulukyas . . . . . . . . . . 104

VI. The Chahamanas . . . . . . . . ... 106

VH. The Guhilas .. .. . 109

1 . Guhilas of Mewar . . . . . . . . 109

2. Guhilas of Dhod . . . . . . . . 110

VIII. The Tomaras .. .. .. .. .. Ill

IX. The Shahis (or Sbahiyas) . . . . . . . . 112

X. Kashmir . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

1. The Karkota Dynasty . . . . . . . . 115

2. The Utpala Dynasty . . . . . . . . 117

3 . Dynasties of Yasaskara and Parvagupta . . • • 120

XI. The Hill State of Chamba . . . . . . . . 121

XII, Kumaun and Garhwal (By D. C. Sircar, M.A., Ph.D.,

Superintendent for Epigraphy, Government of
India, Ootacamund) . . . . . . . . 123

XIII. The Arabs in India (By R. C. Majumdar) . . . . 125

1 . Kabul and Zabul . . . . . . 125

2 . Sindh . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

xxvi

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI
THE DECCAN
By D. C Sircar, m.a., ph.d.,

Superintendent fdr Epigraphy, Government of India,
Ootacamund; formerly Lecturer in Ancient Indian
History and Culture in the University of Calcutta

Page

I. The Eastern Chalukyas .. .. . . . . 133

II. The Eastern Gahgas (c, A.D. 750-1000) .. .. 140

1 . Later Members of the Early Ganga Family . . 140

2 . Rise of the Greater Gahgas . . . . . . 141

3 . Tlie Ganga House of Svetaka . . . . . . 144

4. The Kadambas of Jayantyapura .. .. 145

III. The Somavarhsis . . . . . . . . 146

CHAPTER VII

SOUTH INDIA

By R. Sathianathaier, m.a., l.t..

Professor of History and Politics, Annamalai University.

I. The Pailavas . . .. .. .. .. 151

1. Danti-varman and Nandi-varman III . . . . -151

2. Nripatuhga-varman and Aparajita .. .. 152

II. The Cholas of Tanjore .. .. .. .. 153

1. Vijayalaya and Aditya I ' . . .. . . 153

2. Parantaka I ,. .. .. .. .. 154

3. The Rashtrakuta Interregnum in Tondamandalam 155

4. Gandaraditya, Parantaka II, and Uttam Chola . . 156

III. The First Pandya Empire . . . . . . 157

1. Nedunjadaiyan .. .. .. .. 157

2. &rimara Srivallabha and his Successors . . 158

IV. The Western Gahgas . . , . . . . . 160

1 . Sivamara II to Prithvlpati II . . . . . . 160

2. Butuga II to Rakkasa Ganga . . . . . . 161

V. The Bianas . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

VI. The Nojambas and the Vaidumbas . . . . . . 163

VII. Aluvakheda, Kohgudesa and Kerala .. .. 164

APPENDIX

The Genealogy and Chronology of the Pailavas

By D. C. Sircar

1 . Successors of Nandi- varman Pallavamalla . . 166

2 . Tentative Genealogy of the Later Pailavas . . 168

CHAPTER VIII

CEYLON
By D. C. Sircar

I. Political History •• •• .. 169

II. Fine Arts . . • • • • • • • • • • 174

xxvii

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

CHAPTER IX

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
A. Sanskrit

By G. V. Devasthali, m.a., b.t., ph.d..

Professor of Sanskrit in the H.P.T. College, Nasik

Page

I. Belles-Lettres . . . . . . . . • • 178

1. Drama (Last paragraph by A. D. Pusalker) . . 178

2. Kavya . . . . . . . . . . 182

3. Romance . . .. . . .. .. 187

4. Champu .. .. ... 188

II. Scientific Literature .. .. .. .. 189

1. Lexicography . . ' .. . . . . .. 189

2. Grammar . . . . . . . . . . 190

3. Poetics . . . . . . . . . . . 191

4. Metrics (By H. D. Velankar, M.A., Joint

Director, Bharatiya Vidya Bha van, Bombay) .. 198

5. Medicine , . . . • • . . . . 199

6. Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology . . 200

7. General Review of Secular Literature . . 200

III. Religious and Philosophical Literature

(Introductory paragraph by Dr. R. C. Majumdar) 202

1 . Puranas . . , . . . . . . . 202

2 . Dharmasastras or Smritis . . . . . . 203

3 . Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . 204

B. Prakrit . . . . . . 207

By H. D. Velankar, m.a..

Joint Director, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,

Bombay

C. Non-canonical Pali Literature
By A. D, Pusalker

(i) Chulla Dhammapala . . . . . . 210

(ii) Mahanama . . • . . . . . . . 211

(iii) Khema . . . . . . . . . . 211

(iv) Upatissa . . . . . . . . . . 211

(v) Telakatahagath'a . . . . . . . . 212

D. Apabhramsa Language and Literature

By H. L. Jain, m.a., ll.b., d. litt.,

Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit, Nagpur University

1 . Origin of Apabhramsa . . . . . . 213

2. Nature of Apabhramsa .. . . .. 214

3. Apabhramsa in Sanskrit Dramas . . . . 215

4. Apabhramsa Doha 8 . . . . . . . 216

5 . Epic Poems . . . . . . . . . . 217

6. Short Stories , . . . . . . . . . 219

E. Dravidian Languages and Literature
By K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar, m.a., d. litt..

Professor and Head of the Department of English

in Andhra University

I. Kannada Literature . . . . . . , . 220

H . Tamil Literature . . . . . . . . . 227

xxviii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER X

POLITICAL THEORY, ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION,

LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS

By U. N. Ghoshal, m.a., ph.d.,

Formerly Professor of History in the Presidency College, Calcutta

II.

III.

IV.

II.

III.

IV.
V.

VI.

Page

Political Theory . . . . . . 232

Administrative Organisation — North India . . 240

Administrative Organisation — South India . . 245

Law and Legal Institutions . . . . * . . 249

1 . Visavarupa . . . . . . . . . . 249

2 . Medhatithi . . . . . . . . . . 250

3. The Smriti-samgraha .. .. .. .. 253

CHAPTER XI

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

A. General Review . . . . 257

By R. C. Majumdar

B. Buddhism

By Nalinaksha Durr, m.a., b.l., ph.d, d.litt..

Professor of Pali in the University of Calcutta

Doctrinal Changes . . . . . . . . . . 259

1 . Emergence of Tantrikism . . . . . . 259

2 . Dharanis . . . . . . . . . . 261

3 . Avalokitesvara and Tara . . . . . . 262

4. Early Tantrik Texts ... .. .. .. 263

(i) The Mahj usrl-Miilakalpa . . . . 263

(ii) The Guhyasamaja . . . . . . 265

5 . Two Schools of Tantrik Teachers . . . . 266

6 . Distinction between Tantrikism and Mahayanism 266

Historical Review . . . . . . . . 267

1 . Traditional Account by Taranatha . . . . 267

2. The Patronage of the Pala Kings .. .. 270

(i) Gopala . . . . . . . . . . 270

(ii) Dharmapala . . . . . . . . 271

(iii) Devapala . . . . . . . . 274

(iv) The Successors of Devapala .. .. 274

Iconography (By J. N. Banerjea, M.A., Ph.D.,

Carmichael Professor of Ancient Indian History and
' Culture in the University of Calcutta) . . . 275

C. Jainism
By A. p. Pusalker

Introduction .... . . . . . . 288

Jainism in the North . . . . . . . ,. 289

Jainism in the Deccan and South India . . . . 290

Literature . . . . • • * • . . * . . 293

General Observations . . ■; • • • . 294

Iconography (By J. N. Banerjea) . . . . . . 296

xxix

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

D. &aivism and Vaishnavism

I. SAIVISM

By T. M. P. Mahadevan, m.a., pH.d.,

Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy
in the University of Madras

1 . Growth and General Popularity

2 . Kashmir Saivism

3 . Sankariacharya

4. Iconography (By J. N. Banerjea)

II. VAISHNAVISM
By D. C. Sircar

1 . The Acharyas

2. Iconography (By J. N. Banerjea) . . -

E. Tdntrik Religion
By H. D. Bh attach aryya, m.a.,

Page

300

304

305

311

313

315

Formerly Head of the Department of Philosophy, Dacca University,
and Honorary University Professor of Indian Philosophy and

Religion, Banaras Hindu University

F. Minor Religious Sects
By H. D. Bhattacharyya

I. Popular Brahmanical Religion

1 . Religious Syncretism

2. Solar Cult

3 . The &akti Cult and &aiva Deities
II. Iconography (By J. N. Banerjea)

1 t •# * • * a • *

2 . Ganesa ....

3 . Karttikeya

4 . Surya

5 . Navagrahas

327

333

337

347"

347

348
348
350
352

G. The Parsis

By I. J. S. Taraporewala, b.a., ph.d., bar-at-law,

352

Formerly Professor of Comparative Philology in the University of
Calcutta, and Director, Deccan College Post-graduate and Research

Institute, Poona.

H. General Development of Philosophy

By U. C. Bhattacharjee, m.a..

Formerly Professor of Philosophy in the Presidency

College, Calcutta

1 . The Bhashyas . . . . . . . . . . 355

2 . Orthodox and Heterodox Schools . . . . 355

3. Vedanta’s Bid for Supremacy .. .. .. 357

4. The Philosophy of Sankara (c. A.D. 788-820) .. 359

xxx

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII

SOCIAL CONDITIONS
By U. N. Ghoshal

I. Education

1 . Courses of Study . .

2 . Student Life

3. Female Education

4 . Some Educational Centres and Establishments
II. Social Life

1. Social Divisions and Sub-divisions
Marriage Rules
Law of Adultery
The Position of Women
Some Social Types
Some Groups and Associations
Standard of Living
Popular Amusements
Lawful Food and Drink
Toilette and Personal Hygiene
Beliefs and Superstitions
Pious and Charitable Works
General Estimate of Character

8.
9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Page

366

367

368

369

374

377

378

382

383

384

386

387

389

390
392
392

CHAPTER XIII

ECONOMIC LIFE
By U. N. Ghoshal

Agriculture, Industry, and Trade

• « • «

400

Organisation of Industry and Trade

* • • •

405

Interest and Wages

• • • •

407

Influence of Canon Law upon
Development

General Economic Condition

Economic

» « • •

• • 9 •

408

CHAPTER XIV

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

By R. C. Majumdar

The &ailendra Empire . . . .

412

II.

Kambuja

416

Jaya-varman II and III

416

Dynasty of Indra-varman

419

General Review . .

421

III.

Champa

423

The Dynasty of Panduranga (c. A.D. 757-860) . .

423

The Bhrigu Dynasty (c. A.D. 860-985)

424

The Annamese Invasions

426

xxxi

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

IV.

VI.

Jsvs .. .. ., . . ..

1 . The Kingdom of Matanam

2 . End of Hindu Civilisation in Central Java

3. Eastern Java— Dynasty of Sindok

Burma

Civilisation in the Hindu
Asia

1 . Society

2 . Religion . . . .

3 . Art . .

(i) Indo- Javanese Art

(ii) Art in Indo-China

4. Literature

Colonies

n South-East

VII . China
VIII. Tibet

IX . Western Countries

/ /

List of Bibliographies
General Bibliography
Chronology
Genealogies

Index .

Page

427

428
430

432

434

435
439
439

441

442

444

446

449

454

455
506
519
539

Maps

at the end

« a

xxxu

PREFACE

By Dr. R. C. Majumdab
General Editor

The preceding volume closed with an account of the shortlived
empires in Northern India founded by Harsha-vardhana, Yaso-
varman, and Laiitaditya. But although they failed in their efforts
to build up a stable empire, the imperial traditio^ handed down by
them bore rich fruit during the period covered by this volume. The
middle of the eighth century A.D., which marks its commencement,
is a great landmark in Indian history. It saw the rise of three great
dynasties which were destined to play the imperial role with far
greater success than any of the three individual heroes mentioned
above.

Of these three great dynasties the Gur j ara-Pratlharas were the
earliest, and the foundation of their power in Western India, shortly
before A.D.- 750, has been described in the preceding volume.
The two other powers, which suddenly came into prominence about
the same time, were the Palas of Eastern India and the Rashtrakutas
of the Deccan. The rivalry and struggle between these three great
powers forms the dominant theme of history dealt with in this
volume.

The city of Kanauj was raised to the dignity of an imperial
capital by Harsha-vardhana. But though his empire collapsed with
his death, the glamour of Kanauj was revived by Yasovarman.
During the period -under review it formed the centre of attraction
of all the three great powers, and they regarded its possession as a
consummation to be devoutly wished for. It was finally chosen as
the capital by the Gurjara-Pratlharas. Under them it rose to be the
finest city in the whole of India, and continued as such till the end
of the period covered by this volume. This circumstance has sug¬
gested the name of this volume, viz . The Age 6f Imperial Kanauj .
It is hardly necessary to add that this nomenclature is only to be
taken in a general sense, and is not intended to cover the entire

history dealt with in this volume. Indeed no title could be devised
which fulfils this condition, and no apology is perhaps needed to
name any particular volume after its dominant theme.

The period covered by this volume witnessed the rise and fall
of three empires. The Palas under Dharmapala and Devapa-la
established a mighty empire, and they claimed allegiance of nearly

xxxiii

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the whole of Northern India. Then came the turn of the Pratlharas
who, under Bhoja and Mahendrapala, brought under their direct
administration a vast extent of territory, from the Kathiawad Penin¬
sula in the west to Northern Bengal in the east. No such empire
flourished in North India after the Guptas. For there is no doubt
that the Gur j ara-Pratlhara Empire was more extensive, more
durable, and had a more stable and organised administration than
the empire of Harsha-vardhana. The detailed account of this empire
in the present volume will show the erroneous, almost ludicrous,
character of the notion that Harsha-vardhana was the last empire-
builder in Northern India, to which reference has been made in the
Preface to the preceding volume.

Both the Palas and Pratlharas felt the full brunt of the Rash^ra-
kuta power. Although the Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan, they
were fired by the ambition of conquering Northern India. They de¬
feated the Pratlhara rulers Vatsaraja and Nagabhata and the Pala
king Dharmapala. Under Dhruva and his son Govinda III they
proved to be the greatest military power in India, and while the
former carried his victorious campaign as far as the doab between
the Ganga and the Yamuna, the latter overran the whole country
up to the Himalayas. Even a century later, one of their successors
sacked the imperial city of Kanauj, then at the heyday of its glory,
and forced the Pratlhara Emperor to fly for his life.

The Rashtrakutas also successfully fought with the Pallavas
and other powers of the South Indian Peninsula, and advanced even
as far as Ramesvaram. From the political point of view the Riashtra-
kuta Empire constitutes the most brilliant episode in the history of
the ancient Deccan. No other power, south of the Vindhyas, played
such a dominant role in the history of North India, until the age of
the Maratha Peshwas in the eighteenth century.

The. Pratlharas, though never a match for the Rashtrakutas,
played a dominant role in North Indian politics. They stood as
bulwark against the Muslims of the Sindhu valley. It has been
asserted by the Muslim writers that the Pratlharas were the greatest
foes of the Muslims, and could easily defeat the latter; but when¬
ever the Pratlharas advanced, the Muslims threatened to destroy
the famous image of the Sun-god in Multan, and the Pratlharas im¬
mediately retreated. The Muslims thus took advantage of the reli¬
gious feelings of the Hindu Pratlharas in order to save themselves
from impending ruin.

It appears that the danger of Muslim menace was not yet fully
realised by the Pratlharas. Otherwise they should not lpave been
deterred by religious scruples from exterminating Muslim rule in

xx xiv

PREFACE

India* — a feat which was easily within ‘their power. The Rashtra-
kutas went one step further. They befriended the Muslims and
gave them all facilities for settling in their territory. They even
allowed Muslim settlements to build mosques and to be ruled by
their own governors. Whatever we might think of the political
wisdom of the Rashtrakutas, their attitude is undoubtedly a mani¬
festation of that spirit of religious toleration, which characterised
India but was rare in that age elsewhere in the world, and offered a
strange contrast to the iconoclastic fury of the Muslims.

To the west of the Pratiharas lay the kingdom of the Shahiyas.
Originally ruled over* by the Turkish chiefs who claimed descent
from Kanishka, it was usurped by a Rrahmana minister, and the
new ruling family came to be known as the Hindu Shahiyas. They
became very powerful and ruled over an extensive territory from
the Hindu Kush to the East Punjab.

Although the Muslims were checked in Sindh they never gave
up the idea of pushing their conquests to India. The Caliphs made
repeated attempts to conquer Kabul and Zabul. Zabul made a pro¬
longed and stubborn resistance against Arab aggression for more
than two hundred years, and was not finally subdued till A.D, 870.
Kabul, which was conquered at the same time, regained indepen¬
dence, and formed a part of the Shahr^a kingdom. The heroic
resistance of these two states against the greatest military power
in the world has not yet received the recognition it deserves, and
has therefore been treated in some detail.

Tre rise of Ghazni, towards the close of the period under review,
was likely to be a great peril to India, and the Hindu Shahiyas, who
guarded her frontiers, were engaged in deadly conflict with the
rulers of this state. The struggle began towards the very end of the
period covered by this volume, and continued beyond it. A detailed
account of this conflict, which inflicted untold miseries upon India
and paved the way for its final conquest by the Muslims, will there¬
fore be given in the form of a continuous narrative in the next
volume.

The end of the first millennium, with which this volume closes,
was a turning point in the history of India. India was on the verge
of a great political transformation to which the nearest precedent
is furnished by the invasion of the Aryans about three thousand
years earlier. But the external invasion was not the only factor of
importance. The internal change was also a momentous one. The
collapse of the Pratihiara Empire brought into prominence new
powers, known later under the collective name of “Rajputs”, who

XXXV

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

played a dominant part in Indian history throughout the Mediaeval
period. They constituted a definite break with the old, and ushered
in a new age both in political and cultural history of India.

The close of the tenth century A.D. also saw the final exit of
the two great powers, the Rashfrakutas and the Pallavas, from the
arena of politics in the south. The Chiaiukyas re-established their
power in the Deccan after more than two centuries, while the Cholas,
one of the three ancient peoples in the Tamil land, once more emerg¬
ed as a great power after ousting the Pallavas. But the main acti¬
vities of both these dynasties really commence after the end of the
period under review, and their history will be treated in the next
volume.

Generally speaking, the period is one of decline and decadence
in all spheres of cultural activity. Buddhism and Jainism lost their
dominant position, and became gradual^ confined to particular
regions. The rise of Tantrik cults brought corruption both in Bud¬
dhism and Brahmanical religion. Literature became less creative
and more artificial. The pursuits of science were less active. The
age of original Smritis was passing away, ushering in the age of the
commentaries. It was easily taken for granted that the era of
authoritative creation, in the fields of religion, philosophy, law,
manners, and morals, was now definitely closed, and all that remain¬
ed for the people was to understand the past and follow it as scrupu¬
lously as possible. Nevertheless Indian genius occasionally shone
forth in a brilliant manner. In the fields of religion and philosophy
the name of Sankaracharya occupies an honoured place. Although
he wrote only commentaries to existing works, the views he pro¬
pounded through them entitle him to be ranked as one of the greatest
philosophers of the world. Similarly Medhatithi, the commentator
of Manu-samhiia , occupies a high place among the legal luminaries
of India.

In literature Visakhadatta and Bajasekhara are great names,
though far inferior to Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti. But the period
saw the highest development in one branch of literature, viz. theory
of poetics. It was the age of the great rhetoricians like Ddbhafa,
Vlmana, Rudrata, Ananda-vardhana, Abhinavagupta and Kuntaia.
Tins period also witnessed the growth of a new type in Sanskrit
literature viz.. Champu, i.e. Kdvya written both in prose and verse.
It may also be mentioned that the general output of literature during
this period was not inconsiderable.

In medicine, Madhavakara brought to perfection the branch of
pathology in his masterly work Rugvinischaya which, for the first

xxxvi

PREFACE

time in the history of Indian medicine, treats of all diseases together
in one volume. The treatise, now known as Charaka-samhita, was
also the result of considerable revision and enlargement of the origi¬
nal work by Dridhabala during this period. Mention may also be
made of Nighanfu of Dhanvantari, the oldest medico-botanical dic¬
tionary that we have at present.

In the domain of art, there is a noticeable decline in sculpture
and painting. But there is a great development in architecture.
The two main types of temple architecture, known as Nagara (North
Indian) and Dravida, definitely emerge during this period, but are
not fully developed till the next. Further, it is not always easy to
assign the temples and images belonging to the same style or school
to the one or the other of these periods. We therefore thought that
it would perhaps be more convenient to deal with the last phase of
Hindu art, from A,D. 750 to 1300, in a single chapter in the next
volume. This will enable the reader to follow the continuous deve¬
lopment of the temple architecture and get a comprehensive idea
of the Mediaeval Indian sculpture in all its local varieties from be¬
ginning to end. The omission of the Chapter on art in this volume
is a departure from the general plan, but was decided upon on the
above grounds. The period under review is noted for some remark¬
able monuments such as the monolith Kailasa temple at Ellora cut
out of a hill-side, a unique achievement without any parallel in the
history of art.

The colonial and cultural activities of the Indians outside India
form a brilliant chapter of Indian history during the period under
review. To complete the account in respect of China and Tibet,
the activities in these regions have been traced down to the middle
of the eleventh century A.D.

The policy and principles of editing, referred to in the preced¬
ing volumes, remain unchanged. I take this opportunity of thanking
the contributors for their sincere co-operation. Dr. Pusalker has,
as usual, rendered most valuable services in preparing this volume,
and I am deeply grateful to him. In conclusion I must place on
record my thanks for the appreciative reviews of the preceding
volumes in different journals.

xxxvii

LIST OF MAPS

1. Rashtrakuta Empire

2 . Paid and Pratihdra Em,pires

3 . South India, A.D* 320-1000

xxxix

Abb. Rat.
ABORI.

Apar.

Ap. Dh. Su.
AH.

ARSIE.

ASC.

ASI.

ASS.

ASWI.

AUS.

Bala.

BEFEO.

BG.

Bhav.

Bh. List.

BI.

BKQ.

BSOS.

BSS.

Bu-ston.

BV.

CCIM.

CII.

CP.

CW.

DHI.

DHNI.

DKA.

DLP Series.
DUS.

Dyn. Kan.
EC.

ABBREVIATIONS

Abhidhdnaratanarndld of Haldyudha .

Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute , Poona.

Apardrka.

Apastamba Dharma-suira,

Rdshtrakutas and their times, by A. S . Altekar.
Annual Report of South Indian Epigraphy .
Archaeological Survey of India , Reports by
Sir Alexander Cunningham.

Archaeological Survey of India , Annual
Report.

Anandd-srama Sanskrit Series 9 Poona .
Archaeological Survey of Western India .
Allahabad University Studies .

Bdlardmdyana of Rdjasekhara .

Bulletin de VEcole Franqaise d} Extreme-Orient,.
Hanoi.

Bombay Gazetteer,

IBhavisayattakaha, of Dhanapala.

' A List of Inscriptions of Northern India by
D. R. Bhandarkar^ ( Appendix to El , XJX-
XXIII).

Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta.

Outline of the History of the Bhahja Kings of
Orissa . by R. C. Majumdar (DUS, III. 2.137 -
170).

Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies , .
London .

Bombay Sanskrit Series .

History of Buddhism , by Bu-ston. Eng. trans.

by E . Obermiller. Heidelberg, 1932,
Bharatiya Vidyd , Bombay.

Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta .

Corpus Inscriptionum Indicar um.

Copper-plate.

Collected Works of R. G Bhandarkar. 4 vols.
Poona , 1927-33.

Development of Hindu Iconography, by J. N .

Banerjea. Calcutta , 1942.

Dynastic History of Northern India , hy H. C.

Ray, 2 vols . Calcutta , 1931, 1938.

Dynasties of the- Kali Age, by F. E. Pargiter.
Oxford , 1913. . “ •

Sheth Devch(>nd Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara
Series, Bombay.

Dacca University Studies.

Dynasties of the* Kanarese Districts, by J. F
Fleet.

Epigraphia Carnatica .
xli

EEL

EISMS.

ERE.

F errand.

Gaut.

GIL.

GOB.

GSAX.

HAL.

HER.

HCSL.

HIED.

HXL.

HXSI.

Hir. Gr. Su.
Hodivala.

HOS.

HSL.

IA.

* 1C.

ID.

IHQ.

IS.

JA.

. JAHRS.

JAGS.

JASB.

JAS,L.

JBBRAS.

JBHS.

JBORS.

JBHS.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Elements of Hindu Iconography , by T . A.
Gopinatha Rao . 2 vols. Madras, 1914-1916.

Epigraphia Indica .

Eastern Indian School of Medieval Sculpture ,
by R. D. Banerji ,

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Ed. by
J. Hastings.

Relations de voyages et Textes Geographiques
Arabes} Persons et Turks — Relatifs a V
Extreme-Orient , du VHP au XV IIP siecles .,
2 vols. Paris , 1913-14.

Gautama D harma -sastra.

Geschichte der Indischen Literatur , by M, Win-
ternitz. 3 vols. Leipzig , 1905, 1909, 1920 .

Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, Baroda .

Giornale della Societa Asiatica lialiana.

History of Alamkdra Literature, by P . V. Kane,
Bombay , 1923.

History of Bengal . Vol. I. Edited by R. C .
Majumdar . Dacca, 1943.

History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, by M.
Krishnamac hariar. Madras , 1937.

History of India as told by its own historians,
Ed. by H . M. Elliot and John Dow-son,

History of Indian Literature, by M . Winter-
nitz. Eng . trans . by Mrs. S. Ketkar . Calcutta
University Press.

Historical Inscriptions of South India, by R.
B. Sewell.

Hiranyakesi Grihya-sutra.

Studies in Indo-Muslim History , by S. H.
Hodivala.

Harvard , Oriental Series.

History of Sanskrit Literature.

Indian Antiquary, Bombay.

Indian Culture , Calcutta.

Das indische Drama, by Sten Konow. Berlin,
1920 .

Indian Historical Quarterly, Calcutta.

Indische Studien. Ed. by A. Weber.

Journal Asiatique, Paris.

Journal of the Andhra Historical Research
Society, Rajahmundry.

Journal of the American Oriental Society .

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Cal¬
cutta.

Journal of the Asiatic Society, Letters . Cal¬
cutta. ••

Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society, Bombay.

Journal of the Bombay Historical Society .

Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research
Society, Patna.

Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Patna.
xVn

ABBREVIATIONS

JPL.

JDPS.

JGJRL

JIH.

JISOA.

JKHRS.

JOI.

JOR,

JPTS.

JRAS.

JRASB, L.

JUB.

Kar.

Kav.

KHDS.

KM.

KSS.

Kutt.

List.

Manu.

MAR.

MASB.

MASI.
Mbh(B).
Mbh(Cr. Ed).

M. C.C. Magazine.
MDJG.

Mrichchh.

NLA.

NTS.

NPP.

N. S. or NS.

NSP.

NUJ.

Num. Chron.

OC.

OHRJ.

ORLI.

Pag-sam- j on-zang.
Par Madh.

Journal of the Department of Letters, Calcutta
University.

Jaina Dharma Prasdraka Sabha, Bhavnagar.

Journal of the Ganganath Jha Research Insti¬
tute, Allahabad.

Journal of Indian History, Madras.

Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art,
Calcutta.

Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research
Society, Balangir .

Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda.

Journal of Oriental Research, Madras.

Journal of the Pali Text Society.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, London .

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Letters. Calcutta.

Journal of the University of Bombay.

Kar piir amah jari of Rdjasekhara.

Kdvyamimamsa of Rdjasekhdra.

History of Dharma-sastra, by P. V. Kane .

Kavyamala. NSP., Bombay.

Kdmarupa-sasandvali.

Kuttanimatam of Ddmodaragupta.

See “Bh. List” above.

Manu-smriti.

Mysore Archaeological Report.

Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Mahdbhdrata, Bombay Edition.

Mafudbhdrata, Critical Edition, published by
the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute ,
Poona.

Madras Christian College Magazine.

Mdnikachandra Digambara Jaina Grantha-
mdla .

Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka.

New Indian Antiquary, Bombay.

New Imperial Series.

Ndgari Prachdrini Patrikd (in Hindi), Banaras.

New Series.

Nirnaya-sagara Press, Bombay.

Nagpur University Journal.

Numismatic Chronicle.

Transactions (Verhandlungen, Actes) of Inter¬
national Congress of Orientalists.

Orissa Historical Research Journal , Bhuba¬
neswar.

Outline of the Religious Literature of India,
by J. N. Fdrquhar.

Ed. S. C. Das, Calcutta, 1908.

Parosara-Madhava (Comm, of Mddhavacharya
on Partisara-smriti).

PIHC.

PLC.

POC.

P.S.

PTQ

QJMS,

Raj at.
Rati.

RT.

SBE.

SBH.

Schiefner.

SD.

SDar.

Sel. Ins.

SII.
SIS.
SJS.
Sm. C.
SSG.

Taranatha.

TAS.

THK.

TSS.

Upamiti.

Vid.

Vish.

VRS.

VSS.

Yaj.

ZDMG.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.
Pali Literature of Ceylon, by M. H. Bode
London, 1909.

Proceedings of the All-India Oriental Confer¬
ence.

Prdkrita-sarvasva of Markendeya.

Pali Text Society , London .

Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society , Ban¬
galore.

Rajatarahgini of Kalhana.

Ratirahasya of Kokkoka.

Rajatarahgini of Kalhana.

Sacred Books of the East , Oxford.

Sacred Books of the Hindus , Allahabad.

Taranatha . Geschichte des Buddhismus in

Indien. German trans. by A. Schiefner.

Sanskrit Drama , by A. B. Keith. Oxford , 1924.

Sdhitya-darpana of Visvanatha.

Select Inscriptions hearing on Indian History

ant Civilization. Vol. I. By D. C. Sircar .

Calcutta , 1942.

South Indian Inscriptions.

Sino-lndian Studies , Calcutta.

Singhi Jain Series. <

Smriti-chandrika of Devannabhatta.

Systems of Sanskrit Grammar, by S. K. Belval-

kar. Poona , 1915.

See “Schiefner” above.

Travancore Archaeological Series.

History of Kanauj , by R. S. Tripathi.

N Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.

Upamitibhavaprapahcha-katha of Siddharshi .

Viddhasdlabhahjika of Rajasekhara.

Vishnu- smriti.

• •

Varendra Research Society.

VizianagaYam Sanskrit Series , Benares.

Y ajhavalkya-smriti.

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen
Gesellschaft.

xiiv

CHAPTER I

THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE

We have already seen1 how the Chalukya emperor was over¬
thrown by one of his feudatories, Dantidurga, some time about
A.D. 752. The family of the new ruler is known as Rash^rakuta.
The origin of this name and the early history of the Rashtraku^as
have been discussed above.2 Dantidurga’s family originally be¬
longed to Laftalura situated in the Osmanabad District of the Hyde¬
rabad State, but it migrated to Eliichpur in Berar in c. A.D. 625,
where it# carved out for itself a small principality3 and ruled as a
feudatory of the Chalukya empire for several generations. The
fortunes of the faqiily began to rise during the reign of Dantidurga’s
father Indra I, who had married a princess of the Chalukya family.4
Dantidurga, who is also sometimes referred to as Dantivarman.
ascended the throne in c. A.D. 733.6 He was able, ambitious, and
sagacious; and managed to become the overlord of the Deccan in
less than fifteen years.

1. DANTIDURGA

Two records of his reign, viz. the Samangad plates dated AJD.
754° and the undated Daiavatara cave inscription of Ellora7 give a
grandiloquent description of the triumphaj. career of Dantidurga.
He is said to have fought on the banks of the Mahi, Mahanadi and
Reva. and won victories over - Kahchi, Kalifiga, Kosala, Sri-iSaila,
Malava, La^a, and Tanka. He is also saicT to have made liberal re¬
wards to various rulers at Ujjayini and fixed his quarters in a Gur-
jara palace in that city. A later record8 probably elaborates this
when it says that Dantidurga performed Hiranyagarbha (or the
Great Gift) at Ujjayini in which “kings such as the Gurjara lord and
others were made door-keepers”. But his crowning act of glory
was the overthrow of the Chalukya king, described in several re¬
cords. According to contemporary records, he defeated with a small
force the formidable Karnataka army and won victories over Valla-
bba, the lord of all kings. In later records he is credited with hav¬
ing wrested the supreme sovereignty from the -Chalukyas9 and
“humbled the circle of proud kings from the Himalayas down to the
limit of Setu” (i.e. Adam’s Bridge).10

While these statements leave no doubt that Dantidurga was the
real founder of the greatness of the family, it is difficult to recon-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

struct his history by arranging his victories in chronological sequ¬
ence. It is probable that some of his victories were achieved while
he was yet a feudatory of the Chalukyas, and on this basis we may
provisionally reconstruct his history somewhat as follows: —

His first exploits were performed during the campaign organis¬
ed by his feudal lord Vikramaditya II and the latter’s Gujarat feuda¬
tory Pulakesin to repulse the Arab invasion. A sanguinary battle
was fought near Navsari in c. A.D. 738 in which the invaders were
so completely overthrown that they never again dared to invade
Gujarat. The brunt of the battle was naturally borne by Pulakesin
and Dantidurga whose principalities lay in Gujarat and Berar. The
Chalukya emperor appreciated the heroism of his feudatories by
conferring the titles of Ch&lukyakuldlamkdra (the Ornament of the
Chalukya family), Pfithvivallabha (the Lord of the Earth) and
AvanijandSraya (the Asylum of the People of the World) on Pula-
ke£in and those of Prithwvallabha and Khadgavaloka (one whose
mere sight is as effective as sword) on Dantidurga. 1 1

Dantidurga continued to be a loyal feudatory of Vikramaditya
for some years more. He accompanied his Chalukya suzerain in his
expedition against KahchS in c. A.D. 743 and shared the credit for
the victory over the Pallavas.12

Dantidurga was ambitious; and he decided to take full advan¬
tage of the varied and valuable military experience he had gained
in his campaigns in the north and south. When Vikramaditya II
died in A.D. 747, he embarked upon a bold career of conquest, but
took, care to see that his annexations were, as far as possible, not
at the cost of the Chalukya empire. He wiped out the Gurjara
kingdom of Nandipun (Nandod) and appointed his nephew Karkka
to rule over the region.124 Then he led an expedition into Malwa;
and proclaimed its conquest by performing Hiranyagarbha-ddna.
ceremony at its capital Ujjayini. Next he proceeded against eastern
Madhya Pradesh and brought it under his political influence. By
c. A.D. 750 he had thus become the master of Central and Southern
Gujarat and the whole of Madhya Pradesh and Berar.

Kirtivarman II, the Chalukya emperor, could now no longer
ignore the rising power of his nominal feudatory and decided to
challenge it. The armies of the two claimants to the overlordship
of the Deccan probably met somewhere in Khandesh and Danti¬
durga was victorious. As a result of this victory, he became the
master of the whole of Maharashtra by the end of A.D. 753. He
now assumed full imperial titles Mdhardjddhiixija Paramesvara
Paramabhatftiraka . He, however, did not survive his victory for

THE RASHJRAKUTA EMPIRE

long but died some time before A.D. 758. This is the earliest known
date of his successor, his uncle Krishna I, who, we may presume,
was a valued lieutenant of his ambitious nephew in his military
conquests.13

2. KRISHNA I
• •

Dantidurga had defeated Kirtivarman, but had not extinguished
his power. The Chalukya emperor retired to Karnatak and pro¬
ceeded to reorganise his forces for a further trial of strength. The
challenge was so successfully met by the new Hash^rakuta ruler that
the Chalukya empire was wiped out of existence by c. A.D. 760.
Krishna then proceeded against the Gahgas ruling in Mysore and
occupied their capital Manyapuram for some time. Later on he
sent his son, the crown-prince Govinda, to invade the dominions
of Vishnuvardhana IV, the Chalukya king of Vengl, who being a
ruler of a Chalukya branch was naturally hostile to the new power
that had swept away the Chalukya supremacy from Western Deccan.
The expedition was successful and, as a consequence, the whole of
the former Hyderabad State was incorporated in the Rashtrakuta
empire in c. 772. Silabhattarika, a daughter of Vishnuvardhana IV,
is known to have been a queen of Dhruva, a younger brother of
Govinda. Probably her marriage followed the conclusion of the
peace.

Krishna I also defeated a king called Rahappa, whose identity
is uncertain. He brought under his sway southern Konkan and
placed it in charge of Sanaphulla, the founder of the Silahara family.
The Bhandak plates prove that practically the whole of Marathi-
speaking part of Madhya Pradesh was under Krishna.

Krishna was great not only as conqueror but also as builder.
The famous rock-cut Siva temple at Ellora, which is justly regarded
as a marvel of architecture, was constructed at his orders, and bears
an eloquent testimony to the high level of skill attained by India
in the arts of sculpture and architecture under the Rashtrakuta
patronage. Krishna had the titles Subhatunga and Akdla-varsha.

3. GOVINDA II AND DHRUVA14

Krishna I died about A.D. 773 and was succeeded by his eldest
son Govinda II, Prabhutavarsha Vikramdvaloka. He had been
nominated as yuvardja by his father and had distinguished himself
on the battlefield by defeating Vishnuvardhana IV of Vengi. He is
also credited with some conquests after his accession; but he proved
an utter failure as a ruler. Soon after his accession, he abandoned
himself to a life of pleasure and debauchery and practically left the
whole administration To his younger brother Dhruva. The latter

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

took advantage of the situation to secure ail power for himself.
Govinda realised this and immediately removed Dhruva from the
administration. Evidently it led to some confusion including a re¬
bellion of feudatories and Dhruva made it an excuse for revolting
openly against his brother. It has been stated in a record of the
time of Dhruva that he proceeded to fight his brother, not so much
to gain the throne for himself, as to prevent the danger of the
Rasher aku|a family itself being ousted from the throne. Such ex¬
cuses, however, should not be taken at their face valu^. In any case
Govinda II refused to abdicate without resistance as he was urged
to do. He sought help from the rulers of Kahchl, Gangava^I, Vengl
and Malwa. But Dhruva defeated his brother and usurped the
throne before the other kings could come to Govinda’s aid.

Dhruva must have ascended the throne before the end of A.D.
780. He assumed the titles Nirupama Kali-Vallabha, Dharavarsha ,
and $?i-Vallabhd , and is sometimes referred to as Dhora, a Prakrit
form of Dhruva. Shortly after his accession, he proceeded to punish
the kings who had supported his brother.

The Ganga king Srfpurusha Muttarasa was defeated, his crown-
prince ^ivamara was taken prisoner, and the whole of Gangavatjl
was annexed to the Rashtrakuta empire, whose southern boundary
was thus pushed to- the Kaverl. The victor then proceeded against
the Pallava ruler Dantivarman, who however conciliated him by
offering an indemnity of elephants. The ruler of Vengl, Vish$u-
vardhana IV, was also humbled and sued for peace.

These victories made Dhruva the undisputed overlord of the
entire Deccan, but he was not satisfied with this achievement. He
wanted to be the overlord of Northern India as well, and decided to
make a bold bid to attain that position.15

Since the days of Harsha, Kanauj enjoyed the status of the pre¬
mier city of Northern India, but Indrayudha, who was ruling there
at this time, was a mere titular emperor like Shah Alam II ruling .at
Delhi in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The Palas of
Bengal and the Gurjara Pratiharas of Raj pu tana were rising to
prominence, and seeking to establish their own hegemony over
Northern India by conquering Kanauj and making its nominal
emperor a creature of their own. Vatsaraja, the Gurjara Pratthara
ruler, first marched upon Kanauj and succeeded in occupying it.
He, however, permitted Indrayudha to rule as a puppet emperor
under his protection as the Marthas did with Shah Alam II towards
the end of the eighteenth century. The success of Vatsaraja roused
the jealousy of his Pala rival Dharmapala who challenged his power
and marched into the Dbab, only to be defeated by Vatsaraja.

THE RASHTRAKOTA EMPIRE

Dharmapala, however, soon rallied his forces and proceeded to make a
second bid for hegemony in the north. At this time when Dhruva
had decided to try his luck as a third claimant to the kingdom of
Kanauj in c. A.D. 786, the army of Dharmapala was heading towards
the Doab and Vatsaraja was once again on the way to meet it.

Dhruva planned his northern expedition with great skill. He
collected a strong force on the banks of the Narmada and put. his
able and energetic sons Govinda and Indra in charge of the different
sections. He could cross the Narmada and occupy Malava without
much opposition, as the main army of Vatsaraja was in the Doab.
He then advanced towards Kanauj, and Vatsaraja had to withdraw
his forces from the advanced position in the Doab to meet this new
danger from the south. The two armies met somewhere near Jhansi,
and the Deccan invader inflicted such a crushing defeat upon the
forces of Vatsaraja that he had to fly to Rajputana to take shelter in
its sandy deserts. Flushed with this sensational victory, Dhruva
decided to measure his strength with Dharmapala as well, whose
forces were hovering on the outskirts of the Doab. The Goddess
of Victory once more smiled on the Deccan emperor, and Dharma¬
pala had to flee from the battlefield leaving behind his white imperial
umbrellas. The victor spent some v*eeks on the banks of the holy
Ganga and Yamuna and, as a memento of this sojourn, these famous
rivers were incorporated in the Rashtrakufa Imperial banner.

Dhruva could not press home his victories by marching upon
and occupying Kanauj. He was too far away from his base; he was
also getting old and had to settle the problem of succession. He
therefore returned to the south in c. A.D. 790, laden with rich booty.

At the close of Dhruva’s reign the Rashtrakuta power had
reached its zenith. The Ganga crown-prince was in the Rashtrakuta
prison, and the Pallava king could save himself only by surrender;
Vatsaraja had fled, and Dharmapala had been overthrown. There
was no power in the country to challenge the Rashtrakuta supremacy.

Dhruva had several sons, the names of four of whom are known.
The eldest Stambha (or Kambha) Ranavaloka was the viceroy of
GangavadT, and the other sons were also capable administrators.
In order to prevent a struggle for succession after his death, Dhruva
chose the third son Govinda as his successor. The latter was for¬
mally appointed as yuvardja and invested with a kanthika or neck¬
lace which was the insignia of the heir-apparent. But as the old
emperor still apprehended trouble, he proposed to abdicate in favour
of the heir-apparent. Though Govinda is said to have opposed
this proposal, some records state that he was invested with the royal

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

state by his father at a formal coronation. Unless we take these
expressions to refer to his installation as a yuvardja — though rdjddhi-
rdja-parame$varatd would hardly bear that sense — we must conclude
that in spite of Govinda’s real or pretended opposition, Dhruva
actually abdicated in favour of his son Govinda III who assumed
the -titles Jagattunga , Prabhutavarsha^&rivallabha, Janavallabha,
Kiriihidrdyana and Tribhuvdnadhavala.

According to an inscription of the time of Govinda III, Dhruva
chose Govinda as his successor because he was the ablest and
worthiest among his sons. Normally no great importance attaches
to a statement like this, but the career of Govinda III fully justifies
his father’s choice if it was based upon any such consideration.

4. GOVINDA III

Govinda III ascended the throne in A.D. 793 and, as was eject¬
ed, his accession did not go unchallenged. For a time Stambha
kept quiet, but when he was assured of the support of a number of
feudatories and neighbours, he brok£ out in open revolt against his
brother. Govinda, however, quelled the rebellion of Mtwelve kings
headed by Stambha” and took his brother prisoner. He, however,
treated him leniently and, being convinced of his loyalty in future,
Govinda took the magnanimous step of reinstating him in the Ganga
viceroyalty. Throughout the rest of his life, Stambha remained
loyal to his plighted word.

Sivamara, the Gahga prince in the Rashtrakuta prison, had been
released by Govinda soon after his accession, evidently to act as a
check on Stambha’s ambitions. Sivamara, however, joined the side
of Stambha, contrary to Govinda’s expectations. When the two
brothers became reconciled, they jointly marched against Ganga-
vad5, captured Sivamara, and once again put him into prison. Next
came the turn of the Pallava king Dantiga, who also was compelled
to submit. Vishnu vardhana IV of Vengi was the maternal grand¬
father of Govinda and so was not disposed to challenge his supre¬
macy. When Govinda III thus became the undisputed overlord of
the Deccan in c. A.D. 795, he decided to intervene in the political
tangle of Northern India. Subsequent to the retirement of his
father from the Ganga valley in c. A.D. 790, considerable changes
had taken place in the political situation. Dharmapala recovered
from’ his defeat earlier than Vatsaraja, and eventually succeeded in
putting his own nominee Chakrayudha on the Kanauj throne.
Vatsaraja’s successor Nagabhata II, however, soon turned the tables
and reoccupied Kanauj after defeating Chakrayudha and Dharma¬
pala. Such was the situation in the north on the eve of Govinda’s
invasion.

THE RASHTRAKOTA EMPIRE

The northern expedition of Govinda was skilfully planned and
boldly executed. Indra, the younger brother and loyal supporter
of Govinda, was the viceroy of Gujarat and Malava; he was entrust¬
ed with the task of keeping watch over the Vindhyan passes in order
to prevent Nagabhata from bursting into the Deccan, when the main
Rash{rakuta army was away in the North. A number of detach¬
ments were kept in Central India to keep the local rulers in check
and secure the lines of communication.

After taking these prudent precautions, Govinda marched into
Northern India via Bhopal and Jhansi, Kanauj being his main objec¬
tive. Nagabhafa marched out to meet the invader. The two armies
probably met in Bundelkhand. Victory once more favoured the
southern army and Nagabhafa fled to Raj pu tana, leaving the Doab
at the mercy of the conqueror. Chakrayudha, the puppet ruler of
Kanauj, was quick to realise the futility of opposition and came for¬
ward with unconditional surrender. Govinda was satisfied and did
not deem it necessary to march upon Kanauj. Dharmapala also
offered submission, as he too thought it politic and prudent to do

so. He knew that Govinda could not long remain in Northern India
%

and he was really grateful to him for having shattered the power
of his mighty rival, Nagabhata II. Besides the powerful Gurjara-
Pratlhara and Pala kings, other rulers of Northern India were also
humbled by Govinda III. A detailed account of his conquests is
given in the Sanjan plates of his son and successor which seem to
describe the events in chronological order. Even at the risk of
repetition, we may therefore sum up as follows the verses referring
to the glorious conquests of Govinda III: —

After defeating Nagabhata and Chandragupta, a king whose
identity is not certain, Govinda III uprooted other kings but after¬
wards reinstated them in their dominions. He then proceeded as far
as the Himalaya mountains, and it was presumably on the way that
Dharmapala and Chakrayudha submitted to him. He returned and
“following again the bank of the Narmada. .. .and acquiring the
Malava country along with the Kosala, the Kalinga, the Vanga (or
Vengi), the Dahala, and the Odraka, that Vikrama (i.e. Govinda III)
made his servants enjoy them”. After having subjugated his enemies
he returned to the banks of the Narmada and established himself in
a befitting manner in a capital city at the foot of the Vindhyas,
performing pious deeds by constructing temples.

While he was encamped there, Maraiarva or Sarva, the ruler
of a small principality with his capital at Snbhavana (modern Sar-
bhon in Broach District), submitted and presented to Govinda III
valuable* treasures which he had inherited from his ancestors.16

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Govinda III stayed for some time in his capital and there his son
and successor Amoghavarsha was born. It is somewhat curious
that most of these details of the northern campaign are not found
in the records of Govinda’s reign and known only from an inscription
recorded nearly 70 years later. But still, as they are substantially
corroborated by contemporary records* we need not dismiss them as
altogether fictitious though there may be some amount of exagge¬
ration.

The date of the great northern campaign of Govinda III has
been a subject of keen controversy among scholars. For a long time
it was believed that it took place about A.D. #06 or 807. But it is
now generally held that all these conquests were achieved before
A.D. 802, most probably in A.D. 800. 17

Vishnuvardhana IV of Vengfi died in A.D. 709 and was succeeded
by his son Vijayaditya II. The new ruler challenged the Rashtra¬
kuta supremacy, but Govinda defeated him and put his-younger
brother Bhfma Salukki on the Vehgi throne in c. A.D. 802. The new
ruler naturally enough became a loyal henchman of Govinda.

Taking advantage of Govinda’s absence in the north, the Pal-
lava, Pan<jya, Kerala and Ganga rulers formed a confederacy against
him. Govinda marched against them with lightning speed and
scattered them all before the end of A.D. 802. The occupation of
Kanchl by the Rashtrakuta forces created a tremor in the heart of
Hie king of Ceylon, who tried to ingratiate himself into Govinda’s
favour by presenting him two statues, one of himself and the other
of his premier. Govinda installed one of them in the Siva temple
at Kanchl to serve as a column of victory to proclaim to the subjects
of his enemy his great power and might.

Govinda III was undoubtedly the ablest of the Rashtrakuta
emperors, unrivalled in courage, generalship, statesmanship, and mar¬
tial exploits. His invincible armies had conquered all the territories
between Kanauj and Cape Comorin, and Banaras and Broach.
Vengi was governed by a nominee of his; and the power of the
Dra vidian kings in the extreme south was completely broken. Even
the ruler of Ceylon was terrified ipto submission. Never again did
the prestige of the Rashtrakuta empire rise so high.

5. 6ARVA OR AMOGHAVARSHA

Govinda HI was succeeded by his son &arva, better known as
Amoghavarsha, in A.D. 814. He assumed the titles Nripatunga,
Maharajashxmda,'Vtra-N&rayana, and Atisaya-dhavala. The new em¬
peror was a boy of 13 or 14, and his father had arranged that Karkka,

THE RASHTRAKOJA EMPIRE

who had succeeded his father Indra as the viceroy of Gujarat, should
assume the reins of government during his minority.

The arrangement worked satisfactorily for two or three, years,
but a formidable revolt broke out in A.D. 817. It seems to have
been led by the Vehgi ruler Vijayaditya II who, though ousted from
the throne by Govinda III, had subsequently managed to regain it.18
A number of disgruntled officers, relations, and feudatories swelled
the ranks of rebels; and they eventually gained the upper hand. The
boy emperor had to flee and the Rashtrakuta power was for a
time completely eclipsed ab.aut A.D. 818. Karkka, however, soon
retrieved the situation and 7 reinstated his ward upon the imperial
throne some time before A.D. 821.

After spending five or six years in restoring order and authority
in the different provinces of his empire, Amoghavarsha launched
an attack on Vijayaditya of Vehgi and inflicted a severe defeat upon
him in c. A.D. 830. It appears that the Rashtrakuta forces were in
occupation of Vengi for about a dozen years thereafter. The city
was recaptured by Panduranga, a general of Vijayaditya II, shortly
before A D. 845.

An almost continuous war was going on between the
Rashtrakiitas and the Gangas during the first twenty years of the
reign of Amoghavarsha. Eventually the latter were able to drive
out the Rashfrakuta forces from the major part of their country.
Amoghavarsha also did not make any serious effort to regain his
ascendancy in that province. In c. A.D. 860 he married his daughter
Chandrobalabbe to a Ganga prince named Butuga, which put an
end to the hostility between the two houses and ushered in an era
of co-operation between them.

According to the Sirur plates the rulers of Anga, Vahga, Maga-
dha, Malava, and Vengi paid homage to him. The reference to the
last is easily intelligible. As regards Malava, it was a bone of con¬
tention between the Rashtrakutas and the Pratlharas and. in spite
of casual victories on either side,' it ultimately passed into the hands
of the latter. The first three countries in the list were included in
the Pala dominions, and it is interesting to note that the Pala
emperor Devapala claims to have defeated the Dravida king
who is usually identified with Amoghavarsha. It is probable,
therefore, that hostilities occasionally broke out between these two:
and that first Devapala, and later Amoghavarsha had some success.
It is difficult to believe that the latter actually invaded Anga and
Vanga (Bengal and Bihar), though its possibility cannot be altogether
ruled out.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Amoghavarsha built the city of Manyakhe^a and established
his capital there. This city is now represented by Malkhed in the
Hyderabad State, about 90 miles to the south-east of Sholapur. It
is difficult to say where the capital was situated before this. Various
suggestions have been made locating it at Mayurakhindi or Mor-
khind (Nasik District), Nasik, Sooloobunjan near the Ellora caves,
and Ellichpur. But there is no satisfactory evidence in support of
any of these views.

The later part of the reign of Amoghavarsha was also full of
rebellions. Even the crown-prince Kjish^a appears to have been
involved in them. Bahkeya, the great general of the king, who dis¬
tinguished himself in the wars against the Gahgas, succeeded in
crushing these rebellions. But the most unfortunate, and in some
N respects the most serious, rebellion was that of the Gujarat Branch
of the Rashtrakutas founded by Indra. When Amoghavarsha attain¬
ed majority and assumed the reins of government in c. A.D. 821, his
cousin Karkka, who was carrying on the regency administration,
retired to Gujarat as viceroy. His relations with Amoghavarsha
continued to be cordial till his death in c. A.D. 830. He was succeeded
by his son Dhruva I. The friendly relations between the two Rash-
trakuta families terminated soon after the accession of Dhruva.
Either Amoghavarsha was ungrateful or Dhruva became too over¬
bearing, puffed up by the consciousness that it was his father who
had won the throne for Amoghavarsha. Whatever the real cause,
protracted hostilities raged between Amoghavarsha and his cousin
which lasted for about 25 years. Dhruva I was eventually killed
in this struggle and* was succeeded by his son Akalavarsha in c. A.D.
845. The latter succeeded in winning back his throne, but the tables
were soon turned against him when Bahkeya, the famous general
of Amoghavarsha, assumed the command of the imperial army.
Eventually peace was concluded between the warring houses when
Akalavarsha was succeeded by his son Dhruva II. By this time the
Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Bhoja I had become very powerful and
cherished designs to avenge the defeat inflicted upon his grandfather
Nagabhata II by Govinda III, the father of Amoghavarsha I. Dhruva II
could never hope to meet the Pratlhara invasion single-handed, and
Amoghavarsha had little chance to emerge victorious unless his vice¬
roy in Gujarat and Malava gave him wholehearted support. The
tragic and long-drawn war, therefore, came to an end in c. A.D. 860.
The threatened Pratlhara invasion did not materialise; there
were only frontier skirmishes, and the Rashfrakulas were able to hold
their own and confine the enemy to the other side of the Narmada.

Amoghavarsha was no born military leader, but he was never¬
theless able not only to reconquer his kingdom and establish peace

THE RASHTRAKOTA EMPIRE

and order but also to send an expedition against the Palasi The
arts of peace attracted him more than feats of war. He was a libe¬
ral patron of literature and his court was adorned' by a number of
famous Hindu and Jain writers such as Jinasena, the author of the
Adipurdna , Mahaviracharya, the author of Ganitasdrasamgraha.
and Sakatayana, the author of Amoghavritti. He was himself
the author of Kavirajamdrga, the earliest Kanarese work on
poetics. He treated all creeds with impartiality and his own life
was a striking synthesis of what was best in. Hinduism and Jainism.
He revered Mahavira as profoundly as Mahalakshml, and on one
occasion proffered to the latter a finger of his own in the belief
that such sacrifice would abate a severe epidemic. Kings rarely
bleed for others; usually they make others bleed for themselves.
Towards the evening of his life from c. A.D. 860, he used off and on
to retire from the work of administration in order to devote him¬
self as much as possible to religious worship. Amoghavarsha’s name
will endure as of a ruler who established peace and order in his king¬
dom, encouraged art and literature practised the principles he
preached, and did not flinch even from offering a limb of his body
by way of sacrifice, when he thought that public welfare demanded,
it.

6. KRISHNA II
• •

Amoghavarsha I died about A.D. 878 and was succeeded by
his son Krishna II who, like bis illustrious namesake, assumed the
titles Akdlavarsha and Subhatunga. He married the daughter of
the Chedi ruler Kokkalla I and received substantial help from his
wife’s relations in the arduous struggles of his reign.

Several Rashtrakuta records19 make a bold claim on behalf of
Krishna II that he terrified the Gurjaras, destroyed the pride of UL\a ,
taught humility to the Gau^as, deprived the people on the sea-
coast of their sleep, and that his command was obeyed by the Anga,
the Kalinga, the Ganga, and the Magadha, waiting at his gate.
Much of this is, no doubt, mere conventional praise based upon a
kernel of historical truth. But there is no doubt that his reign
was full of wars.

The most arduous of his campaigns were those against the
Pratiharas and the Eastern Chalukyas. Several records refer to
his fight with the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Bhoja20, and the
Begumra plates, dated A.D. 914. state that even then old men
remembered the great battle and talked of it. It is clear from the
records of the Lata f Gujarat) Branch of the Rashtrakutas that they,
particularly their chief Krishnaraja took a distinguished part in the

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

campaign against the Pratlharas. Although the advance of Bhoja
was checked, the Lata Branch seems to have come to an end shortly
after. Kpshnaraja is known to have been on the throne till at least
A.D. 888, but no successor of his is so far known. Whether he died
without leaving any issue, leading to the lapse of his kingdom,
or whether there was a further war between the main dynasty and
the Lata Branch which wiped out the existence of the latter, we do
not know.

The war with the Eastern Chalukyas was a more serious affair,
and at one time even threatened .the very existence of the Rash-
trakufa kingdom. The campaigns will be more fully described in
connection with the Eastern Chalukyas in Chapter VI and a short
summary here must suffice.

Vijayaditya III, the contemporary of Krishna II on the Vehgi
throne, had freed his kingdom from the Rash$rakuta yoke during
the reign of Amoghavarsha ; the advent of a new king on the
Rashtrakuta throne emboldened him to take the offensive, and he
was for a time successful. In the south he attacked the Nolambas
and the Garigas, who were Rashtrakuta feudatories, and in the north
his invading forces penetrated right into the heart of.Berar. For
a time Krishna was defeated all along the line. But in a few years
he reorganised his forces,, summoned the battalions of his feuda¬
tories, and hurled back the Chalukya invaders. His victory was
decisive, and the Chalukya king Bhlma, who had succeeded his
father, was taken prisoner. Eventually, Bhlma was released after
a few years and permitted to rule his kingdom as a feudatory. In
course of time, however, he once again challenged the Rashtrakuta
overlordship, but was again defeated in a sanguinary battle, in which
his crown-prince lost his life.

Krishna II seems to have had political relations with the Cholas.
One of his daughters was married to the Chola king Aditya I, and
there was a son by this marriage named Kannara. On the death
of Aditya, his other son Parantaka ascended the throne. There¬
upon Krishna II invaded the C!ho]a kingdom in order to secure the
throne for his grandson, But he was decisively defeated at Vallala
(modern Tiruvallam in North Arcot District).

The wars of Krishna II thus generally ended in failure and
sometimes in disaster in spite of his initial brilliant victories against
the'Eastern Chalukyas.

7. INDRA III

Krishna II died towards the end of A.D. 914 after a reign of
about 36 years. Like his father he had a leaning towards Jainism.

THE RASHJRAKOTA EMPIRE

He was succeeded by his grandson Indra III, whose , father Jagat-
tuhga predeceased Krishna. Indra assumed the titles Niiyavarshu,
Raftakandarpa, Kirttindrayaiia, and Rajamdrtanda .

Indra III was a youth of 30 at the time of his accession, and
he had inherited the military dash and daring of Govinda III. Soon
after his accession, he emulated his great ancestor by declaring War
against the Gurjara-Pratihara emperor Mahlpala. It has been sug¬
gested by some writers that he did this in sympathy with his Chedi
relations,21 who had espoused the cause of Mahlpala’s rival and
half-brother Bhoja II. There is, however, no positive evidence in
support of this, and Indra ’s expedition against the Gurjaras may be
merely a phase of the long-standing hostility between the two
powers. The southern army followed the Bhopal-Jhansi-Kalpi
route, crossed the Yamuna at the last mentioned place, and march¬
ed upon Kanauj and occupied it. The capture of Kanauj, the
imperial city of Northern India, was a sensational achievement
and immensely enhanced the prestige of the Rashtrakuta arms.
Mahlpala fled and Indra sent his own Chalukya feudatory, Nara-
simha II of Vemulavada, in pursuit. This campaign has been dealt
in detail in the next chapter.

The war with the Vehgls continued in the reign of Indra also,
but with no conspicuous success on either side. Inara died some
time after A.D. 92722 and was succeeded by his son Amogha-
varsha II. The latter fell a prey to the foul play of his younger
brother Govinda IV; his widow fled to Vehgl, and lived under the
protection of its ruler A mm a I, as she did not feel that either her
honour or her son would be safe anywhere within the empire over
which her husband once ruled. Govinda naturally did not like
this action of Amma I, and when the latter died in 925, he inter¬
vened in the war of succession for the Vengl throne that ensued,
and eventually succeeded in putting his own nominee Tadapa upon
it.

8. GOVINDA IV AND AMOGHAVARSHA III

Govinda was a youth of about 25 at the time of his accession,
and soon gave himself up to a life of vicious pleasures. His ad¬
ministration became tyrannical and unpopular, and his ministers
and feudatories felt that his removal was necessary in the interests
of the empire. They therefore made overtures to Amoghavarsha,
an uncle of Govinda, and requested him to displace Govinda.
Amoghavarsha had a high reputation for character and integrity,
and when he marched against Malkhed with the assistance of his
Chedi relations, he was openly welcomed by the distressed people
who had become disgusted with Govinda’s vices and excesses.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Amoghavarsha found no difficulty in overthrowing Govinda and
ascending the throne in A.D. 936.23 Whether Govinda was killed
in battle or was put in prison, we do not know.

Amoghavarsha III was aged about 50 at the time of his acces¬
sion, He was religious by temperament and did not take any active
interest in administration. During his short reign of three years,
therefore, the government was entirely carried on by his able and
ambitious son Krishna. The latter sent an expedition into Gahga-
va^I, and deposed its king Rajamalla with a view to enthrone the
latter’s younger brother Butuga, who had married a sister of Kri¬
shna. As crown-prince, Krishna also led an expedition into Bun-
delkhand and captured the important forts of Kalanjar and Chitra-
kuta. During this expedition a misunderstanding and possibly a
conflict arose between him and his Chedi relations, which put an
end to the long-standing entente cordiale between the two royal
families.24

9. KRISHNA HI

Krishna III Akdlavarsha succeeded to the throne as the de jure
emperor on his father’s death towards the end of A.D. 939. Soon
af*ter his accession he planned an invasion of the Choja kingdom
in collaboration with his brother-in-law Butuga, ruling in Gahga-
vadi. The two brothers-in-law led a lightning expedition to the
south and captured the important cities of Kanchi and Tan j ore
some time in A.D. 943. Parantaka, the Choja king, soon rallied his
forces and repulsed the invaders, who could retain effective posses¬
sion only of Tondamajjdalam, consisting of Arcot, Chingleput and
Vellore Districts. In A.D. 949 the Chola army penetrated into Arcot
District with a view to drive out the invader, but sustained a signal
defeat at the battle of Takkolam, in which the Cho]a crown-prince
Rajaditya, who was leading his forces, was killed in his howdah
by Butuga. Krishna pressed home his victory by marching down
to Rame£varam, where he set up a pillar of victory; then he came
back to North Arcot and encamped for some years at Melpa<Ji.
He built the temples of Krishnesvara and Gandamartandaditya at
or near Ramesvaram to shine there ‘as resplendent hills of fame.’
Krishna eventually decided to annex only Tondamaijdalam which
remained an integral part of his empire to the end of his reign.

In recognition of the valuable help rendered by h'is brother-in-
law, the Ganga king, Krishna bestowed upon him the governorship
of Banavasi 12000, Belvola 300, Purigere- 300, Kinsukad ¥0, and
B&genad 70.

THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE

In c. A.D. 963 Krishna led a second expedition into Northern
India in which Marasimha, the successor of the Gahga ruler Butuga,
offered valuable assistance. Krishna seems to have marched into
Bundelkhand; but his objective is not definitely known.24* Later on
he led an expedition into Malwa against the Paramara ruler Siyaka
and occupied Ujjayinl.

Krishna succeeded in bringing Vehgi effectively under his con¬
trol by championing the cause of Ba^apa against Amma II, and put¬
ting him on the Vehgi throne in A.D. 956. Though Ba^apa remain¬
ed a loyal Rashtrakuta feudatory till the end of his life, Amma II
soon regained the throne and put an end to the Rashfrakuta influ¬
ence.

Krishna III was one of the ablest monarchs of the Rashtrakuta
dynasty. Possibly he was not as successful in his northern cam¬
paigns as Dhruva, Govinda III, or Indra III. But there is no doubt
that, unlike any of his predecessors, he was the lord of the whole
of Deccari ( Sakala-dakshhya-dicj-adhipatij in the full sense of the
term. Govinda III conquered Kanchl, but could not penetrate to
Ramesvaram and thus effectively break the power of the Dravi^a
kings. Vengl was a source of trouble to him; duririg the latter half
of Krishna’s reign, it was ruled by a submissive feudatory. Kri¬
shna was in effective possession of a large part of *the Chola king¬
dom and his temples of Kfishnesvara and Gan<Jamarta$daditya at
or near Ramesvaram proclaimed his conquest of the extreme south
of the Peninsula. No other Rashtrakuta king was the overlord of
the entire Deccan in so complete a sense of the term as Krishna
was in c. A.D. 965.

10. KHOTTIGA AND KARKKA II

* » .

Krishna III apparently had no issue living at the time of his
death, since he was succeeded by his younger brother Khottiga in
A.D. 967. The new ruler was an old man at the time of his accession
and seems to have lacked military capacity. At any rate he was
unable to repulse the invasion of the Rashtrakuta dominions by the
Paramara king Siyaka, who was keen on avenging his defeat by the
previous Rashtrakuta emperor. Siyaka crossed the Narmada and
advanced straight upon Malkhed. The Rashtrakuta capital was
captured, and plundered in the spring of A.D. 972. The imperial
treasury was completely sacked and the raider carried away even
the office copies of copper-plate charters lodged in the record office.
Khottiga died of a broken heart soon after this calamity, probably
in September, A.D. 972.

Khottiga was succeeded by his nephew Karkka II, son of
Nirupama. The prestige of the empire had been already shattered

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

by the sack of its capital, and matters were worsened by the mal¬
administration of the new emperor and his two vicious ministers.
This naturally aroused imperial ambitions in the minds of the feu¬
datories, and one of them eventually deprived Karkka of his
sovereignty over the Deccan within eighteen months of his acces¬
sion.

This feudatory was Taila II of the Chalukya family. He was
ruling over a small fief at Tarddava^i in Bijapur District as a sub¬
missive feudatory of the Rashtraku^as from the time of Krishna III
down to A.D. 965. He, however, believed that he was a direct
descendant of the Imperial Chalukya family of Badami, and his
ability and military capacity urged him to make a bid for the impe¬
rial status snatched from his ancestors by the Rashtrakutas. He
made elaborate but secret preparations, and by the end of A.D. 973
openly revolted against the authority of Karkka. The latter march¬
ed against him, but was signally defeated in a sanguinary battle
fought . somewhere in northern Karnataka. The notorious minis¬
ters of Karkka were killed in the battle, but Karkka himself escap¬
ed and managed to carve out a small principality for himself in
Sorab taluk of Mysore State, where he continued to rule up to
A.D. 991. Though Karkka gave up the task of restoring Rash-
{rakuta supremacy as hopeless, it was attempted by the Ganga ruler
Marasimha on behalf of his nephew Indra, a grandson of Krishna III.
This effort also failed, as Taila succeeded in crushing his enemy’s
forces in A.D. 974, Both Marasimha and Indra turned Jain monks
and died by the Sallekhana vow, and Taila became the overlord of
the Deccan by A.D. 975. His reign and the history of his family will
be described in the next volume.

11. RETROSPECT AND REVIEW

The period of Rash^rakuta ascendancy in the Deccan from about
A.D. 753 to 975 constitutes perhaps the most brilliant chapter in its
history. No other ruling dynasty in the Deccan played such a domi¬
nant part in the history of India till the rise of the Marafhas as an
imperial power in the eighteenth century. No less than three of its
rulers, Dhruva, Govinda III, and Indra HI carried their victorious
arms into the heart of North India, and by inflicting severe defeats
upon its most powerful rulers changed the whole course of the history
of that' region. Their success in the south was equally remarkable,
and Krishna III literally advanced as far as Rameivara in course of
his victorious career. All the great powers of India, the Pratiharas
and the Palas in the north, and the Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas
in the south, were subjugated by them at one time or another. They,

THE RASHTHAKOTA EMPIRE

no doubt, suffered reverses at times but on the whole their military
campaigns against powerful adversaries were repeatedly crowned
with brilliant success.

The Rashtraku^as also excelled in arts of peace. The Kailasa
Temple at Ellora, to be described elsewhere, y/}\\ keep alive for
ever the name of its builder Krishna I. Amoghavarsha, though not
renowned like his father and grandfather as a conqueror, was a
remarkable personality. By virtue of his literary accomplishments
and religious temperament he occupied a unique position among
contemporary sovereigns. The Arab writers who visited Western
India for {rade or other purposes speak very highly of the Rash-
{rakuta kings whom they refer to as Balhara, no doubt an abbrevia¬
tion of Ballaha-raya, a Prakrit form of Vallabha-raja, According
to these foreigners the Balhara was recognised as the greatest king
in India and homage was paid to him by all the other princes. It
is further said: “He gives regular pay to his troops and has many
horses and elephants and immense wealth”. On the other hand
Mas’udi says: “His troops and* elephants are innumerable, but his
troops are mostly infantry, because the seat of his government is
among the mountains.”26 Both the king and his subjects are des¬
cribed as being friendly to the Muslims, and according to some wri¬
ters Muslims were appointed even as governors of cities in the
kingdom.26 Mas’udi says: “There is none among the rulers of
Sindh and Hind who in his territory respects the Muslims like Raja
Balhara. In his kingdom Islam is honoured and protected. And
for them mosques and congregational mosques, which are always
full, have been built for offering prayers five timds.”27 All these
undoubtedly testify to the liberal and progressive views of the
Rashtrakuta kings.

1. Vol. in, pp. 248-9.

2. Vol. Ill, pp. 198-202. In later times the Rashprakutas regarded themselves as
having been descended from Yadu, and one record describes them as belonging
to the Satyaki branch of Yaduvamsa. There is hardly any doubt that these
Rashtrakupas were of Kannada origin; at least Kannada was their mother
tongue.

3. According to Mirashi, Dantidurga’s “ancestors were ruling, not over Vidarbha,
but over the Aurangabad District (ancient Mulake) where the earliest inscrip¬
tions of the family have been found.” (POC. XV Summary of Papers, p. 98).

4. It is said in the Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsha that “Indraraja, in the (mar¬
riage) hall, namely Khetaka, seized in battle the daughter of the Chalukya king
by the rakahasa form of marriage” (El, XVIII 252). This is also referred to in
other records which give the name of the princess as Bhavagana. Khetaka is
modem Kaira, where a battle must have taken place, though we do not know
the cause of it. The princess probably belonged to the Gujarat branch of the
Chalukyas. The eircumstances relating to the battle and the forced marriage
are shrouded in obscurity.

5. The Ellora plates of Dantidurga, the earlk ,c record of the family, arc dated in
Sarii. 663. This has been referred to the Saka era, and the resulting date is
A.D. 742 (El, XXI. 26). Prof. V. V. Mirashi, however, reads the date as 463
and refers it to the Kalachuri era of A.D. 250-51 (POC. XV. Summary of

AIK.— 2

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Papers pp. 97-8). The equivalent Christian date being AJD. 715, it pushes back
the accession of Dantidurga by more than 25 years. If we accept this inter¬
pretation, Dantidurga must have had a long reign of more than 40 years, as his
other known record, Samangad plates, is dated A.D. 754.

6. I A, XI. 111.

7. ASWf, V. 92.

8. El, XVIH. 252.

9. El, IV. 287.

10. El, XVUI. 252. - ,

11. This para is based upon the inference suggested by the Navsari plates of Pula-
kesin and Ellora plates of Danticjurga.

12. Vol. HI, pp. 247-8, 263.

12a. For a different view on this point, cf. next chapter (pp. 20-21. fn. 14).

13. According to some records (/A, XII. 264) Dantidurga died without a son, and
Kannara (i.e. Krishna) succeeded him. According to the Baroda plates of
A.D. 812-13 ( l A , XII. 158), Krishna I had replaced a relative who had gone
astray. The view that Dantidurga was deposed by his uncle Krishna lot
oppressing his subjects cannot be upheld. For a full discussion of the point,
cf. Altekar, Rdshprakufas, pp. 41-2.

14. For the reign of Govinda II, cf. Alas Plates (El, VI. 208), Daulatabad Plates (El,
IX. 195), and Bhor State Museum Plates (El, XXH. 176).

15. A large number of inscriptions refer to the conquests of Dhruva and Govinda III.
Among them may be specially mentioned:

(i) Radhanpur and Wani plates of Govinda HI (I A, XI. 157).

(ii) Baroda Plates (IA, XII. 158).

(iii) Nilgund, Sirur, and Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsha (El, VI. 98; VII.

203; XVIH. 244).

16. This deta^ is found in Radhanpur and other plates, but not in Sanjan plates
which merely refer to Oie birth of his son in Sarva’s kingdom.

17. The vexed problem of the chronology of the campaigns of Govinda. Ill was
discussed by the author of this chapter and Mirashi, in D. R. Bhandarkar Volume,
pp. 153 ff. and El, XXIH. pp. 214-7, 293-7. The views given above are slightly
different from those held previously by the author. Cf. also El, XXXII, 159 (Ed.).

18. This will be described more fully in Chapter' VI.

19. Karhad PI. (El, IV. 287).

20. This will be described more fully in Chapter II.

21. Indra himself, his father Jagattunga, grandfather Krishna H, and son Amogha ¬
varsha II had all married princesses of the Chedl family of Tripuri,

22. According to one view, he ruled till at least A.D. 927 and was succeeded by his
elder son Amoghavarsha who was removed by Govinda TV in A.D. 930 (Ef,
XXVI. 162-3). Some scholars believe that he ruled till the end of A.D. 928 (El,
XXXII. 50). The date 922, for the death of Indra HI as given in the first edition
(p. 13) by the late Dr. Altekar has been proved to be wrong by epigraphic re¬
cords and has been changed to 927 (Ed.).

23. Some authorities place it in A.D. 934 (El, XXVI. 163-4).

24. This is denied by Prof. K. A. N. Sastri (JOR, XVI. 155).

24a. For a different view, cf. Ch. V, Section H.

25. HIED, I. 3, 13, 21.

26. A1 Istakhr! (ibid. 34) says: “There are Musalmans in its (land of Balhara) cities,
and none but Musalmans rule over them on the part of the Balhara. There arc
Jama Masjids in them (where Muhammadans assemble to pray).” The bracketed
portion is added by Ibn Haukal (ibid) who repeats the rest.

27. POC, X. 406.

CHAPTER II

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

The early history of the Gurjara-Pratlharas has been dealt with
in the third volume.1 We have seen how the Pratihara dynasty,
founded by the Brahma na Harichandra, carved out a powerful king¬
dom in Rajputana, and various other Gurjara families, probably
branches of the same dynasty, set up small principalities to the south
and east. The southern branches ruled in La{a with its capital at
Nandipuri,2 but we have no definite information about the capital
of the eastern branch or the exact locality and extent of its domi¬
nions. Some scholars hold the view that Bhillamala was the early
capital of this family, as they identify it with the capital city of the
Gurjara kingdom mentioned by Hiuen Tsang. But apart from their
identification being doubtful, that kingdom was ruled, as has been
shown already,3 by the main branch. As a matter of fact, the east¬
ern branch did not come into prominence till about a century later,
and as the main branch in Jodhpur continued to rule for 150 years
more after that, there is no valid ground for taking Bhillamala as
the original capital of the eastern branch.4 The only clue to the
original location of the family is furnished by the details available
about the fourth king Vatsaraja. There are grounds to believe that
he ruled over both Jalor and Avanti. But these are disputed points
and will be treated more fully later, in connection with that ruler.
For the present we may accept as a probable hypothesis, though
not as a proved fact, that he and his ancestors ruled over Avanti
and had their capital at Uj jay ini.

1. NAGABHATA I

The family came into prominence in the second quarter of the
eighth century A.D. by the successful resistance it offered under
Nagabha^a I to the Arabs. He is described in the Gwalior Inscrip¬
tion as “having crushed the large armies of the powerful Mlechchha
king.” It has already been noted above6 how he saved Western
India from the Arabs and gradually brought under his sway a large
number of states that had been overrun by them. In particular, he
established his supremacy over the Gurjara kingdom of Nandi
purl, and probably also over the Pratihara family of Jodhpur. A
new feudatory family the Chahamanas — was set up in Broach, but
the old dynasty of Harichandra. continued at Jodhpur. Siluka,
whose history has been related above,6 was' perhaps the last indepen-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

dent ruler of this family. His two successors Jhota and Bhilla-
ditya are said to have proceeded respectively to the BhagirathI and
Gangadvara, and no martial glory is ascribed to them.7 This would
indicate that the Jodhpur family was politically insignificant during
the latter half of the eighth century A.D. It is obvious that
Nagabhafa and his descendants now attained the supremacy and
leadership of the Gurjara confederacy, so long enjoyed by the Jodh¬
pur chiefs.

It is unfortunate that we know practically nothing of the ances¬
tors of Nagabhafa I. Very likely they had carved out a kingdom
in Eastern Raj pu tana and Malwa about the same time as the other
branch had conquered the region round Broach. Like the latter,
- they too probably acknowledged the suzerainty of the Jodhpur
Pratiharas until Nagabhafa established the independence of his king¬
dom on a firm footing in the wake of the political disruption that
followed the disastrous Arab raids.

The date of Nagabha^a’s accession is not definitely known,
but since he successfully opposed the Arabs* he must have ruled
in the second quarter of the eighth century A.D. Whether he de¬
feated Junaid or his successor Tamin8 it is difficult to say, but in any
case, he must have ascended the throne within a few years of A.D.
730. He ruled probably till A.D, 756 as will be noted below.

About the time when Nagabha^a was laying the foundations of
the future greatness of his family, another powerful dynasty arose
in the Deccan, immediately to the south of Malwa. These were the
Rashfrakutas whose history has already been dealt with in the pre¬
ceding chapter. The Rashtrakufa king Dantidurga, who reigned
between c. A.D. 733 and 758, is said to have defeated the Gurjara
king and made him serve as a door-keeper ( pratihara ) when he per¬
formed the Hiranyagarbha-dana ceremony at Ujjain.9 It has been
suggested by some scholars 1 0 'that there is a pun on the word prati-
hdra and an allusion to the Pratihara king of Avanti. Though this
view is not accepted by all,11 there is no doubt that a Gurjara king
had to submit to Dantidurga, who went to the extent of occupying
the palace of the vanquished ruler.12

Dantidurga also claims to have = conquered Lafa (Southern Guja¬
rat) and Sindh. Since Dantidurga died before A.D. 758, it is more
or less certain that his Gurjara adversary could not have been any¬
body else but Nagabhaja I. But since the latter is acknowledged as
suzerain by Bhartrivaddha, the Chahamana ruler of Broach, in A.D.
756, ^ it does not appear that Dantidurga’s military victory was
followed by any permanent conquest.14 Both Nagabhata I and
Dantidurga fished in the troubled waters caused by the Arab raids.

RISE AND FALL OF THE PR ATI HA R A EMPIRE

Though Dantidurga gained some initial successes, he could not
conquer permanently the territory north of the Kim river, i.e. the
old Gurjara principality of Nandipuri. Perhaps the impending con¬
flict with his Chalukya overlord forced him to abandon his aggres¬
sive designs in the north. In any case there are good reasons to be¬
lieve that in spite of initial discomfiture Nagabhafa was able to leave
to his successors a powerful principality comprising Malwa and' parts
of Raj pu tan a and Gujarat. The Gwalior Inscription describes him
as the image of Narayana, and there can be no doubt whatever that
he achieved distinction as a great national hero by defeating the
Arabs

2. VATS A RAJA

Nagabhafa I was succeeded by his brother's sons, Kakkuka
and Devaraja, of whom nothing is known. Devaraja’s son Vatsa¬
raja was, however, a powerful ruler. The author of a Jain work,
Kiivalayanuild, says that he composed the work in the year 700
(— A.D. 778) at Javalipura (modern Jalor) which was at the time
ruled by the Ranahastin (war-elephant) Vatsaraja.16 This Vatsa¬
raja has been generally identified with the Pratlhara ruler. An¬
other Jain work, Jinasena’s Harivaihsa-purana , contains a reference
to Vatsaraja and his kingdom, but unfortunately the interpretation
of the passage is not free from difficulty, and has given rise to a
keen controversy.16 Jinasena gives the names of kings who flou¬
rished in different directions when he finished his work at Vardha-
m’apapura in the year' 705 (— A.D. 783). The first two lines of the
verse tell us that in that year Indrayudha was ruling in the north,
and Sri-Vallabha, son of king Krishna, in the south. The next two
lines of the verse run as follows: — r

Purvvam Srimad—Avanti-bhubkriti nripe Vatsadirdje=pardm

Sauranam^adhimavidale(lara) jaya-yute vxre Vardhe=ivati |

According to some scholars17 it means that Vatsaraja, the ruler
of Avanti, was the king in the east, while victorious Varaha (or
Jaya-Varaha) was ruling over the Sauras in the west. Others,18
however, point out that Av anti -bhubhrit (king of Avanti) must be
distinguished from Vatsaraja, as otherwise the v/ord nripa (king)
is redundant. They accordingly infer from the passage that the
ruler of Avanti was the king of the east and Vatsaraja of the west,
while Varaha was ruling over the Sauras. This interpretation is,
however, open to serious objections. In the first place, the name
of the eastern king is omitted, while the names of all other kings
are given. No purpose is served by saying that the ruler of Avanti
was the eastern king, which would be almost tantamount to stating
that the ruler of the eastern kingdom is the king of the east. Second-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ly, it appears from the general tenor of the verse that the author
proposes to name the four rulers in the four directions. The pro¬
posed translation adds a fifth without indicating its connection or
relevancy to the context. It is urged by some that the fifth ruler
has been named because he reigned over Vardhamanapura where
the work was composed. But if we accept the identification of
Vardhamana with Wad h wan in Kathiawar Peninsula, we can hardly
regard Vatsaraja as a western ruler, even though his kingdom
was in Rajputana, as is argued by scholars who do not accept the
other translation locating, it in Avanti. To obviate this difficulty
one scholar proposes to identify Vardhamana with Badnawar, ^about
40 miles to the south-west of Ujjain.19 But in that case, we cannot
assign any reason why the fifth king should be mentioned at all.
Thus there are difficulties in the second translation which are of a
more serious nature than those of the first. For, as regards the
redundance of the word tifipa, it should hardly surprise us if we
remember such expression as Gurjaresvara-pati used with reference
to the son of the same Vatsaraja, in a record dated A.D. 812, 20 i.e.
less than thirty years after Jinasena wrote. On the whole, there¬
fore, it is a more reasonable view to regard Vatsaraja as the' king
of Avanti in A.D. 783. This view is also corroborated by what has
been said above regarding the Gurjara king defeated by Dantidurga.

The two Jain works would thus prove that the Pratihara king
Vatsaraja ascended the throne in or before A.D. 778, and his king¬
dom comprised both Malwa and eastern Raj pu tan a. That he ruled
over Central Rajputana also is proved by two epigraphic records.21
Some idea of the extent of his kingdom may be gained from the^
fact that the northern king named by Jinasena as his contemporary
was Indrayudha, who was probably king of Kanauj.22 There is no
doubt that Vatsaraja gradually extended liis dominions in the north.
The Gwalior inscription of his great-grandson records that he forci¬
bly wrested the empire from the famous Bhantfi clan. This Bhan<Ji
clan has been taken by some to refer to the ruling family founded
by'Bhai^dif the maternal uncle of Harsha.23 It would then follow
that this clan wielded imperial power, probably with its seat of
authority in Kanauj, though we have no independent evidence of
this. But whatever we might think of these probabilities, there
is no doubt that VfitsarSja was ambitious of establishing an empire
in Northern India and attained a great deal of success. We learn
from the Rashfrakuta records24 that he defeated the Lord of Gau^a,
who must be identified with a Pala king of Bengal, probably Dhar-
mapala; and carried away his umbrellas of state. Vatsaraja was
aided in this expedition by his feudatory chiefs, one of whom, the
Chahamana Durlabharaja of SakambharT, is said to have overrun

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATlHARA EMPIRE

the whole of Bengal up to the confluence of the Ganga and the
sea,26 But as this occurs in a poetical work composed about four
centuries after the event described, it is difficult to take it as lite¬
rally true. As the kingdom of Gau<Ja at that time extended up
to the Ganga- Yamuna Doab, it cannot be said definitely whether
Vatsaraj a actually invaded Bengal, or met and defeated the lord
of.Gau^a somewhere in the Doab.26 Be that as it may, Vatsaraja
must have established his supremacy over a large part of Northern
India and laid the foundations of a mighty empire. He thus appears
to have scored over Dharmapala who was equally ambitious of
founding an empire. Unfortunately the imperial dreams of both
were rudely shattered by the invasion of the Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva. While Vatsaraj a and Dharmapala were fighting for the
empire in the north, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva seized the opportu¬
nity to emulate Dantidurga by renewing the attempt to conquer the
north. The details of his campaign are not known, but, according
to the Rashtrakuta records,27 Dhruva inflicted a crushing defeat up¬
on Vatsaraja, who was forced to put the desert of Raj pu tana between
him and the invading army. Dhruva next turned against Dharma¬
pala and defeated him somewhqre between the Ganga and the
Yamuna. :

Thus began that triangular struggle between the Gurjaras, the
Palas and the Rashtrakutas for supremacy in Northern India which
was destined to be an important factor in Indian politics for more
than a century. The city of Kahauj, which was raised to the posi¬
tion of imperial dignity by Harsha-vardhana, seems to have been
the prize coveted and won by each, with a varying degree of success.
It is very likely, though not known with certainty, that Vatsaraja
took possession of it before marching towards Gau<Ja. Dharma¬
pala, the king of Gau^a, was also proceeding towards the west With
the same object, and thus ensued the fight between the two rival
claimants, probably somewhere in the Doab. Although both
Dharmapala and VatsarSja were defeated by Dhruva, the Pratlhara
king seems to have fared worse. For Dharmapala, in spite of his
successive defeats, was in possession of Kanauj not long afterwards,
and held a durbar there in the presence of a host of rulers of north¬
ern states including Avanti, all of whom acknowledged his imperial
position.28

As we have seen above, Indrayudha was the ruler of the north
in A.D. 783. As Dharmapala is expressly said' to have conquered
Kanauj by defeating Indraraja and others, it is generally held that
Indraraja was the same as Indrayudha. If, as is presumed, Vatsa¬
raja had conquered Kanauj before Dharmapala, he, too, must have
defeated Indrayudha and permitted him to rule as a vassal.' But

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Dharmapala placed on the throne a new ruler Chakrayudha, whose
name-ending shows that he was probably connected with the ruling
family.

3. NAGABHATA XI

After his defeat at the hands of Dhruva/ Vatsaraja passes com¬
pletely out of our view. Nothing is known of him or of his king¬
dom during the palmy days of Bala imperialism under Dharma-
pSla. It is probable that his power was confined to central Raj-
putana. His son and successor Nagabhata II, however, retrieved
the fortunes of his family. The Gwalior Inscription of his grand¬
son tells us that the rulers of Andhra, Saindhava, Vidarbha and
Kalinga succumbed to him, that he defeated Chakrayudha and
the lord of Vanga, and forcibly seized the hill-forts of the kings
of Anartta, Malava, Kirata, Turushka, Vatsa, and Matsya.29 The
records ctf some of the families feudatory to him corroborate and
supply details of these conquests. On the other hand, the Rash-
trakuta records categorically assert that Nagabhata was defeated
by Govinda III who overran his dominions and reached the
Himalayas. .

Although we thus know a great many details of the eventful
career of Nagabhata II, it is not easy to arrange then chronologi¬
cally, and view his reign in a correct perspective. We do not know,
for example, whether his discomfiture at the hands of the Rash-
trakutas nreceded or followed his victories,— in other words, whe¬
ther his reign began in disaster and ended in glory, or whether the
reverse was the case. No wonder, therefore, that different views
have been adopted by different scholars about the life and career
Of this great emperor,30 The following reconstruction of his history
may be regarded as merely provisional: —

The forcible seizure of the hill-forts of Anartta, Malava, etc.
is said to have begun even in his boyhood. It has been suggested
that some of these events might actually have taken place in the
reign of Vatsaraja.31 But as the same record refers to the achieve¬
ments of Vatsaraja, and is silent about them, this view is not pro¬
bable. They may, therefore, be regarded as the earliest military
exploits of Nagabhata II. The geographical position of the rulers
shows that Nagabhata advanced towards North Gujarat (Anartta)
and Malwa in the south and east, and this probably brought him
into conflict with the Rashtrakufas, which is referred to in the re¬
cords of both the parties. Indra, the Rashtrakuta ruler of Lata,
is said to have defeated the Gurjara king who fled to distant re¬
gions.32 On the other hand Vabukadhavala, a feudatory chief of
Nagabhata n, is said to have defeated the Karnatas, which apparent-

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

ly refer to the Rashtraku^as (Inscription No. '3).32ft It may be con¬
cluded, therefore, that no party gained a decisive victory, though
Nagabhata probably retained some of the captured hill-forts. HU
similar enterprises in the north (Matsya), east (Vatsa), and west
(Turushkal were probably more successful, but we possess no de¬
tails of these campaigns. The Turushkas undoubtedly refer to the
Muslim rulers of the west against whom he scored some success,33
and the Kiratas represent some primitive tribes, probably of the

Himalayan region.

The initial successes of Nagabhata in these military raids em¬
boldened him to carry on further campaigns which resulted in the
submission of the Saindhava chiefs, ruling in Western Kathi&war,
and the rulers of Andhra, Kalihga and Vidarbha. It is difficult
to believe that Nagabhata actually advanced as far as Andhra or
even Kalihga country on the eastern coast of the Deccan.34 It is
not, therefore, unlikely that he entered into a confederacy with
them, though, as usually happens in such cases of unequal alliance,
they became, for all practical purposes, subordinate, rather than
independent, allies. Although this view has been challenged,36
it seems to be true at least in the case of the Saindhavas of whom
alone we possess any contemporary records. It appears from the
contemporary copper-plate grants30 of the Saindhava chiefs that
while they were devoted and loyal to the PratTharas, they did not
invoke their name as suzerains as was done by the Chapas and
Chalukyas of the Kathiawar Peninsula — the other feudatories
immediately to their east.

Nagabhata’s- next move seems to have been to reconquer Kanauj.
As already noted, its ruler Indrayudha had probably acknowledged
Vatsa raja’s suzerainty and was, perhaps for that very reason, de¬
feated by Dharmapala, who put instead Chakrayudha on the throne.
Nagabhata defeated Chakrayudha and conquered his kingdom.37
He probably occupied Kanauj which later became the permanent
capital of the Pratiharas. It was a challenge to the power of
Dharmapala, and both sides made preparations for the inevitable
conflict. Nagabhata was joined by at least three of his feudatory
chiefs in this momentous struggle for the empire. These were
Kakka, of the Jodhpur Pratlhara family, Vahukadhavala, the Cha-
lukya chief of Southern Kathiawar, and the Guhilot Sankaragana.
The family records (Ins. 2-4) of these three refer to the first as
having fought the Gaudas at Monghyr, the second as having defeat¬
ed king Dharma, and the third as having defeated Gau<Ja and made
the whole world, gained by warfare, subservient to his overlord.
All the three evidently refer to the great battle between Nagabhafa
and the lord of Vanga, described in the Gwalior Inscription, in

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

which the latter, though possessed of “crowds of mighty elephants,
horses, and chariots”, was vanquished by the former. There ifc
no reference to this encounter in the Pala records, but the com¬
bined testimony of the four different records, coming from four
different sources, and particularly the fact that the Pratlharas ad¬
vanced as far as Monghyr^ almost in the heart of the Pala dominions,
leave no doubt that Nagabhata scored a great victory over his Pala
rival Dharmapala.

But Nagabhata’s success was not destined to be more perma¬
nent than that of his father. Once more the hereditary enemies
from the south upset the grandiose imperial scheme of the Pratl¬
haras. Nagabhata, as noted above, had already come into conflict
with the Rashtrakutas in the early part of his reign. This took
place probably about A.D. 794-95, early in the reign of Govinda III,
when the new king was engaged in the south in putting down
the rebellion of his brother and fighting with the Gahga ruler.
The brunt of the attack fell upon his viceroy of the north, Indra,
who * alone' is said to have defeated the Gurjara lord. But, as
noted above, the Pratlharas also claimed victory, and probably
gained some hill forts in Malwa. The northern frontier was, however,
guarded effectively by Indra and his son Karkka, who says in
one of his records that the Rashtrakuta king had “caused his arm
to become an excellent door-bar of the country of the lord of
Gurjaras.”38

But the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III could not be content
merely with a defensive policy against the Pratlharas. As soon as
he was free from internal troubles, he made preparations to invade
the north as his father Dhruva had done before. Like the latter
he achieved phenomenal success, though probably more than one
campaign was necessary for the purpose. He “destroyed the valour
of Nagabhata”, who “in fear vanished nobody knew whither”, and
then having “devastated his home” and overrun his dominions,
proceeded up to the Himalayas.39 Even making allowance for
exaggerations, there can be hardly any doubt that govrftda
inflicted 4 crushing blow on Nagabhata and shattered his dreams
of founding an emipre.

A Rashtrakuta record40 informs us that Dharmapala and Cha-
krayudha surrendered of their own accord to Govinda III. If we
remember that both of them were defeated by Nagabhata II, it
is difficult to avoid the conclusion that they had invited the Rash¬
trakuta king, or at least made common cause with him against
Nagabhata II, their common foe. This would satisfactorily explain
the triumphant march of Govinda III right up to the Himalayas and
the complete discomfiture of the Pratlharas for some time to come.

RISE AND FALL. OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

If the success of Govinda III matched his father’s in brilliance,
it was equally ephemeral. He was called to the Deccan on account
of internal troubles that had broken out during his long absence
in the north, and for nearly half a century the Rashfrakutas ceased
to play any dominant part in north Indian politics. The field was
thus left free to tfre two rival powers, the Palas and the Pratlharas.
The reverses of Nagabhata II gave an opportunity to Dharmapala
and his son Devapala to re-establish the power and supremacy of
the Palas, and there was a decline in the Pratlhara power for the
time being. t

It is difficult to fix the date of the great victory of Govinda III
over Nagabhata II, but it must have taken* place before A.D.
809-1 0.41 Although Nagabhafa’s imperial ambitions were curbed,
his power was not destroyed. A record,42 dated A.D. 815, found
at Buchkala in Bilada District, Jodhpur, gives him all the imperial
titles and describes the locality as sva-vishaya, or his dominions
proper. In addition to the three feudatories who helped him in his
wars against the Palas, we know of another, Guvaka I, the founder
of the Chahamana dynasty of Sakambharl (near Ajmer), who was
his vassal (Ins. 6). Whether they threw off their allegiance to him
after his discomfiture we cannot say, but this does not appear very
likely. For, though the record (Ins. 2) of Bauka, the Pratihara king
of the Jodhpur dynasty, dated A.D. 837, would lend some colour
to such a supposition, we should remember that Nagabha^a’s grand¬
son Bhoja was able to enlist the support of his feudatories within
a few years of his grandfather’s death. On the whole we may con¬
clude that Nagabhafa II continued to exercise his sway over the
greater part, if not the whole, of Rajputana and Kathiawar Penin¬
sula. In the east his sway extended up to Gwalior,43 and probably
further east so as to include Kanauj and Kfilanjara.44

We learn from a Jain book, Prabhavaka-charita ,46 that king
Nagavaloka of Kanyakubja, the grandfather of Bhoja, died in 890
V.S. (=A.D. 833). This Nagavaloka is undoubtedly Nagabhata H,
and if we can rely on this passage, his death must have taken place
in A.D. 833. It would also appear that Nagabhata II had fixed his
capital at Kanauj. But although Kanauj was the capital of Bhoja,
we have no independent evidence that it was the Pratlhara capital
before his time. The reference to Kanyakubja in Prabhavaka-
charita may be explained by the fact that Kanauj had been the well-
known capital of the Pratlharas long before the thirteenth century
A.D. when this book was composed. The reference to svavishaya
in the Buchkala record, noted above, and the claims of Dharmapala
and Devapala in the Pala records cannot be easily reconciled with
the renewed imperialist ambition of Nagabhafa II as would be n'eces-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sarily indicated by his permanent transfer of capital to Kanauj.
The admittedly inglorious reign of his son is also against such a
supposition. The fact that the grandson of Nagabha^a II was on
the throne within three years of the date of his death, as given in
PrabhaVaka-cfiarita, throws doubt on the whole passage, but even
if we accept as true, we can only presume that the capital was
changed towards the very end of his reign. The same passage in
Prabhavaka-tifiarita also tells us that Nagabhata II put an end to
his life by immersion in the holy waters of the Ganga — a religious
process adopted in later years by Ramapala of the Pala dynasty and
Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta king. This shows his religious
temperament, which is also testified to by his performance of religious
ceremonies enjoined by the Vedas. An active religious sentiment
is further proved by the eclectic spirit of the royal family — for four
generations of Pratlhara kings beginning from Devaraja were devo¬
tees respectively of Vishnu, Siva, Bhagavatl, and Surya.4G

In spite of doubts and uncertainties, due to the paucity of data,
the reigns of Vatsaraja and Nagbbhata II occupy a prominent place
in the contemporary history of India. Both of them were remark¬
able personalities and had a ’high degree of military fckill; and the
ultimate reverses at the hands of the Rashtrakufas cannot minimise
the glory they had achieved by extensive military conquests from
one end of north India to the other. They raised a provincial prin¬
cipality into a first-rate military and political power, and although
their dreams of founding a stable empire were not actually realised,
they laid its foundations so well that ere long king Bhoja succeeded
in the great task even in the face of very strenuous opposition from
his hereditary foes, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas.

Nagabhafa II was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who had
a very short and inglorious reign of probably three years. His
kingdom, which certainly extended up to Gwalior in the east,47 but'
probably no further, seems to have been overrun by hostile
forces.48 It is curious, as two copper-plate charters49 record, that
two grants, made by his father, had lapsed during his reign, and
had to be confirmed by his successor. All this shows a period of
weakness and trouble,, probably brought about by the aggressive
policy of the Pala emperor Devapala as’ will be noted in the next
chapter.

4. BHOJA

With the accession of Ramabhadra^ son and successor Bhoja,
a new and glorious chapter begins in the history of the Pratlharas.
The earliest record of the king is the Barah copper-plate50 which

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

he issued in A.D. 836 from his camp ( skandhdvdra ) at Mahodaya in
order to confirm an endowment in the Kalanjara subdivision
( mandala ) of the division ( bhukti ) of Kanyakubja which had been
obstructed during the reign of his father. It shows that Bhoja had
ascended the throne in or before A.D. 836, and was already in
possession of the region round Kalahjara (Banda District, U.P.).
If Mahodaya denoted Kanauj, as is generally supposed, we must
further presume that he was also in occupation of that city and
probably had his capital there. It has been urged, however, against
this view, that Mahodaya, in this record, was not identical with
Kanyakubja which is mentioned separately as such, and that the
epithet skandhdvdra or camp could not have been appropriate for
a rdjadhdm (capital) like Kanauj. The latter objection may be
easily ruled out, as even famous capital cities like Pafaliputra and
Vikramapura have been referred to as skandhavara in the re*
cords of the Pala and Sena kings. The other objection, though
more valid, is also not decisive. For the older name might have
been used for the big Division, while the city proper could be re¬
ferred to by the alternative name. On tljie whole it is likely, though
not certain, that as early as A.D. 836, B^oja had fixed his capital at
Kanauj, and obtained mastery of the region round it, which had been
probably lost during his father’s reign.

The Jodhpur Pratlharas, whose history has been dealt with
above,61 also came into prominence and probably regained indepen¬
dence during the inglorious reign of Ramabhadra. This seems to
follow from the family records of both rthe branches. The Jodhpur
Inscription, as noted above,62 describes the two successors of Slluka
as practising austerities, an unmistakable indication of the decline
in their political and military authority. But the next king Kakka
is described as a great fighter who, as noted above, accompanied
Nagabhafa II in his expedition against the Pala king of Bengal.
But although he acknowledged the suzerainty of Nagabhafa II at
first, he seems to have practically behaved like an independent king
in later years. In the Jodhpur Inscription dated A.D. 837 (Ins. 2),
Kakka’s queen-consort is called a Mahdrajni, and the career of their
son Bauka is described in terms which make him out to be an in¬
dependent king, at least de facto , if not de jure. This conclusion
is corroborated by the Daulatpura copper-plate of Bhoja63 which
records that a piece of land in Gurjaratra, the home-territory of
the Jodhpur Pratlharas, which was originally granted by Vatsaraja
and continued by Nagabhafa II, fell into abeyance, and was renewed
by Bhoja in A.D. 843. This indicates like the Barah copper-plate,
that there was obstruction in the enjoyment of land during the reign
of Ramabhadra, and this fits in well with the view that the Jodhpur

HIE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Pratiharas threw off the yoke of this king. The copper-plate further
shows that by A.D. 843 Bhoja had reasserted his authority over
Gurjaratra or Central and Eastern Rajputana. The success of Bhoja
was undoubtedly due to the loyal devotion of some of his feudatories,
one of whom, the Guhilot prince Harsharaja, son of Sahkaragana,64
is said to have overcome the kings in the north and presented' horses
to Bhoja (Ins. 4).

It is thus clear that Bhoja succeeded, within a few years of his
accession, in re-establishing, to a considerable extent, the fortunes
of his family. But soon he had to measure his strength with the
Pala king Devapala. Bhoja was defeated, and his triumphant career
was arrested, as will be related in the next chapter. He now turned
his attention to the south, no doubt tempted by the distracted condi¬
tion of the Rashtrakutas.1 3 Some time between A.D. 845 and 860 he

• •

seems to have invaded the Rashtrakuta dominions, but was defeated
by Dhruva, the Rashtrakuta chief of the Gujarat branch.6* Thus the
growing power of the Pratiharas was once more checked
by their two hereditary enemies. Bhoja was also defeated
by the Kalachuri king Kokkalla (c. 845-880). 67 It is interesting to
note that • the Rashtrakuta inscription, which records the defeat
of Bhoja, refers to him in very flattering terms, and describes
him as “united to fortune and surrounded by crowds of noble
kinsmen,” and having “conquered all the regions of the world.”
This shows that Bhoja had already raised his kingdom to a posi¬
tion of eminence. But there Is no doubt that the defeat at the hands
of the Palas, the Rashtrakutas, and the Kalachuris was a great
blow to his rising power which perhaps declined to a considerable
extent.

An indication of this decline is seen in the renewed power of
the Jodhpur Pratiharas. Bauka-’s step-brother and successor
Kakkuka refers in two of his inscriptions, dated A.D. 861, 68 to
Gurjaratra and other provinces as forming part of his own domi¬
nions. Thus Bhoja must have lost his hold over this part of Raj¬
putana some time between A.D. 843 and 861. It appears that after
some initial successes Bhoja’s attempt to re-establish the glory of
his family proved a failure.

But Bhoja did not lose heart and bided his time. An inscrip¬
tion,69 dated A.D. 876, refers to his resolve “to conquer the three
worlds”, and there is no doubt that he renewed his aggressive career
some time in the third quarter of the ninth century A.D. The death
of Devapala removed a thorn in his side, for the next two kings
of the Pala dynasty, who ruled during the second half of the ninth

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATiHARA EMPIRE

century A.D., were weak and peace-loving. Fortunately for him
the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha, who ruled from A.D. 814 to c.
A.D. 878, was also of a religious disposition, and did not have the
aggressive imperialism or military ambition of his two illustrious
predecessors, Dhruva and Govinda III. Nevertheless Amoghavarsha
came into conflict with the Pala rulers, and prpbably, after his
conquest of Vengl, invaded the Pala dominions from the south
and gained some successes. Perhaps taking advantage of the
weakness of the Pala rulers and their distracted condition due to
the Rashtrakuta raids, Bhoja planned a campaign against Bengal.
The combined testimony of several records indicates that he was
helped in this enterprise by Gunambhodhideva, the Chedi ruler
of Gorakhpur, and the Guhilot chief Guhila II, son of Harsharaja.60
Assisted by these powerful chiefs Bhoja appears to have inflicted
a crushing defeat upon the Pala king Narayanapala and conquered
a considerable part of his western dominions.

Bhoja was also engaged in a prolonged struggle with the Rash-
trakutas.61 Reference has already been made to his fight with
Dhruva of Gujarat. It was renewed during the reign of Krishna II
(c. A.D. 878-914). Bhoja probably took the offensive and gained
considerable success. A Prailhara record62 refers to the defeat of
Krishna II, probably on the banks of the Narmada, and his retreat
to the south of the river. After having thus occupied Malwa,
Bhoja advanced towards Gujarat. The Rashtrakuta records admit
that not only Khetaka (Kaira District) but also the region round it
fell into his hands. They, however, assert that Krishna II recover¬
ed them, and there was a sanguinary battle between the two hosts
at UjjayinI which made a deep impress even upon posterity.63 It
is generally held that Bhoja lost Malwa as a result of this defeat,
which took place some time between A.D. 878 and 888. But this
is by no means certain. An inscription64 at Partabgarh, in South¬
ern Raj pu tana, refers to a local Chahamana dynasty which was a
source of great pleasure to king Bhojadeva. It has been suggested,
with a great degree of plausibility, that these Chahamanas helped
their overlord Bhoja in his wars against the Rashtrakutas. This
Chahamana dynasty acknowledged the suzerainty of the Pratlharas
in the time of Mahendrapala II (A.D. 946), and asked for some
favours from the representatives of their overlord at UjjayinI and
Mantfapika (Mai^Ju) about the same time. It would thus appear
that Malwa formed a part of the Pratlhara dominions even so late
as A.D. 946, and as we know that it was conquered by Bhoja, it is
more reasonable to suppose that it continued to be in the posses¬
sion of the Pratlharas rather than that it was reconquered by his
successors all of whom, except his son Mahendrapala I, were too

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

weak to be credited with any such hew acquisition. In any case,
we may take for granted that the Partabgarh region formed a part
of the dominions of Bhoja, and Malwa, even if lost, was reconquered
by Mahendrapala I.

Although Bhoja lost his hold upon Khetaka or Kaira District,
he maintained supremacy over probably the whole, of Kathiawar
Peninsula.65 In the north-west his dominions extended to the Pun¬
jab. In the east the Kalachuris of Gorakhpur were his feudatories,
and probably the whole of Awadh (Oudh) was included in his
dominions. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand also acknowledged his
overlordship. Bhoja' thus consolidated a mighty empire in
Northern India for which Vatsaraja and Nagabhaja had fought in
vain, and raised Kanauj, his capital, once more to the position of .an
imperial city.

Bhoja had a long reign of more than 46 years, two of his known
dates being A.D. 836 and 882.66 An Arab account of India, com¬
posed in A.D. 851 and generally attributed to Sulaiman, refers to
the great power and resources of the king of Juzr. As Juzr un¬
doubtedly stands for Gurjara, the Arab account may be taken to
refer to Bhoja. As such it is an interesting commentary upon his
reign and personality and may be reproduced in full: —

‘‘This king maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince
has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still, he
acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of kings.
Among the princes of India, there is no greater foe of the Muham¬
madan faith than . he. His territories form a longue of land. He
has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous. Exchanges
are carried on in his states with silver (and gold) in dust, an.d there
are said to be mines (of these metals) in the country. There is no
country in India more safe from robbers.*’67

It is thus evident that Bhoja had the reputation of a strong
ruler, able to maintain peace in his kingdom and defend it against
external dangers. He stood as a bulwark of defence against. Slus-
lim aggression, and left this task as a sacred legacy to his successors.

Bhoja was undoubtedly one of the outstanding political figures
of India in the ninth century, and ranks with Dhruva and Dharma-
pala as a great, general and empire»-builder. Unfortunately, we
know very little of his personal history,68 except that he ysras a de¬
votee of Bhagavatl and was known by various names such as Pra-
bhasa, Adivaraha, and Mihira, in addition to Bhoja which was most
commonly used.

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATTHARA EMPIRE

5. MAHENDEAFALA

Bhoja probably died about A.D. 885, and was succeeded by his
son Mahendrapala I, whose earliest known date is AD. 893 (Ins. 3).
A verse in RdjatarangvnX, the meaning of which is obscure, seems
to indicate that he lost some territory in the Punjab, gained by his
father, to S&hkaravarman king of Kashmir.69 But, with this doubt*
ful exception, Mahendrapala not only maintained intact the vast
empire inherited by him, but also further expanded it towards, the
east. No less than seven of his records have been found in South
Bihar and North Bengal with dates ranging from years 2' to 19.
These indicate that shortly after his accession he conquered Maga-
dha and pven a part of Northern Bengal, the home territory of his
hereditaiQr enemy, the Balas. Mahendrapala’s records have also
been found in Kathiawar Peninsula, Eastern Punjab, Jhansi Dis¬
trict and Awadh (Oudh), and we may say, without much exaggera¬
tion, that his empire extended from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas
and from the Eastern to the Western ocean.

The name of Mahendrapala is also written in slightly varying
forms such as Mahindrapala and Mahendrayudha, and he was also
known as Nirbhaya-narendra or Nirbhayaraja.70 His guru, or
spiritual preceptor, Rajaiekhara, is a famous personality in Indian
literature. Although his writings do not throw any light on the
career or personality of Mahendrapala, they refer* in unmistakable
terms to the glory and grandeur of the imperial city of Kanauj.

6. MAHIPALA

Mahendrapaht’s last known date is AD. 907-8, 71 and he pro¬
bably died not long afterwards. The succession to the throne after
him is a matter of dispute, as the available data lend themselves to
various interpretations. He had at least two queens, Dehanaga-
devi and MahTdevI (or Mahadevi).72 The son of the former, Bhoja II,
ascended the throne before Vinayakapala, the son of the latter,
one of whose known dates is AD. 931 (Ins. 9). Mahipala,73 a son
of Mahendrapala, is known to have ruled in AD. 91474 and AD. 917
fins. 8), while a king Kshitipala is known to be the father of king
Devapala ruling in AD. 948-9 (Ins. 7). There are good grounds to
believe that the last two kings also belonged to the same family.
A king Devapala, with the epithet Hayapati (lord of horses), son
of Herambapala, is mentioned in another contemporary inscrip¬
tion,76 and it is held by some that this Devapfila is identical with
his namesake, ruling in A.D. 948-9. Thus his father would be
Herambapala alias Kshitipala, and as these are synonymous respec¬
tively with Vinayakapala and Mahipala, the identity of all the four

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

is generally presumed, and the genealogy is drawn up as follows76: —
Dehanagadevl = Mahendrapala I = MahldevI (or MahadevI)

Bhoja II Vinayakapala

(alius MahlpSla

alias Kshitipala
altos Herambapala)

(A.D. 914, 917, 931)

Some scholars, however, do not accept the identification of the two
kings named Devapala, and therefore regard Vinayakapala as diffe¬
rent from Mahlpala alias Kshitipala.77 Others again identify the
latter. with Bhoja IL78 It is impossible, with the insufficient data
now available, to prove or disprove any of these hypotheses. So
we may provisionally accept the genealogy drawn up above.

It is significant that while the Grant of Vinayakapala, dated
A.D. 931, refers to his elder brother Bhoja II as his predecessor,
the earlier Grant, dated A.D. 917, makes no reference to Bhoja II,
and represents Mahlpala Us having succeeded Mahendrapala. It
has been suggested that this omission may be due to short duration
of Bhoja’s reign or to a struggle for succession between the two.79
But it may be easily explained by the not uncommon practice of
tracing only the direct descent of the ruling king by omitting all
references to collateral line. The short duration of reign is not a
satisfactory explanation, and if we accept the identification of Mahl¬
pala and Vinayakapala, we can hardly explain the omission in one
Grant and not in the other as due to rivalry. It has been urged
that with the lapse of time the memory of the old rivalry faded
away, and hence the reference to the reign of the elder brother
was made in A.D. 931 but not in A.D. 917. But this is questionable.

A struggle for succession to the throne has been inferred from
the statement in the Kalachuri records that Kokkalladeva I ‘‘set up
Bhojadeva” and “granted him freedom from fear.” These expres¬
sions have been taken to mean that Bhoja II invoked the aid of
Kekkalla in the war of succession against his brother.80 But apart
from the fact that it is uncertain whether Bhoja here refers to the
father or son of Mahendrapala,81 we need not assume that any help
that Kokkalla might have rendered to Bhoja II was neces¬
sarily against his brother. For a Rashtrakuta record seems to imply
that Krishna II invaded the dominions of the Pratiharas and occupi¬
ed the Yamuna-Ganga Doab. The veracity of this claim has been

RISE AND FALL OF THE PEATtHAEA EMPIRE

doubted by many scholars, but there may be some truth in it,82
and if Bhoja II sought the help of Kokkalla, it might have been on
such an occasion.

On the whole, we have no definite knowledge of the events
that followed the death of M&hendrapala. The weakness of the
empire, as revealed by the advance of the Rashtrakutas to the very
gates of the imperial city and its destruction by them, not much
later, about A.D. 916, undoubtedly lends colour to the theory of
internal dissensions, but we must remember that the Rashtrakutas
achieved similar successes even during the reigns of powerful kings
like Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II.

In any case there are no good grounds against the view that
when Mahlpala ascended the throne, about A.D. 912, the empire
enjoyed peace and prosperity. An inscription, dated A.D. 914,
proves his suzerainty over the Kathiawar Peninsula. A1 Mas’udi,*
a native of Baghdad, who visited India in the year. A.D. 915-16,
refers to the great power and resources of the Pratihara king of
Kanauj, and the' wide extent of his kingdom, which touched the
Rashtrakuta kingdom in the south, and the Muslim principality of
Multan in the west, with both of which he was at war. He was,
we are told, rich in horses and camels, and maintained four armies
in four directions, each numbering 700,000 or 900,000 men.83

The poet Rajasekhara, who graced the court of Mahlpala, as
that of his father, refers to the former as “the pearl-jewel of the
lineage of Raghu” and “the Maih&raj&dhiraja of Aryavarta”. He
also describes the conquests of Mahlpala in a grandiloquent verse
according to which the emperor defeated the Mural&s, Mekaias,
Kalingas, Keralas, Kulutas, Kuntalas, and Ramathas.84 This would
mean the suzerainty not only of nearly the whole of Northern India,
but also of a part of the Deccan where the Rashtrakutas ruled. Even
making due allowance for the panegyrical exaggerations of the court-
poet, it may be reasonably held that Mahlpala not only maintained
intact the empire inherited by him, but probably even extended it
in the early part of his reign.88

But once more the eternal enemies, the Rashtrakutas, were to
prove the doom of the Pratihara empire. Leaving aside the boast
of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II that he advanced up to the
Gahga, there is no doubt that his successor Indra III conducted a
campaign against the Pratihara dominions some time between
A.D. 915 and 918. According to a Rashtrakuta record,86 Indra III
advanced through Malwa, crossed the Yamuna, and completely de¬
vastated the city of Kanauj. According to a Kanarese poem,
Pampabhdrata , Indra’s feudatory Narasimha (Chalukya) took a

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

prominent part in inflicting a crushing defeat upon Mahipaia. It is
said that “Mahipaia fled, as if struck by thunderbolts, staying nei¬
ther to eat, nor rest, nor pick himself up ; while Narasimha, pursuing,
bathed his horses at the junction of the Ganga/’87

Thus according to the Rashtrakuta version Indra III had a com¬
plete victory. He occupied the capital city of his enemy and sacked
it, while Mahipaia fled for his life, hotly pursued by the hostile forces
as far as Allahabad. But, as on previous occasions, the Rashfra-
k&tas did not stay long enough to consolidate their conquests in the
north.

It redounds to the credit of Mahipaia that he survived this

terrible shock and re-established the fortunes of his family. This

, • - • •

was due mainly to the help of his powerful feudatories. According
to a Chandella record,08 king Harsha placed Kshitipala on the
•throne. It refers most probably to the help rendered by the power¬
ful Chandella chief to Kshitipala or Mahipaia in regaining the throne
after the Rashtrakuta debacle.89 The Guhilot chief Bhatta, grand¬
son of Harsharaja, who helped Bhoja I, is said to have defeated in
battle the king of the south, at the command of his paramount lord,
at a time of great danger when the kingdom was invaded by foreign
soldiers and everything was in confusion (Ins. 4). This also pro¬
bably alludes to the defeat inflicted upon the Rashtrakutas after
they had overrun the Pratlhara dominions. The recovery of Malwa
is hinted at by the vainglorious claim made by Bhamana, the feuda¬
tory Kalachuri chief of Gorakhpur, that he conquered Dhara
(Ins. 5).

Whether Mahipaia succeeded in recovering all the territories
he had lost is diffleult to determine. But we have literary and epi-
graphic records to show that in A.D. 931 the empire of Mahlpala-
Vinayakapala extended up to Saurashtra (Kathiawar Peninsula) in
the west**5 and Banaras in the east (Ins. 9), and in A.D. 942-3 up
to Chanderi (Narwar) in the south.91 Even so late as A.D.- 946,
the Pratlhara empire included Malwa (Ins. 10). It would thus ap¬
pear that Mahipaia recovered at least a large part, if not the whole,
of his dominions, but there can be no doubt that the prestige of
the Imperial Pratlharas suffered a severe blow from which they
never fully recovered.92 The feudatory chiefs and provincial gov¬
ernors slowly . asserted independence, and new dynasties rose to
power. This will be evident from the history of the Chandellas,
Chedis, and Paramaras dealt with in a separate chapter. The dec¬
line and the process of disintegration of the Pratlhara empire offer
a close parallel to the fate which overtook the Mughal empire in the
eighteenth century-

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATlHARA EMPIRE

Towards the close of Mahipala’s reign the R&shtrakutas seem
to have again invaded the north. It is said in a E5shtraku|a re¬
cord,93 dated A.D. 940, that “on hearing of the conquest of all the
strongholds (by Krishna III) in the southern regions simply by means
of his angry glance, the hope about Kalahjara and Chitrakuta vanish¬
ed from the heart of the Gurjara.” It has been inferred from this
that these two forts of the PratSbaras were occupied by the Rashfra-
kuta army shortly before A.D. 940.94

7. MAHIPALA’S SUCCESSORS

Vinayakapala ruled till at least A.D. 942, 96 and was succeeded
by his son Mahendrapala II,96 whose known date is A.D. 945-6
(Ins. 10). During the next 15 years there is a succession of no less
than four kings, viz . (1) Devapala (A.D. 948-9), son of Kshitipala
(Ins. 7); (2) Vinayakapala II (A.D. 953-4); (3) MahipalaH (A.D.
955) ;9T and (4) Vijayapala (A.D. 960), successor of Kshitipala (Ins.
11). Whether all these were distinct rulers or two or more of them
were identical, it is difficult to say. Dr. Bhandarkar identifies
Mahendrapala II with Devapala, and takes the kings Nos. 2, 3 and
the predecessor of No. 4 to be the same person.98 Dr. N. Ray99
takes No. 1 to be son of Bhoja II, whom he identifies with Mahl-
pala alios Kshitipala, but distinguishes him from Vinayakapala.
He also suggests that No. 2 was probably a son of Mahendrapala II,
No. 3 a son of No. 1, and No. 4 a son of No. 3, who was also called
Kshitipala. Dr. Tripathi100 regards Nos. 1 and 2 respectively as a
brother and a son of Mahendrapala II, and No. 4 as a brother or
half-brother of No. 1. He argues that there is not sufficient ground
to hold that No. 3 was a Pratihara emperor, and he might have
been a vassal ruler who, as Raj or Inscription (Ins. 11) shows, often
assumed imperial titles.101 It is also doubtful whether No. 2 is
a separate king ruling in A.D. 953-4, or is to be identified with Vina¬
yakapala I whose name appeared in a record long after his death.102

The different views are quoted above just to indicate the great
uncertainty prevailing about the succession to the imperial throne
between A.D. 945 and 960. There is, however, no doubt that there
was a steady decline in the power and authority of the empire dur¬
ing this period. The Chahamanas of Partabgarh, in south-east Raj-
putana, acknowledged Mahendrapala II as overlord, and the im¬
perial officers were posted at Ujjayim and Mandapika (Mandu) in -
A.D. 945-6 (Ins. 10). But in a record dated A.D. 954, we find the
Chandellas taking credit for defeating the Gurjaras and forcibly
taking possession of^fhe famous fort of Kalanjara, though they still
refer to Vinayakapala as protecting the earth.103 An inscription
dated A.D. 960 (Ins. 11), found at Rajorgarh, about 28 miles south¬
west of the town of Aiwa r, records an order issued by the Maha-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

rajadhiraja, Parameivara , the illustrious Mathanadeva of the Gur-
jara-Pratihara lineage, residing at Rajyapura (i.e. Rajor), to his
officials. This record leaves no doubt that although, like the Chan-
dellas, he invoked the name of the Pratihara Emperor Vijayapala-
deva as his suzerain, yet he ruled as a de facto independent king.

Most probably the Rashtrakiita king Krishna in led a second
expedition to Northern India about A.D. 963. His feudatory, Gahga
chief Marasimha, distinguished himself so much in this northern
campaign that he came to be known as the king of the Gurjaras.
This proves that the main brunt of the attack fell upon the Prati¬
haras. The great success of the Bashfrakuta king is proved by his
Kanarese record incised on a stone slab found at Jura, 12 miles
from Maihar Railway Station in Bundelkhand.104

Although the Rashprakutas could not achieve any permanent
success they probably gave the final blow to the Pratihara domi¬
nation in Central India. The Chandella ruler Dhanga (A.D. 950-
1000) claims to have attained “supreme lordship after indicting a
defeat over the king of Kanyakubja.” Even Gwalior, which was a
stronghold of the Pratiharas ever since the time of Ramabhadra,
if not earlier still, fell into the hands of . the Chandellas. A few
years later the Kachchhapaghata chief Vajradaman conquered it
after^ defeating the Pratihara Emperor.106

The Chahamanas of &akambhan, many of whose chiefs helped
their Pratihara overlords as noted above,106 asserted their indepen¬
dence, and so did also the Guhilas107 and perhaps some other vas¬
sals. While the feudatories were gradually defying the imperial
authority, there arose new powers like the Kalachuris in Central
India, the Paramaras in Maiwa, and the Chaulukyas in Gujarat to
weaken still further the declining authority of the Pratiharas.

The history of these powers, which is related in detail in a
subsequent chapter, leaves no doubt that about the middle of the
tenth century A.D. the Pratihara empire disintegrated and was
gradually reduced to the territory round about Kanauj. We do not
possess any record of the Pratihara emperors for nearly half a
century after Vijayapala, who was on the throne early in A.D. 960.
When the curtain rises again in A.D. 1019, the Pratihara empire
had vanished and. North India presented the same political features
as inevitably followed the disruption of an empire. Rajyapala, the
successor of Vijayapala, ruled over the small kingdom of Kanauj,
but the old imperial name and fame still lingered for a decade, to
be finally swept away by the invasions of Sultan Mahmud. Trilo-
chanapala,108 the successor of Rajyapala, ruling in A.D. 1027, is
the last of the Imperial Pratiharas known to us.

RISE AND FALL OF THE FBATlHABA EMPIRE

Attention may be drawn to the fact that three of the powerful
succession states that arose out of the ruins of the Fratthara empire
were those of the Chahamanas (Chauhans) in Rajputana, Chaulu-
kyas (Solankis) in Gujarat, and the Faramaras (Pa wars) in Malwa.
It is interesting to note that these three, along with the Pariharas
(Pratiharas), are described in bardic traditions as Agnikula, origi¬
nating from a sacrificial fire-pit {agnikun^M) on Mount Abu. What¬
ever we might think of this mythical legend, it is not unlikely that
these four tribes were connected by ethnic ties or some other close
association, and we may therefore hold that a considerable part of
the empire of the Pratiharas, specially their home-territory and
original dominions, passed into the hands of kindred peoples who
had hitherto accepted their suzerainty.

8. THE PBATiHARA EMPIRE — A GENERAL REVIEW

The Pratlhara empire, which continued in full glory for nearly
a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the
Muslim conquest. This honour is accorded to the empire of Harsha
by many historians of repute, but without any real justification; for
the PratlMra empire was prdbabiy larger; certainly not less in
extent, and its duration was much longer. It recalled, and to a cer¬
tain extent rivalled, the Gupta empire, and brought political ‘Unity
and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India.
But its chief credit lies in its successful resistance to the foreign
invasions from the west. From the days of Junaid (c. A.D. 725)
to those of Mahmud of Ghazni, the Pratiharas stood as the bulwark
of India’s defence against the aggression of the Muslims, This was
frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves. Historians of
India, since the days of Elphinstone, have wondered at the slow
progress of Muslim invaders in India, compared to their rapid adr
vance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful vali¬
dity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenome¬
non. But now there can be little doubt that it was fhe power of
the Pratlhara arms that effectively barred the progress of the Mus-.
lims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest, for nearly
three hundred years. In the light of later events this must be re¬
garded as the chief contribution of the Pratiharas to the history
of India.

The Pratlhara empire was the logical end of the tripartite
struggle for power that characterised the history of India for nearly
a century (A.D. 750-850). Dhruva and Govinda III, as well as
Dharmapala and Devapala, played the imperial role, and then came
the turn of the Pratiharas under Bhoja and Mahendrapala. Though
in each case the empire, like waves of the sea, rose to the highest

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

point only to break down, the Pratiharas had a longer spell of suc¬
cess than either of their rivals.

The Pratlhara line was distinguished for its long succession of
able rulers. Apart from the hero who founded the royal dynasty,
four such remarkable personalities as Vatsaraja, Nagabhata II,
Bhoja, and Mahendrapala, ruled almost uninterruptedly for a cen¬
tury and a half with a short break of three years. They created the
tradition of an imperial glory which long endured and survived
many rude shocks. It is reflected in the literary works of Raja-
sekhara, the last Indian poet who could, with justifiable pride, refer
to his royal patron as “the Mahdmjddhirdja of Aryavarta” (King-
Emperor of Northern India). But the best testimony to the power
and glory of the Pratiharas is the eloquent tribute paid to their
wealth and resources by their inveterate enemies, the Arabs.

GENERAL REFERENCES

1. R. C. Majumdar, Hie Gurjara -Pratiharas. JDL. X. 1-76 (abbreviated as GP).

2. R. S. Tripathi, History of Kanauj (abbreviated as THK).

3. A. S. Altekar, The Rashprdkufas and their times (abbreviated as AR).

4. D. Sharrna, The Imperial Pratiharas — a revised study. (JIH, XXIL 93) .

5. N Ray, A note on the chronology of the Later Pratiharas. (I A, LVU. 230).

IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS (Referred to in the text by the serial No.)

1. Gwalior Stone Inscription of Bhoja, El, XVUI. 99.

2. Jodhpur Inscription of Bauka, El, XVIII. 87.

3. Two Grants of Chahikya Chiefs of the Time of Mahendrapala, El, IX. 1.

4. Chatsu Inscription of the Guhilot chief Baladitya, El, XII. 13.

5. Kahla Plate of Xalachuri Sodhadeva, El, VII. 88.

6. Harsha or Haras Stone Inscription of the Chahamana Vigraharaja, El, II. 119 ff;
IA, XLU. 60 ff.

7. Siyadoni Inscription, El, I. 162.

8. Asm Inscription of Mahlpala (A.D. 917), IA, XVI. 173.

9. Bengal Asiatic Society’s CP of Vinayakapaia (A.D. 931), IA, XV. 138.

10. Partabgarh Inscription of Mahendrap&la U (A.D. 946), El , XIV. 176.

11. Rajorgarh Inscription of Vijayapala (A.D. 960), El, HI. 263.

12. Barah CP of Bhoja, El, XIX. 15; XXIII. 242.

13. Dauiatpura CP of Bhoja, El, V. 208; JBBRAS, XXI. 410.

14. Gwalior Ins. of Bhoja, dated V. 932. El. 1. 154.

1. Ch. X, pp. 153 ff.

2. Cf. Vol. Eft, p. 155.

3. Cf. VoL m, p. 153.

4. Cf. JDL, X. 10 and the authorities referred to therein.

5. Vol. m, pp. 155, 173.

6. Vol. m. p. 154.

7. Cf. Ins. No. 2, given above.

8. Vol. HI, p. 173.

9. Sanjan CP. El, XVffl. 235.

10. JDL, X. 25; El, XVIII. 239; THK. 226-7; AR. 40 (fn. 32).

11. IHQ, VI. 753; ABORI , XVUI. 396; IC , XI. 161.

12. Curiously enough this fact, mentioned in the Ellora Ihs. ( ASWI , V. 87), is not
referred to by any of those who oppose the view that Vatsaraja ruled in Malwa.

13. Cf. Hansof PI. H, XU. 197. The name of the suzerian king is given as Naga-
valoka, but he is generally identified with Nagabhata I (ibid, 200). The grant
was issued from Broach and records the gift of a village in Akruresvara-vishaya
which has been identified with Anklesvar taluk on the left bank of the Narmada.
We may, therefore, regard the Chahamana principality as extending up to the
Kim nver and thus corresponding to the old Gurjara kingdom of NandlpurT.

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRAT1HARA EMPIRE

14. It has been urged (JIH, XXIL 94) that according to Antroli-Chharoli pi.
( JBBRAS , XVI. 105), dated A.D. 757, “Karka II, a feudatory Rashfi-akuta chief
of Gujarat, gave away villages from practically the same region, showing there¬
by that sometime between AJ3. 756 and 757 the Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga
had succeeded in defeating the Pra$Iharas and ending their supremacy in
Lata.” But the villages granted lay to the south of the Kim river. Dr. Altekar
argues ( AR . 11) that “since the donee hailed from Jambusara in the Broach
District” this region was included in the dominions of Karka II. But this
assumption can hardly be justified. On the whole, there is nothing to indicate
that Nagabhata lost his supremacy over the feudatory principality of Broach
which extended up to the Kim river in the south (see preceding note).

15. ABORT, XVHL 397-8.

16. For various opinions, cf. JDL, X. 23-25. Also, 1C, XI. 161 ft.

17. Fleet (El, VI. 195); Bhandarkar (El, XVIII. 238-9); Altekar (AM. 39); Tripathi
(THK. 225-6).

18. J. C. Ghosh ( IHQ , VI. 755); Dasaratha Sarma (ABORT, XVIII. 396; JIH XXHL
43); H. L. Jain (1C, XI. 161).

19. H. L. Jain, op. tit. But in the map on p. 165, Badnawar is placed to the north¬
west of TJjjain.

20. Baroda PL Of Karkaraja, 1A, XII, 163.

21. Daulafcpura CP. (El, V. 208); Osia Ins. (AST, 1908-9, p. 108; JRAS , 1907, p. 1010).

22. THK. 213.

23. I proposed the identification- of die Bhandis with the Bhaffis (JDL, X. 28), and
this view was accepted by Tripathi (THK. 229). Their identification with
Bha$#i*s family was proposed by Ojha and is accepted by many. BharkU is
referred to in Harsha-charita, but we do not know anything about him dr his
successor, not even whether he was a ruling chief.

24. Radhanpur and Wand Grant of Govinda III (El, VI. 248; I A, XI. 157).

25. IHQ , XIV. 844.

28. Cf. HBR. 105, in. 1, 2 and also Ch. HI. §2, below.

27. Cf. in. 24.

28. Vide infra, Ch. HI, § 2.

29. Hie identification of these places has been discussed in JRAS, 1909, pp. 257-8.
Anartta is northern part of Kathiawar Peninsula, and Vatsa probably represents
the region round Kausambl, or Rewa country, further to the south, which is
associated with the name of Vatsa.

30. Cf. JIH , XXEL 99 ft, PIHC, XL 141.

31. JIH, XXH. 103.

32. Baroda PI. 1A, XU, 163; Sisavai Grant, v. 15; El, XXIH, 209.

32a. References are to the list of “Important Inscriptions” given at the end of this

Chapter.

33. Vide infra, Ch. V, I VI.

34. For a possible conflict or alliance between Nagabh&ta II and the E. Chalukya
long Vijayaditya n, cf. Ch. VI.

35. JIH, XXIL 102-3.

36. El, XXVL 185.

37. The Barah CP (EX, XIX. 15) shows that the KiUonjara-mandala in the Kanya-
kubja-bhulcti was included in the dominions of Nagabhata II.

38. Baroda PI. 1A, X33, 163.

39. The victory of Govinda HI is referred to in many Rashtrakuta records of the
main and Gurjara branches. Nagabhata is mentioned by name in Sanjan CP.
(El, XVm. 235) which also refers to Govinda’s advance up to the Himalayas.
The Pathari Pillar Ins. (El, IX. 255) refers to file hasty retreat* an# ‘devastated
home* of Ntitg&valoka, who has been identified with Nigabhata H, Karkka,
to whom the credit for this achievement is given, probably accompanied the
Ra&trak&fe king Govinda HI ( IA , 1911, 239).

40. Sanjfcn CP. v. 23 (El. XVXXL 245).

41. Dr. Altekar has shown good grounds for the belief that Govinda QI led more
than one expedition to Northern India, and has given a revised chronology of
his campaigns (D. K. Bhandarkar Vol. 153). But he has somewhat changed his
views in the preceding chapter.

42. El, IS. 198.

43. SI, L 156-7.

44. El, TOX. 15.

45. THK . 236; JIH, XXU. 104.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

46. This appears from the epithets given to the various kings in the official genea¬
logy contained in the royal charters.

47. El, I. 154.

48. This seems to be hinted at in v. 12 of the Gwalior Ins. (No. 1).

49. El, XIX. 15; v. 208.

50. El, XIX. 15; XX3U. 242.

51. Vol. HI. pp. 153 ff.

52. See p. 20.

53. El, V. 208.

54. See above p. 25.

55. S£e above, p. 10.

56. Begumra PI. 1A, XII. 179.

57. See later, Ch. V. §11.

58. JRAS, 1895. 513; El, IX. 277.

59. El, I. 156.

60. Tripathi thinks that Guhila II accompanied Mahendrapala I in his expedition
against Bengal ( THK . 250-255; cf. also Ch. V. §VH. 2). Hie question cannot
be definitely decided one way or the other.

61. For a detailed account, cf. PIHC, VI. 166.

62. EJ, XIX. 174.

63. Begumra Grant of Krishna (I A, XIH. 66); Begumra Grant of Indra III, No. I,
v. 15, El, IX. 31.

64. El, XIV. 176.

65. This follows from the description of Arab writer Sulaiman that Bhoja’s territory
formed a tongue of land. It is also confirmed by a tradition in the Skanda
Purdna to which Dr. Raychaudhuri drew attention ( 1HQ . V. 129-133).

66. Pehoa Ins. (El, I. 184).

67. HIED, I. 4.

68. According to the story in the Skanda Purdna, referred to in fn. 65 above, Bhoja,
king of K&nyakubja, abdicated his throne and went on a pilgrimage to the holy
sites of Saurashtra. But this story, mixed up with myths and fables, can hardly
be regarded as historical. Dr. Raychaudhuri has sought to prove the abdication
by reference to epigraphic data, but without success (cf. THK. 245).

69. For full discussion on this point, cf. JDL, X. 55.

70. The name read by Fleet as Mahlahapala in the Asni CP. (I A, XVI. 173) is
obviously a misreading for Mahlndrapala.

71. Siyadoni Ins. (El, I. 162).

72. This form occurs in Partabgarh Ins. (El, XIV. 182).

73. Tripathi is wrong in’ his statement that according to Asni Ins. Mahlpala was
bom of Mahldevi (THK. 254). This (or any other) inscription does not give
the name of Mahlpala's mother.

74. Haddala CP. 1A, XU. 190; XVUI. 90.

75. Khajuraho Ins. El, I. 122.

76. JDL, X. 58-63; THK. 257.

77. El, XIV. 180.

78. I A, LVII. 230.

79. THK. 255.

80. Ibid.

81. See later, Ch. V, §H.

82. PIHC, VL 169.

83. HIED. X. a.

84. For full discussion, cf. JDL. X. 63; THK. 263.

85. As RSjaiekhara was the guru of Mahendrapala also, it is likely that he wrote
his. poems in the early part of Mahlpala’s reign.

86. El, m 38.

87. AR . 101-2; THK. 260; JDL, X. 66.

88. Khajuraho Ins. ET, I. 121.

89. Some scholars hold that the incident refers to the help that Mahlpala received
in his struggle against his brother (THK. 256). But, as already noted above,
we have no evidence of any such struggle for the throne.

90. Harisena associates Vinayadikapala, in AD. 931, with Vardhamanapura, usuallv
identified with Wadhwan (above, p. 22). Cf. IC, XI. 162.

91. AS1, 1924-25, p. 168.

92. This is strtragly denied by Tripathi (THK. 262, 270). He, however, observes
that the Chandella ruler Ya&ovarman gave 'a great blow to the prestige of the
PratftriLras’ (ibid. 272).

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRATIHARA EMPIRE

93. Deoli PI. (v. 25). El, V. 188.

94. THK. 267-8; AR . 113. But this does not seem very likely. Possibly the two
forts were conquered by a third power (Kalachuris or Chandellas) allied to
the Rashtrakutas, and the Gurjara-Pratihiras gave up all hopes of recovering
them (cf. JOR. XVI. 155-58). For a critical discUSfeiorv’of Mahlpala’s reign cf.
J/H, XXXVIII, 611-26.

95. ASI, 1924-25, p. 168.

96. Bhandarkar infers from Ins. 10 that Vidagdha was an epithet of Mahendra-
pala II (List No. 61. fn. 3).

97. Bayna Ins. (E/, XXII. 122).

98. List of Ins. p. 400.

99. 1A, LVH. 234.

100. THK. 271-4.

101. Ibid. 275.

102. The Khajuraho Ins. of Dhahga, dated A.D. 954 (El, I. 122), mentions, in the
last line, Vinayakapaladeva as protecting the earth. There is no doubt that
he was the Pratihara ruler of Kanauj to whom the Chandellas still paid at least
nominal allegiance. He was formerly identified with VinayakapwLla I whose
last known date is AD. 942. But as he must have died before AD. 946, the
known date of his son and successor Mahendrapala II (ins. 10), it was held that
the inscription, though originally drafted earlier than AD. 946, was actually
set up in AD. 954, without any modification of the suzerain’s name. But this
explanation is not accepted by some scholars who regard him as a different
ruler Vmayakapala H (THK. 273; I A, LVII. 232).

103. See preceding note. If, as noted above, the fort of K&lanjara had been seized
by the R$shtrakutas, the Chandellas probably recovered it from them. But
even then they conquered it on their own account and not on behalf of their
Gurj ar a-Pr atlhara overlord. It is possible that the successful reconquest of
this region from the Rashtrakutas made the Chandellas virtually an indepen¬
dent power.

104. El, XIX 287. Altekar takes quite a different view of the expedition (AR. 121),
but does not meet the argument of Mr. N. L. Rao (El, XIX. 289) that the
northern campaign of Krishna HI took place in AD. 963-4. The reference to
the Gurjaras makes it unlikely that the campaign was directed against a
Paramara king, as Altekar thinks. Evidently Altekar has changed his view;
cf. above p. 14.

105. I A, XV. 36. This must have taken place before AD. 977 when Vajradaman
was already in possession of Gwalior (JASB,. XXXI. 393).

106. See pp. 22, 27, 31.

107. Vide infra, the history of the Guhilas and Chahamanas in Ch. V.

108. Jhusi CP. 1A, XVTH. 33. Another king Yas&hpala is known from Kara Ins.
(JRAS, 1927, p. 692), but it is not definitely blown whether he belonged to
the Imperial Pratihara family.

CHAPTER III

THE PALAS

1. THE RISE OF THE PALAS

Reference has been made above1 to the political disintegration
of Bengal resulting in anarchy and confusion for more than a cen¬
tury after the death of &a£ahka. But about the middle of the eighth
century A.D. a heroic and laudable effort was made to remedy the
miserable state of things. The people at last realized that all their
troubles were due to the absence of a strong central authority and
that this could be set up only by the voluntary surrender of powers
to one popular leader by the numerous chiefs exercising sovereignty
in different parts of the country. It reflects no small credit upon
the political sagacity and the spirit of sacrifice of the leading men
of Bengal that they rose to the occasion and selected one among
themselves to be the sole ruler of Bengal to whom they all paid
willing allegiance.2 It is not every age, it is not every nation,
that can show such a noble example of subordinating private in¬
terests to public welfare. The nearest parallel is the great political
change that took place in Japan in' A.D. 1870. The result was
almost equally glorious and the great bloodless revolution ushered
in an era of glory and prosperity such as Bengal has never enjoyed
before or since.

Tie hero who was thus called to the throne by the popular
voice was named Gopala. We do not know anything of his early
history, but may very well presume that he was a leading chief
who had already made his mark as a ruler and a general.3 His
father Vapyafa is said to have destroyed his enemies, and was per¬
haps a military chief of renown, but we cannot say whether he
was a ruling chief. Dayitavishnu, the grandfather of Gopala, is
only described as a learned man and evidently had no military
achievements to his credit. Gopala was thus the real founder of
the ruling dynasty which came to be known as Bala, from the last
part of his name which formed the name-ending of all his successors

•n,

•— affording an almost exact parallel to the Gupta dynasty. Gopala
was a Kshatriya, or at least came to be regarded as such, and it
was only at a very late age that his family claimed any mythical
pedigree such as descent from the Sun or the Ocean. Gopala was
a Buddhist and so were all his successors. According to Tibetan
tradition, Gopala founded a monastery at Nalanda.

THE 3PAIAS

In a poetical work Rdmacharita4 , written by a court-poet of a
later Bala king, Varendri or North Bengal is said to be- the father-
land ( janakabhu ) of the Palas. At the same time, there are good
grounds to believe that Gopala’s original kingdom was in Vahga or
East Bengal. We may, therefore, readily accept Taranatha’s
account according to which Gopala was born of a Kshatriya family
near Pundravardhana (Bogra District), but was subsequently elected
ruler of Bhahgala, which was undoubtedly a corrupt form of Vangala
or Vahga. Taranatha seems to imply that the election was only
in respect of this kingdom which formed a part of Bengal. But
the Khalimpur copper-plate (No. l)4a of Gopala’s son Dharmapala
speaks of his having been elected without any such geographical
limitations. But whatever might have been the original limits of
his kingdom, it is probable that before his death he consolidated
his rule over the whole of Bengal.6 His reign-period is not definite¬
ly known but probably extended from A.D. 750 to 770.6

2. DHARMAPALA (c. A.D. 770-810)

When Dharmapala ascended the throne of Bengal, the political
horizon was gloomy in the extreme. The Pratiharas, who had esta¬
blished their power in Malwa and Hajputana, were gradually ex¬
tending their territories in the east, and the newly established
Rashtrakufa power in the Deccan also cast covetous eyes on the
rich fertile plains of the north.7 Dharmapala was shortly involved
in a struggle with these two powers — whether deliberately out of
imperial designs, or as a means of defence against aggressive ene¬
mies, we cannot say. The course of events in this long-drawn
struggle cannot be definitely traced in chronological order, but some
of the main incidents can be broadly noted. The first encounter
took place between the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja and Dharmapala,
probably somewhere in the Gangetic Doab,8 in which the former
gained a complete victory. He is said to have 11 ‘appropriated with
ease the fortune of royalty of the Gauda” and “carried away Gauda’s
umbrellas of state.* * But before Vatsaraja could collect the spoils
of his victory, he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva and
forced to take refuge in the deserts of Raj pu tana. Dhruva then
advanced to the Doab9 and defeated Dharmapala, but shortly after
his victory he retreated to the Deccan.

It would appear that Dharmapala gained more than he had
lost by the incursions of the Rashtrakutas. For while Vatsaraja’s
power was effectively destroyed, Dharmapala did not suffer much
either in power or prestige. The Rashtrakutas not only freed him
from the Pratihara menace, but left in the harried and devastated
Northern India a free field for his military ambitions. He was

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

not slow to take full advantage of the situation, and by a series of
victorious campaigns, made himself the suzerain of nearly the whole
of Northern India.

Although the details and chronology of Dharmapala’s campaigns
are not known to us, we can form some idea of their nature and
extent from the description of the durbar which he held at Kanauj.
His main object in convoking the great assembly was to proclaim
himself as the suzerain and install Chakrayudha on the throne of
Kanauj in place of Indrayudha whom he had defeated.10 The
durbar was attended by a number of vassal chiefs among whom are
mentioned the rulers of Bhoja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavana,
Avanti, Gandhara and Kira, who uttered acclamations of approval,
“bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling.” This
categorical and specific statement, occurring in a contemporary
record, cannot be lightly brushed aside,11 and we must hold that
Dharmapala must have enjoyed, at least for some time, the unique
position of a paramount lord in Northern India. This view is sup¬
ported by the fact that even in a poetical work composed by a
Gujarati poet12 in the eleventh century A.D., Dharmapala is
referred to as the “Lord of Northern India” ( Uttardpathasvdmin ).13

We know very little of the different states, mentioned above,
which acknowledged the suzerainty of Dharmapala, but most of
them are well-known names. Gandhara represents the Western
Punjab and the lower Kabul valley. Madra was in the Central Punjab,
while Kira, Kuru, and Matsya correspond respectively to Kangra,
Thaneswar and Jaipur regions. Avanti denotes the whole or a part
of Malwa, and the Yavana must be taken to refer to a Muslim
principality in the Sindhu valley. The location of Yadu and Bhoja,
though these are very well-known in ancient Indian history, offers
some difficulty. The Yadus or Yadavas had various settlements
such as Simhapura (Punjab), Mathura, and Dvaraka (Kathiawar
Peninsula), and probably the first is meant here. The Bhojas pro¬
bably ruled over Berar or a part of it.

These states were not annexed by Dharmapala, but their rulers
acknowledged his suzerainty, and were evidently left undisturbed
so long as they paid homage and fulfilled the other conditions im¬
posed on them.14 The kingdom of Kanauj was, however, on a diffe¬
rent footing. Its ruler Indrayudha, who was probably a vassal of
Vatsaraja,15 was defeated and dethroned, and another ruler, Cha¬
krayudha, probably a member of the same royal family, was placed
on the throne by Dharmapala. It was the visible symbol of the
most significant change in the political situation of the time, viz,
the transfer of supreme power in Northern India from the Prataharas

THE PALAS

to the Palas and the formal assumption of imperial authority by
the latter. Kanauj thus became once more ^ the seat and symbol
of imperialism,16 though it was ruled directly not by Dharmapala,
but by his nominee Chakrayudha.

The empire of Dharmapala may thus be broadly divided into
three distinct parts. Bengal and Bihar, which formed its nucleus,
were directly ruled by him. Beyond this, the kingdom of Kanauj,
roughly corresponding to modem U.P., was a close dependency,
whose ruler was nominated by, and directly subordinate to, him.
Further to the west and south, in the Punjab, Western Hill States,
Rajputana, Malwa and Berar, were a number of vassal states which
did not form an integral part of the dominions ruled over by Dhar¬
mapala, but whose rulers acknowledged him as their overlord and
paid him homage and obedience. According to a tradition pre¬
served in the Svayambhu-Purana , Nepal was also a vassal state of
Dharmapala.17

The position of supremacy attained by Dharmapala must have
been the result of a series of victorious military campaigns. We are
told that, in the course of these, Dharmapala *s army visited such
holy places .as Kedara and Gokarna. The former is even now a
famous place of pilgrimage on the Himalayas in Garhwal and may
be regarded as a landmark in the northern campaign of Dharmapala
in course of which he subdued Kuru, Madra, Kira and probably
other neighbouring states. The location of Gokarna is somewhat
uncertain. It has been identified with a holy place of that name
in the North Kanara District of the Bombay State,18 as well as
with a sacred site in Nepal19 on the bank of the Bagmati river.
The latter view is more probable. If we accept the other, we have
to presume that Dharmapala marched over the whole of the Deccan
right across the entire length of the Rashtrakuta dominions. We
have no independent evidence of such a brilliant military campaign,
and if there was any basis for it, it would surely have been pro¬
minently mentioned in the Pala records.

Dharmapala’s triumphant career did not remain unchallenged
for long. Nagabhata II, the son and successor of Vatsaraja, revived
the fortunes of his family and adopted an aggressive imperialist
policy like his father. He achieved great success and even con¬
quered Kanauj and drove away Chakrayudha. This was really a
challenge to Dharmapala whose protege Chakrayudha was. A
struggle for supremacy between the two rivals was inevitable, and
Nagabhata made extensive preparations.20 According to the Pratl-
hara records, a pitched battle was fought, probably near Monghyr, in
which Nagabhata defeated the mighty lord of Vanga “who appeared

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

like a mass of dark, dense cloud in consequence of the crowd of
mighty elephants, horses, and chariots”.21

The Pala records make no reference to this struggle, but the
very fact that the Pratiharas advanced up to Monghyr supports
their claim to a great victory. Unfortunately, Nagabhata II had to
suffer the same fate as his father. Once more it was the Rashtra-
kutas who decided the political issue in Northern India, Govinda III
completely defeated Nagabhata II and forced him to give up the
dream of founding an empire in India.22

The Bashtrakufa records tell us that both Dharmapala and
Chakrayudha submitted of their own accord to Govinda III.23
Considering the great advantages which these two had derived from
the timely intervention of the Rashtrakuta king, this is by no means
surprising or improbable. Indeed it is even possible that they ap¬
pealed to Govinda III for aid to save themselves from Nagabh£t&*s
domineering power, and secured it by a formal acknowledgment
of his suzerainty. But in reality this meant nothing, for, as they
could have easily anticipated, Govmda III soon left for the Deccan
and Dharmapala was once more free to pursue unchecked his im¬
perial ambitions.

On the whole there are good grounds to believe that the great
success of Nagabhata II was a passing phase that ended with the '
Rashtrakqta invasion, and Dharmapala continued to rule as a mighty
emperor till the end of his life. When he died at an advanced
age, after a reign of 32 years or more, he left intact24 his extensive
dominions to his son Devapala.

Although we know so little of the personal history of Dharma¬
pala, there is enough to indicate that his career was a remarkable
one. He was the hero of a hundred fights and passed through many
crises, when not only his own fortunes, but the fate of Bengal hung
in the balance. But he never faltered; he overcame all difficulties,
and in the end achieved phenomenal success. His triumph in the
political field seems almost miraculous. Bengal, which had lost all
political homogeneity and had almost been eliminated as a factor
in Indian politics, suddenly emerged under him as the most power¬
ful state in Northern India. The country, which was hopelessly
divided by internal dissensions and trampled upon by a succession
of foreign invaders for more than a century, was raised by him to
the position of a strong integrated state exercising impe^al sway
over a considerable part of Northern India. £a&anka’s dream of
founding a great Gau^a empire was at last fulfilled. The new im¬
perial status attained by Bengal is reflected in the records of Dharma¬
pala. He assumed full imperial titles Parame£vara, Paramabhattaraka,

THE PALAS

Mahdvdjddhiraja. Reference has been made above to the great
imperial durbar which he held at Kanauj. A grandiloquent descrip¬
tion is also given (Ins. No. 1)' of the pomp and splendour of the
court which he held at the other imperial city Pa^aliputra, “where
the bed of the Ganga was covered by his mighty fleet and the day¬
light was darkened by the crowd of his mighty elephants and the
dust raised by the hoofs of numberless horses presented by the kings
of the north, some of whom also attended in person with their innu¬
merable infantry.” These are no doubt poetic embellishments, but
they reflect the new spirit of the people.

The credit for this great transformation of Bengal is no doubt
mainly due to the spirit of self-sacrifice and the sense of political
wisdom displayed by her people and leading chiefs when they volun-
• tarily surrendered their power and authority to their elected chief,
Gopala. Verily a remarkable act produced a remarkable result,
of which there are few parallels in the history of India. But king
Dharmapala is also entitled to a large share of the credit. He per¬
sonified the new energy and vision of the people, and led them to
the Promised Land. His grateful subjects fully realized what they
owed to* him, and his name and fame were sung all over the coun¬
try. It is a strange irony of fate that he should have been for¬
gotten in the land of Ills birth but his memory should be kept green
in Tibet. According to Tibetan tradition,25 he was a great patron
of Buddhism and founded the famous Vikramasila monastery which
developed into a great centre of Buddhist learning and culture,26
second only to that of Nalanda. It was located at the top of a hill,
on the banks of the Ganga in Magadha, and most probably the hill at
Patharghata near Bhagalpur represents the site of this great univer¬
sity. It was named after the great emperor who had a second name
Vikramasila. Dharmapala also founded a great vihara at Somapuri
in Varendra, the ruins of which have been recently excavated at
Paharpur in the Rajshahi District.27 According to Tibetan authority,
Dharmapala also founded a big and splendid monastery at Odanta-
purl in Bihar, but others give the credit for this achievement to
Devapala or Gopala. Dharmapala was the patron of the great
Buddhist author Haribhadra and. according to Taranatha, founded
fifty religious schools. He thus distinguished himself also in the
peaceful pursuits of life in. spite of his untiring activities in the field
of war and politics.

Dharmapala married Kannadevi, the daughter of the Rashtra-
kuta king Parabola. A Rashtrakuta king of this name is known to
have ruled in Central India in A.D. 861. 28 Although he is usually
regarded as the father-in-law of Dharmapala. it seems very doubtful
in view of the fact that Dharmapala must have died more than half

A . I *K. — -4 .

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

a century before this date. It is not, of course, beyond the range of
possibility that out of political considerations Dharmapala married
at a fairly advanced age a young lady of the Bashtrakuta royal
family. The issue of this marriage was Devapala who succeeded his
father about A.D. 810. The last known date of Dharmapala is his
32nd regnal year (Ins. No. 1). According to Taranatha he ruled for
64 years; but such a long reign is not supported by any other posi¬
tive evidence. We may, therefore regard Dharmapala as having
ruled from c. A.D. 770-810.

3 DEVAPALA (c. A.D. 810-850)

Devapala was a worthy son of a worthy father. Not only did
he maintain intact the great empire inherited by him, but he even
appears to have extended its boundaries. He is said to have exacted
tributes from the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to
the Vindhyas and from the eastern to the western ocean.29 More
specifically we are told that his victorious campaigns led him as far
as Kamboja in the west and Vindhyas in the south,30 and that he
exterminated the Utkalas, conquered Pragjyotisha (Assam), curbed
the pride of the Hunas, and destroyed the haughtiness of the lords
of the Dravidas and Gurjaras. In these victories he was consider¬
ably helped by the diplomacy and wise counsels of his ministers,
Darbhapani and his grandson Kedaramisra, and the bravery and
military skill of his cousin, Jayapala.31

It would appear from these statements that Devapala, like his
father, followed an aggressive imperialist policy and spent a great
part of his life in military activities. He was materially helped by
his cousin Jayapala, son of Dharmapala’s younger brother Vakpala.
Jayapala was the commander of the army, and we are told that on
his approach the king of Pragjyotisha (Assam) submitted without
any fight and the king of Utkala fled from his capital city.32 It is
likely that both the kingdoms acknowledged the suzerainty of the
Pala empire but, as will be shown below, threw off the yoke within
a short time.

On the opposite extremity of the empire lay the Hunas. They
had several principalities, one of which was situated in Uttarapatha
near the Himalayas. This was probably subjugated by Devapala,
who then proceeded to the Kamboja territory which lay still further
to the west in the North-West Frontier Province. Unfortunately,
we do not know the details of his campaign or the extent of his
success.

The Gurjara lords against whom Devapala fought must have
been the Pratlhara rulers. It is possible that Nagabhata n tried

THE PALAS

to assert his power after the death of Dharmapala and if, as some
scholars believe, he transferred his capital to Kanauj, he must have
achieved some success. But Devapala soon re-established the Pala
supremacy, and it was possibly after his successful campaign against
the Pratiharas that he advanced to the Huna and Kamboja princi¬
palities. Nagabhata’s son, Ramabhadra, probably also had his king¬
dom invaded by Devapala. The next Pratihara king Bhoja also, in
spite of his initial success, suffered reverses at the hands of Devapala,
and could not restore the fortunes of his family so long as the Pala
emperor was alive. Thus Devapala successfully fought with three
generations of Pratihara rulers,33 and maintained the Pala supre¬
macy in Northern India.

The Dravida king defeated by Devapala is generally supposed
to be the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha. This view is not unlikely
in view of the part played by Dhruva and Govinda III in Northern
India, and the weakness and pacific disposition of Amoghavarsha.
But Dravida, it should be remembered, normally denotes the land
of the Tamils in the south and not the Deccan, the territory of the
Rashtrakutas. From this point of view, it has been suggested that
the Dravida king defeated by Devapala was most probably his con¬
temporary Pandya king Sri-Mara &rI-Vallabha who claims in an
inscription to have defeated a hostile confederation consisting of the
Gangas, Pallavas, Cholas, Kalihgas, Magadhas and others.34 The
Magadhas in this list obviously refer to the Pala forces, and it is
not unlikely that the conquest of Utkala brought Devapala into con¬
tact with the southern powers. As the Rashtrakutas were common
enemies of these powers and the Palas, an alliance between them
might have been dictated by political exigencies. Unfortunately,
we know little of this phase of Pala diplomacy, and cannot say any¬
thing definite about the expedition of Devapala to the far south. But
some victorious campaign in this’region may be the basis of the claim
put forward in the Monghyr copper-plate (No. 2) that the empire of
Devapala extended from the Himalayas in the north to Ramesyara
Setubandha in the south.

But whatever we might think of Devapala’s victory in the ex¬
treme south, there cannot be any doubt that he occupied the position
of a paramount ruler in North India. It does not appear that his
direct rule extended beyond Bengal and Bihar, but as his victorious
arms, reached the frontier both in the east and the west, there is
no reason to doubt that he effectively maintained the suzerainty
which he had inherited from his father. His great rivals, the Praii-
hiiras, in spite of some initial successes, could not re-establish theii
power till after his death. The Rash^rakOtas left North India alone

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

during his reign, and Devapala probably carried the fight to their
dominions. He certainly led his army as far as the Sindhu and
claimed an imperial position in North India, a feat to which no other
ruler of Bengal could lay claim during the next thousand years.

Devapala had a long reign of about forty years.35 He was a
great patron of Buddhism like his father, and his fame spread to
many Buddhist countries outside India. About this time a powerful
Buddhist dynasty, the Sailendras, ruled over an extensive empire
in the East Indies,56 Balaputradeva, a king of this dynasty, sent an
ambassador to Devapala, asking for a grant of five villages in order
to endow a monastery at Nalanda. Devapala granted the request.37
Another record informs us that a learned Buddhist priest, hailing
from Nagarahara (Jelalabad), received high honours from Devapala
and was appointed the head of Nalanda monastery.38

The reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala constitute the most
brilliant chapter in the history of Bengal. Never before, or since,
till the advent of the British, did Bengal play such an important
role in Indian politics. A brief but interesting account of the Pala
empire at the height of its glory is given by the Arab merchant
Suiaiman who visited India and wrote his account in A.D. 851.39
He refers to the Pala kingdom as Ruhmi,40 a name which cannot be
satisfactorily explained. According to him the Pala ruler was at
war with his neighbours, the Gurjaras and the Rashtrakutas, but
his troops were more numerous than those of his adversaries. "We
are told that the Pala king took 50,000 elephants in his military
campaigns, and ten to fifteen thousand men in his army were “em¬
ployed in fulling and washing cloths.”

The Tibetan records claim that some of their rulers, who were
contemporaries of Dharmapala and Devapala, conquered the domi¬
nions of the Palas, and specifically refer to Dharmapala as submitting
to Tibetan supremacy. This is not, however, corroborated by any
independent evidence, and we cannot say how far the claims can
be regarded as historically true. It is not unlikely that Tibet exer¬
cised some political influence in Eastern India during the period
A.D. 750-850, and the occasional reverses of the Pala rulers at the
hands of the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas may be partly due to
Tibetan aggression.41

4. FALL OF THE PALA EMPIRE

Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. He was most proba¬
bly a nephew, descended from Vakpala, the younger brother of
Dharmapala, but some scholars regard him as a son of Devapala.42
After a short reign of probably three or four years he abdicated the

THE PALAS

throne and retired to an ascetic life. His son and successor Narayana-
pala, who ruled for more than half a century,43 was also of a pacific
and religious disposition. During the «reigns of these two unmartial
kings the Pala empire fell to pieces. Some time after A.D. 860 the
Rashtrakutas defeated the Pala rulers. ^ 4 The Pratiharas took
advantage of the distress and weakness of their rivals; and their
rulers Bhcja and Mahendrapala gradually extended their power to
the east. Narayanapala not only lost Magadha (South Bihar), but
for a time even North Bengal /the homeland of the Paias, passed into
the hands of the Pratihara king Mahendrapala.45

The triumph of the Pratiharas encouraged the subordinate chiefs
to throw off the yoke of the Paias. King Harjara of Assam assumed
imperial titles and is credited with many victories; and the Sailod-
bhnvas established their power on a firm footing in Orissa.45

The disintegration of the Pala empire was thus almost complete,
and for a time the rule of Narayanapala was probably confined to a
part of Bengal. He. however, recovered North Bengal and South
Bihar from the Pratiharas some time before the year 54 of his
reign,47 which probably corresponds to about A.D. 908. This was
probably due to the Rashtrakuta invasion of the Pratihara dominions
— the factor which had saved the Paias more than once in the past.
The Rashtrakuta king Krishna II, who defeated the Pratiharas, how¬
ever, also claims success against the Gaudas and it is not unlikely
that Narayanapala was defeated by him.48 But peace was estab-,
lished and | probably cemented by a marriage alliance. For the'
Rashtrakuta Tunga, whose daughter was married to Narayanapala’s
son Rajyapala (Ins. No. 5), is most probably to be identified w^th
Jagattunga,49 the son of Krishna II. In any case. Narayanapala re¬
established the Pala supremacy in Bengal and Bihar before his death
which took place about A.D. 908. He was succeeded by his son
Blajyapala. '

The Pala kingdom steadily declined during the reigns of Rajya¬
pala and his two successors, Gopala II and Vigrahapala II, which
covered a period of about eighty years 60 The collapse of the Prati¬
hara empire might have offered some respite to the Paias, but they
suffered equally from the new powers that arose out of the ruins
of that empire. The records of both the Chandellas and the Kala-
churis51 refer to the defeat inflicted by their rulers upon Gauda.
Radha, Anga, and Vangala. The mention of these separate units5-’
indicates a disintegration of the Pala kingdom into a number of in¬
dependent or semi-independent principalities. And we definitely
know the existence of at least two such states within the boundaries
of Bengal.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The first is a kingdom in West Bengal ruled by a Kamboja
family. We know the names of three rulers of this family, viz.
Raj yap ala and his two sons Karayaoapala and Nayap&la. In a char¬
ter53 issued by Nayapala in which both he and his father are given
imperial titles, Paramesvara, Paramabhaffaraka and Mahdrdjddhiraja ,
lands are granted in the V ardhamana-b hukti, i.e. Burdwan division
in West Bengal. The Kamboja rule in North Bengal is testified to
by an inscribed pillar found in Dinajpur District which mentions a
lord of Gauda belonging to the Kamboja family.64 The date of this
record has been interpreted as 888 (Saka), though this is doubtful.
But there is no doubt that both the records belong to the latter half
of the tenth century A.D. and -probably refer to the same family.
The names of the three kings who thus ruled over both North and
West Bengal were all borne by the Pala kings of Bengal and, what
is curious, Raj yapa la’s queen is named BhagyadevI, as is also the
case with the Pala king Rajyapala. Nevertheless we cannot identify
the two without more evidence. It is held by some scholars that
the K&mbojas, a hill tribe from Tibet or other regions, conquered
Bengal. But it is more likely that some high official of the PSlas,
belonging to the Kamboja family or tribe, took advantage of the
weakness of the Pala kings and set up an independent kingdom. Its
capital was Priyangu which cannot be identified.

A copper-plate found at Chittagong65 mentions a Buddhist king
of Harikela named Mahdrdjddhirnja Kantideva. Harikela primarily
denotes Eastern Bengal, or a part of it comprising the Sylhet and
portions of neighbouring districts, though it was sometimes used in
a wider sense, as a synonym of Vahga (East and South Bengal).66
The capital of KSntideva was Vardhamanapura. If it denotes the
modem city of Burdwan then his kingdom must have comprised a
portion of West Bengal also, but this is very doubtful. The date of
Kantideva is not definitely known, but he probably reigned during
the century following the death of Devapala.

Kings with natnes ending in - chandra also ruled in East Bengal
as independent kings after Kantideva. One of them is Layahachan-
dra57 whose record dated in his 1 8th ‘ regnal year has been found
near Comilla. Two Buddhist kings, Trailokyachandra and his son
&richandra, ruled over Harikela and Chandradvlpa (Bakarganj
District). Srlchandra, who ruled for no less than 46 years,58 pro*
bably flourished towards the close of the tenth and the beginning of
the eleventh century A.D. Later, this dynasty extended its power
to South Bengal. The original home of this dynasty was Rohitagiri
which has been identified by some with Rohtasgadh, and by others
with Lalmai or Mainamati hills near Comilla in Bengal.

THE PALAS

Gopala II is known to have ruled in East Bengal in the first, and
North Bengal in the sixth year of his reign.50 But gradually he or his
son and successor Vigrahapala II lost hold of nearly the whole of
Bengal and ruled only in Bihar. The Pala kingdom had thus reached
the very nadir when Mahipala I, the son of Vigrahapala II, ascended
the throne about A.D. 988. The new king was, however, made of
sterner stuff, and succeeded to a large extent in recovering the old
glory of his family. A full account of his reign will be given in the
next volume, and it will suffice here to state that before he had
reigned for three years he had reconquered nearly the whole of
North and East Bengal “after defeating the usurpers who had seized
his ancestral kingdom” fins. No. 5). Thus by the year A.D. 1000,
with which this volume closes, the Palas had once more become a
powerful ruling family in Eastern India.' Mahipala. who is justly
described as the second founder of the Pala kingdom, gave it a new
lease of life which continued, with strange vicissitudes, for nearly
another century and a half.

GENERAL REFERENCE

1 . HBR. Ch. VI. (It contains a full reference to authorities for topics discussed
in this chapter).

IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS

1. Khalimpur OP of Dharmapala, year 32. El, IV. 243.

2. Monghyr CP of Devap§la, year 83. El. XVIII. 304.

3. Bhagalpur CP Nar^yanapala, year 17. I A, XV. 304.

4. Badal Pillar Inscription. El. II 160.

5. Bangadh Grant of Mahipala. El. XIV. 324.

(All the above inscriptions arc edited in Gaitdalekluniialn a Bengali work, hv
Akshaya Kumar Maitreya).

1. Vol. Ill, pp. 142 ff.

2. The election of a ruler by the prakritis or people of Bengal in order to remove
misrule and anarchy is referred to in Ins. No. 1. and also described by the
Tibetan historian L^rna Taranatha (History of Buddhism in India. Tr. by A.
Schiefner). Taranatha's work v/as written in AD. 1608, but he had evidently
access to old traditions and records now lost. His statements about the Pala
kings, though interesting and informative, should not be accepted r.s historical
unless corroborated by independent evidence.

The common meaning of the word prakrili is 'subject*. and hcp.ee it is
generally held that Gopala was elected king by the general body of the people.
But we cannot think of a general election in the modern sense. The choice was
evidently made by the leading chiefs and endorsed by the. people.

3. Military skill and administrative capacity must have been the indispensable
qualifications of a leader in those troublous times.

4. A fuller account of this work .will be given in connection with the history of
Ramapala in the next volume.

4a. References are to the list of ‘‘Important Inscriptions” given above.

5. It is said in Ins. No. 2 (v. 3) that his conquests extended up to the sea.

G. The chronology of the Pala kings is not yet definitely settled. The view adopted
here is based on HBR (Ch. VI, App. II, p. 176).

7. The history of the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas has been dealt with in
Chapters I and II.

8. Some scholars take the view that Vatsaroja advanced as far os Bengal and
actually conquered it up to the sea. This docs not seem likely, and the only
evidence in support of il »s a. casual verse in a poetical work composed four
centuries after thus event.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

9. It is definitely said in the Bashtrakuta records that Dhruva met the king of
Gauda between the Ganga and the Yamuna and carried off his umbrellas of
stab# (Sanjan CP. v. 14; El, XVffl. 244). It has been recently urged by a scholar
(/HQ, XX. 84) that Dhruva did not defeat the king of Gautfa, but really got
his state umbrellas from Vatsaraja when the latter was returning from hi*
expedition to Bengal. In his opinion, it was Vatsarija whom he met and
defeated between the Gangs and the Yamuna, but the writer of the Bashprakuta
records, who knew that Dhruva captured the white umbrellas belonging to the
Gauda king, naturally, but erroneously, thought that the Gaud& king was
defeated by Dhruva. This theory is no doubt ingenious and even plausible,
but cannot be accepted in view of the categorical statement in Sanjan CP, so
long at least as we have no evidence in support of it.

10. The full significance of v. 12 of Ins. No. 1 which contains an account of this
assembly has been discussed in HBR, 107.

11. Cf. e.g. THK. 216, 230.

12. The IJdayanasundari-kathd Jay Scddhala (G. O. S. edition), pp. 4-6.

13. Uttarapatha technically means the western part of North India, but applied to
Dharmapala, ruler of Bengal and Bihar, it evidently means the overlordship of
North India.

14. This is clearly indicated by Ins. No. 2, v. 8.

15. Cf. Ch. II, p. 23 above.

16. It is significant that all three contending powers, the Palas, the Pratlharas,
and the Rashtrakutas, had their eyes fixed upon Kanauj. The Pratlharas finally
transferred their capital to this city. The Rashpraku(a king Dhruva and
Govinda IH overran this region, and one of their successors, Indra III, captured
and ruthlessly sacked this city which was then the imperial capital of the
Pratlharas.

17. /C, IV. 266.

18. 1A, 2892, p. 257, fn. 6.

29. 1C, TV. 266. The capital of the Kiratas was situated in the jungles of Gokarna
to the north-east of Pasupati (Levi, Le Nepal. II. 83)^

20. For Nagabhata’s history and military campaigns, cf. Ch. H, pp. 24 ff.

21. Gwalior Ins. of Bhoja, v. 10 {El, XVIII. 112). The description shows the strength
. of the Pala army and may be contrasted with the ‘easy victory’ obtained by

Vatsaraja against the king of Gau^a referred to above.

22. Cf. Chapters I and II.

23. According to Sanjan CP, “Dharma and Chakrayudha surrendered of themselves”
to Govinda III (El, XVIII. 253). There is no evidence in support of the view
that Dharmapala was defeated in a battle by Govinda 1H ( JBORS . XII. 362).

24. Iris. No. 2, v. 12.

25. For authorities, cf. HBR. 115.

26. It consisted of a central temple surrounded by 107 others — all enclosed by a
boundary wail. It provided for 114 teachers in different subjects ( JASB , N. S.
V (1909), pp. 1 ff.).

27. For detailed description, see Vol. V, Ch. XVI.

28. El, IX. 248.

29. Ins. No. 4, v. 5.

30. Ins. No. 2, v. 13.

31. Ins. No. 4, v. 13; No. 3. v. 6. Darbhapani’s father Garga was a minister of Dharma¬
pala.

32. Ins. No. 3, v. 6.

33. For details see<2h. II.

34. For a full discussion of this point, cf. ROC, VIII. 537; S. K. Aiyangar Com. Vol.
197; HBR. 120-21. But K. A. N. Sastri opposes this view ( India Antique, 254).

35. The last known date of Dev&pala depends upon the reading of the figure for
his regnal year in the Nalanda CP. It is usually read as 39 (El, XVII. 318), but
seems to-be really 35 ( JRASBL . VII. 215).

36. Vide infra, Ch. XV.

37. Nalanda CP. (El, XVII. 318).

38. Goshrawa Stone Ins. (1A, XVII. 307).

39. HIED, I. 5, 25. But some scholars doubt whether the account was really written
by Sulaiman (cf. Arab Geographers ’ Knowledge of Southern India by S. M H
Nainar, pp. 7 ff).

40. IHQ , XVI. 232.

41. HBR. 124. Cf. also Ch. IV, 81.

•THE PALAS

42. The whole question has been fully discussed in HBR: 188.

43. His latest known date is year 54 (1A, XLVII. 110).

44. According to Sirur Ins. dated A.D. 866 (l A, XII. 218), Ahga, Vahga and Magadha
paid homage to king Amoghavarsha, who could not possibly have undertaken
an expedition against the Palas before his conquest of Vengi which took place
about A.D. 860.

45. Several inscriptions of Mahcndrapala have been found in South Bihar (Palas of
Bengal. 64) and one in Paharpur (North Bengal) (MASI, 55. 75).

46. See next Chapter.

47. This is proved by an image found in Bihar with an ins. dated in the year 54
(I A, XLVII. 110). Inscription No. 3 shows that Narayanapala was in possession
of Bihar in the year 17. So the Pratiharas conquered it propably during the
interval between these years (c. A.D. 870-908). As Mahendrapala did not ascend
tlie throne till after A_D. §82, his conquest of Bihar and North Bengal may be
placed between A.D. 890 apd 900.

48. According to v. 5 of the Dcoli CP, Krishna II was the preceptor “charging the
Gaudas with the vow of humility” and that *‘his command was obeyed by Ahga,
Kalihga, Gahga and Magadha” (El, V. 193). The Rashtrakufa king was probably
accompanied by Malta, p chief of Velanandu (in Krishna District), for the latter
claims to have subdued the Vangas, Maghdhas and the Gaudas (Pithapuram
Ins. v. 11; El, TV. 40).

49. For other views, cf. HBR, I. 131, £n. 4.

50. The Pala records have nothing to say about them except that Rajyapala dug
tanks deep, like the sea and constructed temples high as the mountains (cf. Ins.
No. 5, vv. 7-10). In a verse applied to Gopala II and Vigrahapala II in two
different records (No. 5 and Jajilpara CP of Gopala II. JASL, XVII. 137) their
elephant forces are said to have wandered in the eastern regions, western
deserts, Malaya mountains in the south and the Himalaya in the north. These
aimless wanderings were formerly regarded by some scholars as a coveil allusion
to the loss of ancestral kingdom by Vigrahapala, but as the same verse is now
known to apply to the earlier king Gopala II also, this interpretation is doubtful
(cf. HBR. 136). But the verse may indicate the hopelessly weak position of
both the kings.

51. For the history of these dynasties, cf. Ch. V. For the effect of Chandella invasions
on Bengal, cf. IHQ. XXVIII. 177.

52. As noted above, some of these units are separately mentioned also in the
Rashtrakutta records (cf. fn. 44 and 48 above).

53. Irda CP. El, XXII. 150; XXIV. 43.

54. JASB, VII. 619.

55. El. XXVI. 313.

56. Cf. 1C. XII. 88.

57. El, XVII. 349.

58. HBR. Ch. VII. The year 46 is found in Madanpur Plates (El, XlXVIII. 51, 337).

59. Cf. Mandhuk (Tippera District) Ins. of Gopala II year 1 (IHQ, XXVIII. 55) and
Jajilpara CP. of the same king (JASL, XVII. 137).

CHAPTER IV

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

Having dealt with the history of the Palas who were the leading
political power in Eastern India, we may now turn our attention to
the several independent kingdoms which flourished in Nepal, Kama-
rupa (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).

I. NEPAL

The history of Nepal, during the two centuries following the
death of Jayadeva II,1 is very obscure, as the Vaihiavalis (chronicles
are hopelessly confused and there are no epigraphic records to help
us. One strange episode at the beginning of this period has been
preserved in R&jatarangim ? It tells us how, in the course of his
victorious campaign, Jayaplda, the grandson of Lalitaditya,3 came
to Nepal, was captured by its king Araxnudi, effected his escape
through the self-sacrifice of his minister, and conquered the king¬
dom. Like his other adventure concerning Jayanta,4 this also reads
more like a romance than real history, and Stein rejects it as
mythical, L4vi has, however, pointed out that the name Aramudi is
Tibetan, and as we know ’from Tibetan sources that Nepal was at
this time, under the political subjection of Tibet, and there was hosti¬
lity between this country and Kashmir, there may be some basis for
the story. According to the Chronicles of Ladakh , the Tibetan
king Khri-sron-lde-btsan (A.D. 755-97) carried his victorious arms
to India.6 According to another Tibetan text, composed in the ninth
century A.D., his son conquered a large part of Jambudvlpa.6 The
next important king Ral-pa-can (A.D. 817-836) is said to have con¬
quered India as far as the confluence of the Gang a and the sea.7 As
noted above,8 there is no independent evidence in support of these
claims. But, according to some Nepalese chronicles, the Tibetan
king Namoyati ruled over Nepal after the reign of Vasantadeva,
and we may regard the Tibetans as having exercised a general
supremacy over Nepal. This Namoyati may be identified with king
Aramu<Ji who defeated and imprisoned JayapTda, as mentioned
above. But it is very doubtful if Aramudi is a Tibetan name.68 In
addition to the Tibetans, the Palas also appear to have exercised some
sort of supremacy over Nepal,9

These foreign conquests may explain the political confusion in
Nepal which is reflected in its chronicles. The year A.D. 879, the

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

epoch oi‘ the Newarl era, which is current even now it) Nepal, pro¬
bably marks an important political event in its history. According
to Prinsep and Cunningham the new era, dating from October 20,
A.D. 879,. was inaugurated by king Raghavadeva. S. Levi, however,
rejects this view, as this king does not occupy any prominent place
in the local chronicles. He suggests that the new era was simply
the Saka era with the omission of the eight hundred. In his opinion,
after the end of the Saka year 800, the Nepalese, who had a supersti¬
tious dread for the figure 8, began to count the year afresh as 1, 2.
etc. without any reference to the figure for hundred. This view
gains additional strength from the fact that we have now good
grounds to believe that of the two earlier Nepal: eras, the first one
was rcallv the Saka era, and the second, the same era with the
omission of 500. 70 It would thus appear that the Nt-palese adopted
the Saka era before the end of its fourth century, and continued to
use it ever since, dropping the hundredth figure, first after 500
and then, again, after 800 years of that era. The last-named era pro¬
bably came into use during the reign of Raghavadeva. and hence he
was regarded by posterity as the founder of that era.

Raghavadeva is mentioned in two old Chronicles, which assign
to him a reign-period respectively of 43 and 63 years. The names
of his successors are also given differently in them. It is not unlikely
that the two Chronicles refer to two different lines of kings ruling
simultaneously over two regions. King Vikramadeva and his three
successors are, however, common names in both the lists. Narendr2-
deva. who succeeded Vikramadeva, is known from the colophon of
a manuscript to have ruled in A.D. 999. Henceforth the royal lists
in the Chronicles can be checked with the help of colophons and
epigraphic records. Thus, we reach a firm ground in the history of
Nepal only at the close of the period dealt with in this Volume.71

A great deal of uncertainty, however, prevails in respect of
the chronological and genealogical position of king Gunakamadeva,
who is mentioned in all the Chronicles as having played a great role
in the history of Nepal. His name is placed in the two old Chronicles
immediately after Narendradeva. These assign him a reign of
85 years while the modern Chronicles give it as 51. All this is im¬
possible, for Gunakamadeva’s reign must have come to an end by
A.D. 1000, as his successor is said to have ruled for 51 years, and
the next king Nirbhaya is known ta have jointly ruled with Rudra
in the year 128 ( — A.D. 1007). 12 Gunakamadeva was evidently a
king of some eminence, and a great many traditions have gathered
round his name. He probably extended the boundaries of his domi¬
nions beyond the valley towards the east. He is said to have been
owner of fabulous wealth, and to have spent a large amount in rcli-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

gious endowments, including many benefactions to the God Pasupati.
He is the reputed founder of the capital city of Katmandu, where he
instituted a religious festival in honour of Lokesvara Khasarpana.
Levi thinks that Kantipura, the old name of this city, is derived
from Gunakama, both kdma and kanti being derived from the same
root. The other cities, Patan and Sanku, are also said to have been
founded about the same time. The foundation of new cities pro-,
bably indicates the growth of trade and commerce. Nepal was at first
mainly an agricultural country, but its contact with Tibet and China
made it a valuable highway for trade between India and these coun¬
tries. Whereas the epigraphic records of the earlier period refer
only to villages and rural community, the Chinese History of the
T’ang dynasty (A.D. 618-905) shows that merchants were numerous,
and cultivators scarce, in Nepal. There was also a development of
arts and crafts. This transformation from rural to industrial eco¬
nomy probably explains the great wealth of the king.

GENERAL REFERENCES

1 . Levi— Le Nepal, Vol. IT, 172-187.

2. DHNI, I. Ch. IV.

II. KAMABUPA

King Harsha of Salas tambha family13 was followed by Balavar-
man, and probably one or two others,14 after whom we find a king
Salambha on the throne of Kamafupa. He is referred to in several
inscriptions as belonging to the dynasty of Salastambha,15. but at
least one record16 seems to imply that he restored the sovereignty
of the Naraka dynasty, i.e. the family to which Bhaskara-varman
belonged, though it draws prominent attention to the somewhat
strange character of the name. Another record, however, omits the
name of this king and clearly states that after many rulers of the.
family of Salastambha had reigned, Harjara became king of Kama-
rupa.17

It is, therefore, difficult to say definitely whether Salambha
founded a new family, and if so, whether it was connected in any
way with the earlier rulers of Kama rupa ending with Bhaskara-
varman. We are not also quite sure about the name of the ruler, for
another copper-plate gives the name as Pralambha.18 He probably
flourished about the end of the eighth or the beginning of the ninth
century A.D.19 It is, therefore, probable that the change in the royal
dynasty of Kamarupa was caused by the successful invasion of the
Palas referred to above,90 for it is not unlikely that Devapala drove
away or killed the king and put his own nominee on the throne.
He might have selected a scion of the old ruling family in order to
make the political change less unacceptable tfi the people.

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PA LA PiiKJOU

Nothing is known of Salambha, but his son or nephew21 Hurjaru-
varman was a king of some eminence. One of his records (No. i).22
dated in the year 510 of the Gupta era {— A.D. 829), gives him the fu)l
imperial titles Maharajdclhirdja Paramesvara Paramabhaiulruka, It
is also probably not without significance that in another record of
IhU family (No. 4) the name of Salambha or Pralambha is omitted,
and the royal line begins with Harjara. On the whole, it would be
fair to conclude that Harjara-varman threw off the yoke of the
Pa las and ruled as an independent king. It is not unlikely that as
his predecessors had to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Paia's,
their names were omitted in the records of later kings who did not
like to recall those inglorious days of the family'.

No particulars of the reign of Harjara are known. He was suc¬
ceeded by his son Vanamala-varmaw who was probably associated
in the government as yuvardja during his father’s rule.23 Vanamala-
varman is said to have had a long reign (No. 5). One record (No. 3)
of his reign refers to a grant of land to the west of the Trisrota
river. This is undoubtedly represented by the modern Tista, and
wc must, therefore, conclude that the kingdom * of Kamarupa in¬
cluded a part of North Bengal. This supports the traditional account
that the river Karatoya formed the western boundary of Prag-
jyoti.sha or Kamarupa. /

Vnnamala was succeeded by his son Jayamala, who assumed the

name of Viravahu after his accession to the throne.24 Nothing is

known of him or of. his son and successor Bala-varman. But we

•

know from a later inscription25 that when Tyagasirhha. the twenty-
first king after Salastambha. died without any issue, the people
chose Brahmapala, a kinsman of the deceased ruler, as king. Tyaga-
simha was probably the last king of the dynasty of Silambha.

The dynasty, of Salambha ruled from A.D. c. 800 to c. 1000.
The kings were devotees of Siva, and their capital was Haruppesvara
on the bank of Lauhitya or the Brahmaputra river. Although no
detailed account of their reign is known, it may be presumed that
under Harjara and his descendants Kamarupa flourished as a power¬
ful independent kingdom.

GENERAL REFERENCES

). DHN1, I. Ch. V.

2. KSS — All the inscriptions are edited in this work.

LIST OF IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS

1. Tczpur Rock Inscription of Hnrjara-varman, dated 510 G.E., JliOHS. Ill: 508.

2. Haivungthal CP. of Harjara-varman (Noticed in IHQ, III. 838, 811, B4L Edited
in KSS).

3. Tczpur CP. Vnnamaln, JASB. IX. (1840), p. 76G.

4. Parbatiya Plates of Vannmalavarmadeva, El. XXIX, 145.

5.4Nowgong CP. of Baln-varman, JASB. LXVI. 121, 285; LXVIt. 103.

6. Howraghat Plates of Bala-varman, El, XXXII. 283.

. Cl

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ
III. UTKALA (ORISSA)

We have already discussed26 the history of the Sailodbhavas
whose rule terminated probably about the middle of the eighth cen¬
tury A.D. or somewhat later. During the two centuries and a half
that followed, we find several dynasties ruling in different parts of
Orissa. Unfortunately, neither their chronology nor the boundaries
of their kingdoms can be definitely ascertained, nor do we know
anything of their exact status and mutual relations. The most
powerful of them were the Karas, who ruled along the eastern sea¬
board, exercising authority in the districts of Balasore, Cuttack and
Puri, and a part of the corresponding hinterland. The Bhanjas set
up several states which covered a large part of what were till lately
known as the feudatory Orissa States. In addition to these two,
steveral minor dynasties ruled in these regions from time to time.
Whether the Sailodbhavas continued to rule over Kongoda cannot
be exactly determined, but this region, corresponding to the northern
part of Ganjam, not only passed from time to time under the poli¬
tical authority of both the Karas and the Bhanjas, but we find there
other dynasties such as the Gangas of Svetaka who occasionally
acknowledged the supremacy of the Karas. Towards the middle of
the tenth century A.D. the Somavam^l kings of South Kosala con-
qnered Orissa and continued to rule it till the advent of the Eastern
Gangas more than a century later.

The history of Orissa during this period offers certain peculia¬
rities. An unusually large number of inscriptions have come to
light, far exceeding those we have for a bigger province like Bengal
during the corresponding period. But apart from royal names, they
hardly eVer give any details of historical interest. Although many
of them are dated, the years are more often regnal or refer to an
era which is. unknown. Their palaeography, too, is often of no great
help in determining their age, as the letters, even of the same time
and locality, are sometimes written in different styles which give
erroneous impressions about their antiquity. As a matter of fact,
in the case of no other region in India do we notice such a wide dif¬
ference of opinion among scholars regarding the age of the records.
To add to the difficulty, we have very often the same name borne
by a mlmber of kings, and several alternate names borne by the
same king which are indiscriminately used in official records. All
this makes it almost impossible to arrive at any conclusion which
would be generally acceptable, and all that we can do is to arrange
the known facts under some system of chronology, which appears
to be the most reasonable. With, these preliminary remarks we pro¬
ceed to give a short account of the different dynasties with the ex-

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

ception of the Somavamsis whose history will be dealt with in the
next volume,

1. The Karas

About the time when the Palas established their power in
Bengal we find a new dynasty ruling in Orissa. It was called bqth
Bhauma and Kara. The former designation shows that the dynasty
claimed descent from Bhumi or Earth, and the latter was no doubt
derived from the fact that the names of all the kings of the family
ended in ~kara , There is nothing to show that the Bhauma dynasty
of Orissa was connected in any way with the dynasty of Kamarupa2'"
to which Bhaskara-varman belonged, though that was also descend¬
ed from Naraka, the son of Bhumi (Earth), The Vishnu Puriina
refers to Mahendra-Bhauma along with Kalihga and Mahishika as
being protected (?) by Guha (or Quhas).28 These Bhaumas living
in Mahendra hill may be regarded as the ancestors of the Bhaumas
of Orissa, and the conclusion is strengthened by the fact that the
capital of the latter was called Guhadeva-pataka or Guhesvara-
pataka, apparently named after Guha (or the Guhas) with whom
the Bhaumas are associated in the Vishnu Purdna. It has been sug¬
gested that the Bhunas, now inhabiting the northern hill tracts of
Orissa, are the representatives of the Bhaumas, and in this connec¬
tion attention has been drawn to the fact that a class of people, liv¬
ing to the south of the Mahanadi river, call themselves Mafi-vamsa
or family sprung from the Earth.29

No less than seventeen records *of this family have so far come
to light. They enable us to draw the following genealogy of the
family. Many of these contain dates which, however, cannot all be
read with certainty. These are put in brackets after the names.
Most of the kings had one or more alternative names which are
added after the name ending in Kara, though in some records these
alternative names alone are used. The order of succession is shown
by Homan figures.

I. Kshemankaradeva

II Sivakaradeva I alias Unmatfasimha alias Bharasaha (20 or 50) 30

III. Subhakaradeva I (54 ?)31

f - 1 — 1 — i

IV. Sivakaradeva II (73 ?) V. Santikaradeva I = VIII. Tribhuvana-
I alias Gaya$a I Mahadevi I (110)

alias Lalitahara I (93)

VI. Subhakaradeva II (100) 32 isf

VII. Subhakaradeva III ahas Simhaketu alias

Kusumahara I (103)

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

IX. Santikaradeva II alias Gaya^a II alias Lonabhara I

X. Subhakaradeva IV alias XL Sivakaradeva III (149) alias

Kusumahara II (145) Lalitahara II

=:XII(a). Tribhuvana-MahadevI II33 |

XII. Santikaradeva III XIII. Subhakara V = XIV. Gaurl

alias Lavanabhara II = XVI. Vakula-

= XVII. Dharma* Mahadevi

Mahadevi

XV. Dandl-Mahadevi (180, 187)3*

As will be seen from the above table, there were five kings bear¬
ing the name Subhakara. The first king of that name is known from
Neulpur plate, but as the characters of the newly discovered Khadi-
pada (now Cuttack Museum) inscription of Subhakara seem to be
older than those of the former, it has been suggested that there was
an earlier king bearing that name.36 On the other hand, it has been
pointed out that the palaeographical differences between the two
inscriptions are “not so great as to render the identification of these
two Subhakaras impossible.”36 The identity of these two kings has
been assumed in the above table, but it is not unlikely that there was
an earlier king of that name, who even preceded No. I.

It has been stated in Hindol Plate that when kings like Lakshmi-
kara and others of the Bhauma family “had gone to heaven,” there
flourished in that family king Subhakara (No. III). It may be infer¬
red from this that there was a king called Lakshmlkara, who was
either identical with No. I or his predecessor, immediate or remote.
But there is nothing to justify the assumption that Lakshmlkara was
the father of No. I.3T

The chronology of these kings has been a matter of dispute.
At a time when the relation between these rulers was not definitely
known, it was held on palaeographic grounds that the king -No. Ill
flourished about eighth century A.D.38 and the Queen No. XIV, as
late even as thirteenth century A.D.39 In spite of uncertainty in
the reading of some figures, there is now no doubt that all the
monarchs ruled in an unbroken line of succession, and as their
known dates «te*id from 20 (or 50) to 187 of the same era, the
rule of the entire dynasty must be placed within a period of two
centuries, notwithstanding indications of palaeography to the con¬
trary.

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

Fortunately, there is some independent evidence in support of
the conclusion, based on palaeography, that the first three kings
flourished about the eighth century A.D. Professor Levi drew
attention to the . fact that in the year A.D. 795 the Chinese Emperor
Te-tsong received an autographed Buddhist manuscript from the
king of Wu-ch’a (U^ra=: Orissa) whose name is translated as “the
fortunate monarch who does what is pure, the lion.” Levi has shown
that a name like Subhakara corresponds very well with the Chinese
translation, and he accordingly identifies Subhakara (No. Ill) as the
king who sent the manuscript.40 It has been argued that the name
is really Subhakara which means ‘the store of purity’ and that the
emendation of the name to Subhakara “one who does what is pure’’
is unwarranted.4 1 This difficulty can be avoided if we identify the
king of U<Jra (Orjssa), who sent the manuscript in A.D. 795, not with
Subhakara, but with his father Sivakaradeva,- as Siva and Subha
mean the same thing. Besides, Sivakaradeva had another name
Unmattasimha. and the last part of this means ‘the lion’, which forms
a part of the name in the Chinese translation. It would thus follow
that king No. II flourished in the latter half of the eighth century
A.D. and the dynasty was evidently founded about the middle of
that century.

This view goes against the assumption that the dates of the
Kara kings are to be referred to the Harsha era.42 This theory is
open to several objections. In the first place, the ruler of Orissa
about A.D. 795 would be a queen (Nos. XIV-XVI) who was a Saiva
and not a Buddhist. The Buddhist ruler of Orissa in A.D. 795, who,
according to the Chinese source, “had a deep faith in the Sovereign
Law’’, must be identified with one of the first three Kara kings
who are called respectively ‘Paramopasafca’, ‘ Paramatathagata * and
* Paramasaugata’ , and not with any of their successors who were
devotees of Mahesvara. Secondly, according to Taranatha, there was
political disintegration both in Bengal and Orissa shortly before
the time when Gopala was elected to the throne. As his statement
has proved to be true with regard to Bengal, we may give credit
to it in respect of Orissa as well. It is more probable, therefore,
that the Karas, who ruled for two centuries in an unbroken line of
succession, established a powerful kingdom about the middle of the
eighth rather than the seventh century A.D. Thirdly, if we refer
the date of the Kara records to Harsha era, king No. Ill would
flourish about the middle of the seventh century A.D., but the scripts
of his plate are so distinctly later than the Ganjam plate of Sasanka
that it has been assigned to the latter half of the eighth century
A.D 43 Fourthly, if the date of king Unmattakesarl, recorded in

A.I.K.— 3

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the Ganjam grant, is really 20, we can hardly refer it to the Harsha
era as Orissa had not yet been conquered by Harsha.

On these and other grounds it is more reasonable to refer the
foundation of the Kara dynasty to the middle of the eighth century
A.D. In that case wc cannot refer the dates in their records to any
known era, and must presume that it was a case of continuous
reckoning of the regnal year of the first king by his successors which
has given rise to so many local eras, including the Ganga era in
Kalihga.

Very little is known of the detailed history of the long line of
rulers belonging to the Kara dynasty. As mentioned above, kings
Nos. I-IIX were all devout Buddhists. The Neulpur plate, issued by
No. Ill, refers to the first two as kings and gives the title Maharaja
to the third. In a record of No. IV, however, both Nos. Ill and IV
are given the higher imperial titles Paramabha{\draka Mahdrdjddhi-
rdj a Paramcsvara. These titles were borne by all their successors,
whose charters have so far come to light, and these charters are also
drawn in characteristic imperial style, the royal order being address¬
ed to Mahasamantas, Maharajas, tRdjaputras and a host of high offi¬
cials. This shows that the kings were independent and powerful, but
we have no reason to believe that their permanent authority extended
beyond the boundaries of Orissa or even over the whole of it.

The Talcher plate, dated 149, tells us that Unmay|asimha (No. II)
defeated in battle the king of Ra$ha and carried away his daughter,
while his son Subhakara X INo. Ill) subjugated the Kalihgas. It is
somewhat singular that neither the Neulpur plate issued by £ubha-
kara I himself nor any other record refers to any such exploits.

But some corroboration about the conquests of the Kara kings
at this time is obtained by the Ganjam Grant of Jayavarmadeva.
This record indicates that Jayavarman of the £vctaka Branch44 of
the Gahgas, who ruled in the northern part of Ganjam District,
acknowledged the supremacy of king Unmattakesari of Virajas.
This Unmatt^kesari may be identified with the Kara king No. II. It
would then follow that even in his time a part of Kohgoda was in¬
cluded within the dominions of the Karas, and the next king §ubha-
kara had probably extended his conquests further south to Kalihga.
But as Kohgoda formed a part of the dominions of the Gahgas of
Kalihga, it is also not unlikely that Subhakara himself achieved a
victory over them in his father's reign, and hence his name was
associated with the conquest of Kalihga in later days.

Although the dates of Subhukara I and his son Sivakara II.
read respectively as4 54 and 73, are somewhat doubtful, we may

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

take as certain the date 93 of &antikaradeva L He therefore flourish¬
ed in the second quarter of the ninth century A.D, It was perhaps
during his reign, or that of his brother and predecessor 2»ivakara~
deva II, that Devapala subjugated Utkala.45 There is perhaps a
covert allusion to it in the Dhenkanal Plate dated 110. It distinctly
says that after the death of eminent Maharajas like Unmaftakes&ri
(No. II) and Gaya^a (No. V), “the Kara family had to depend upon
nothing but their past glory”, and “the kingdom looked like the sky
bereft of refulgent stars and a female with distressful heart.” Tri-
bhuvana-Mahadevi (No. VIII), the daughter of Rajamalla, a renown¬
ed Naga chief of the south, and the queen of Lalitahara (No. V), then
ascended the throne being “entreated by a great circle of chiefs to be
pleased to protect the fortunes of Kara kingdom,” as Devi GosvaminI
did in old days. In the Talcher plate, dated 141, it is said that after
the death of Kusumahara (No. VII) his mother Tribhuvana-MahadevI
took up the burden of administration of the entire kingdom and
abdicated in favour of her grandson Lonabhara when he had come
of age. None of these plates mention king Subhakara II (No. VI)
who evidently ruled during this period. All these would indicate
that some time before A.D. 860 the Kara kingdom was visited by a
great calamity and suffered much in power and prestige, but the
situation was saved by the queen-mother, probably with the aid she
received from her father Rajamalla. It is not unlikely that the
invasion of the Pala ruler Devapala was the cause of the calamity,
but then the boast of the Palas that the Utkalas were exterminated
can only be regarded as the usual exaggeration of court poets, for
the Kara dynasty soon re-established its power, and the kings con¬
tinued to use the imperial titles. Possibly the collapse of the Pala
empire after Devapala gave Utkala the requisite opportunity. It
is worthy of note that shortly before the Pala invasion the Kara kings
gave up the Buddhist religion, and henceforth the sovereigns were
mostly Saiva, though Tribhuvana-Mahadevi was a devotee of Vishnu.
Whether this change of religion had any political significance in the
relations between the Palas and the Karas, it is difficult to say.

Nothing is known of the four successors of LonabhSra (Nos. X-
XIII). The last of them, Subhakara V, was succeeded on his death
by his queen, named Gauri. After her. her daughter Dan^I-Maha-
devi ascended the throne. Two of her charters dated 180 and 187
are known. According to the newly discovered Taltali plate 10 she
was succeeded by her step-mother Vakula-Mahadevi. and the latter
by Dharma-Mahadevi, queen of Lavanabhara. undoubtedly .a Sans-
kritized 'form of Lonabhara. As we know from. the Angul plate that
Dharma-Mahadevi was the name of the queen of Santikaradeva, HI,
we must presume that Lavanabhara was another name of Santikara-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

dcva III. It is no doubt very singular that there was a regular suc¬
cession of four queens on the throne, which passed after Dandi-
MahadevI to two senior ladies of the royal family. All the three
ruling queens of the family whose charters have so far come to light,
viz. Tribhuvana-MahadevI (No. VIII), Dantfi-Mahadevi (No. XV)
and Dharma-Mahadevi (No. XVII), assumed imperial titles Paramo.-
bhattarika , and Maharajadhiraja-Paramesvari.

It is interesting to note that Vakula-Mahadevi is described in
a verse as “an ornament like a flag with insignia in the family of
the Bhanja kings.’, This verse is a verbatim copy of one applied to
Dantfi-Mahadevi in the Kumurang plate, with the substitution of
Bhanja for Kara. There is hardly any doubt that Vakula-Mahadevi
belonged to the Bhanja family, and it is also not unlikely that her
paternal relations played some part in the politics of the Kara
kingdom at this period. The succession of four queens one after
another probably indicates troublesome times for the Kara dynasty
which led to its downfall at no distant date, and the Bhahjas might
have played a prominent part in the final stage.

Nothing is known of the Karas after Dharma-Mahadevi who
probably flourished about the year 200 of the Kara era, i.e. about
A.D. 950. Probably the family was ousted by the Somavamsis. who
are known to have conquered Orissa about the middle of the tenth
century A.D.47

Wc can get a fair idea of the dominions of the Karas from the
names of villages mentioned in their land-grants. In addition to
the coastal territories comprised in the modern districts of Balasore,
Cuttack and Puri, their dominions included Angul, the did feuda¬
tory states of Hindol, Dhenkanal, Taleher, Pal Lahara, a part of
Keonjhar, and the northern part of Ganjam District. These terri¬
tories are sometimes referred to as included in North and South
Tosali, but the name Utkala also occurs in the records.

The northern part of the Ganjam District is referred to as
Kvngoda-mantfala in South Tosali. It »is definitely known from
their land-grants that the rulers Nos. II, VII, and XV exercised
authority in this region, but, as we shall see later, we find there
also the records of the Bhanjas as well as of a branch of the Gangas
of Kalinga. As noted above, one of the latter, Jayavarman, refers
to Unmattavarman as his overlord, but neither the other rulers of
this family nor the Bhanjas refer to the Kara overlord in their land-
grants. There can be hardly any doubt that spme of these Bhanja
and Gahga rulers were contemporaries of the Karas. Either, therc-

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

fore, this region must have frequently changed hands, or the feuda¬
tories issued land-grants without any reference to their Kara over-
lords.

All the land-grants of the family are issued from the same
place, which is called Guhadeva-pataka in the earlier records and
Guhesvara-pataka in the later ones. This town was evidently the
capital of the family. A late tradition places the foundation of the
Kara kingdom in Jajpur. The Gan jam grant also refers to the second
king of the dynasty as king of Virajas, evidently a variant of Viraja,
which is a well-known name of Jajpur. It may be presumed there¬
fore that this town represents the site of the ancient capital of the
Karas.48

GENERAL REFERENCE

Brnayak Misra — Orissa under the Bhauma Kings.

- Section I of this book gives a list of Kara inscriptions, and either edits or
contains a short account of them. The historical discussion in Section II is,
however, not always helpful or reliable. Five new inscriptions have been dis¬
covered since the above work was published. They are referred to in the
footnotes.

2. The Bhanjas

More than thirty records of kings with names ending in Bhahja
have so far come to light. The task of arranging them in a genea-'
logical or chronological order has proved a difficult one and scholars
differ widely on the subject. But we can easily distinguish two
important branches, one ruling at Khinjali, and the other at Khij-
jinga. The latter is undoubtedly the same as Khiching in Mayur-
bhanj whose ruins still testify to its great antiquity. Khinjali, which
lay far to the south, cannot be definitely identified. The records
refer to twb Khinjalis, and it has been suggested that one lay to
the north and the other to the south of the Mahanadl. But there is
no doubt that the kingdom of Khinjali corresponded, at first, to the
old feudatory states of Baud and Sonpur in Orissa and its imme¬
diate neighbourhood, though later its boundaries extended further
south to the northern part of the Ganjam District.49*

Whether the Bhahja ruling chiefs of Khinjali and Khijjihga
belonged to the same family, or were connected in any way, is not
definitely known to us. Some scholars held this view and tried to
draw up a genealogy of them all on this basis,50 but the' result has
been very unsatisfactory. On the whole, although it is quite pos¬
sible that the different Bhahja chiefs had a common ancestor, there
is no evidence in support of it and the question must be left open.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

A. The Bhanjas of Khinjali

The rulers of this family, so far known from their records, are
represented in the following genealogical table:—

I. Yathasukha

. II. Mallagambhlra

III. Silabhahja I (Ahgaddi)

IV. Satrubhanja iGandhata; Mahgalaraja)

V. Banabhanja

VII. Digbhahja Disabhahja)

fKalyanakalasa I) |

VIII. Silabhahja II iTribhuvanakalasa)

*> a

IX. Vidyadharabhanja (Amoghakalasa)

X. Nettabhanja II iKalayanakalasa II)

The first four rulers are known from the Tekkali plates of
&alrubhahja,r ‘ The rulers Nos. IIX-X are known from other records.
While there is no doubt about the genealogy of these rulers t III-X .
doubts have been entertained regarding the identity of Silabhahja,
and his son 6atrubhanja, mentioned in the Tekkali plates, with the
rulers bearing the same names and the same relation in the other
list. ' ^ Their identity has been challenged on the ground that the
opening verses of the Tekkali plates resemble those of the later, and
not earlier, Bbanja rulers of the family. But as Nos. Ill to X ruled
in an unbroken line of succession, the four rulers mentioned in the
Tekkali plates can only be regarded as collateral »?.(?. contemporary-
or posterior, to No. X. The latter view is untenable as the characters
of the Tekkali plates are undoubtedly much earlier than those of
No. X. and there are not sufficient grounds fPr the former view. The
identity of names of two generations naturally leads to the presump¬
tion of the identity of the persons, and the genealogy has accordingly
been drawn on this basis.

Even the identity of Banabhanja mentioned in the different re¬
cords has been challenged, and Ranaka Banabhanja and Maharaja
Banabhanja have been held to be different persons."'' But here, again,
there are not sufficient reasons to reject the normal presumption
about their identity.

A recently discovered plate, not yet published, adds the name
of another Bhahjn kinrr. who- evidently flourished after No X. and

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PA LA PERIOD

probably belonged to the same family. It was issued in the 13th
regnal year of Ranaka Nettabhanja Tribhuvanakalasa, son of Raya-
bhahja and grandson of Prithvibhanja. It has been surmised that
the last named was not far removed from No. X and might have
been his brother, son or grandson.54

There can be hardly any doubt that the name-ending Bhanja
of No. Ill was adopted by his successors and gave rise to the name
“Bhahja dynasty.” even as we find in the case of Guptas, Palas and
Karas. It may be presumed, therefore, that Silabhanja was the real
founder of the kingdom. A charter of the Somavarhil king Maha-
sivagupta Yayati refers to a village called Silabhanja-pSti in the
0<Jra country. 5 It has been reasonably inferred that the village was
named after king Silabhahja who must, therefore, have been earlier
than the Somavathsi king;

The earliest known charter of the royal family is that issued
by Satrubhanja.'"5 He is called Ranaka, but the seal in his charter is
referred to as Mahura jakiya mudrd. There is. therefore, no reason
to doubt that both he and his father were at least de facto indepen¬
dent kings, whatever might have been the status of the first two
rulers; The charter may be referred to the eighth or ninth cen¬
tury A.D. on palaeographic grounds.

Ranabhanja. the son and successor of Satrubhanja, had a long
reign of more than 58 years. His death marks the end of one epoch
and the beginning of another in the history of this family. Both
Ranabhanja and his father are styled in their charters * ‘Lord of
Khihjali’. but this title is not applied to their successors. That this
is no mere accidental omission, but denotes a ’great change, is indi¬
cated by the fact that whereas the charters of Ranabhanja and his
father were issued from Bhritipura, those of his successors were
issued from Vijaya-Vanjulvaka. Further, while all the villages
granted by the former, so far as they have been identified, are situat¬
ed in the States of Sonpur and Baud, those granted by the latter arc
situated in the Ganjam District or its immediate neighbourhood. All
these seem to indicate that after the death of Ranabhanja his suc¬
cessors shifted to the south and changed their capital. Their kingdom
seems to have been confined to the northern part of Gat^Sm District
and the Nayagadb State. Reference may be made in this connection
to a ruler named Neftabhanja. who is known from the Baud Grant57
to have ruled in the regibn corresponding to Angul and Athmallik
States. The date of his charter has been read as 98. but it seems to
be reslly 85. It may be referred to the era used bv the Kara kio^.
and the date would then be equivalent 4o about A.D. 835, It is thus
quite probable that he drove out the dynasty of Ranabhanja from

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the northern part of Khinjali. Nettabhahja is not given any royal
title in his Grant, but issues commands to Samantas, Maharajas, and
others without any reference to any overlord. He was thus a
de facto independent ruler, but not unlikely a feudatory, either of
the Karas or the Palas, who defeated the Bhanjas and set him up
as their protege. He might have been related to Ranabhanja.

We do not know what became of this kingdom during the period
when the descendants of Ranabhanja (Nos. VI-X) were ruling in
Ganjam. Some light is thrown by the Jurada charter58 of Mahd-
mandalesvara Nettabhahjadeva, son of Ranabhanja, and grandson of
Mahdmandalesvara Nettabhahja, granting a village, within the juris¬
diction of Khihjali-mandaia. This village, as well as the place from
which the charter was issued, has been located in the Ganjam Dis¬
trict. This region was not perhaps originally included in the Khih-
jali kingdom, at least in the time of the immediate successors of
Ranabhanja (No. V), for otherwise they would not have given up the
title of Lord of Khinjali. It is highly probable, therefore, that
the family of Nettabhahja, who ousted Ranabhanja’s family from
Khinjali, ultimately conquered the;southern region also and includ¬
ed it within the bounds of the Khinjali kingdom. If this view be
accepted we may identify Nettabhahja, the grandfather. of the donor
of the ‘Jurada charter, with the king of the same name who issued
the Baud grant in the year 85. 59 Jn that case we must suppose that
he and his two successors were ruling in Khinjali proper while the'
five successors (Nos. VI-X) of Ranabhanja were ruling in the Ganjam
District. The last of these was (defeated by Nettabhahja who issued
the Jurada grant.

Another Bhahja family of six kings is known from two copper¬
plates60 issued by the last two rulers, Yasobhanja andxhis brother
Jayabhanja. No grants of the first four kings have come to light, but
Devabhanja, the founder of the family, is called Rdjadhirdja , and
Yasobhanja is described as the lord of the whole of Khinjali. As
these rulers flourished after Nettabhahja of the Jurada grant, they
probably obtained possession of the kingdom by defeating him or his
family.

The date of these Bhahja kings cannot be determined with cer¬
tainty. The date of the Tekkali plates of Satrubhanja, the earliest
charter of the family, was read as Samvat 800 ( = A.D. 742) by
R. D. Banerji, but this is very doubtful.61 On palaeographic grounds
this charter may be referred to the ninth century A.D., but Orissan
epigraphs of this period, on account of the variety of scripts employ¬
ed even in contemporary records, cannot be relied upon as a very
safe guide in matters of chronology. The only positive clue in this

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

respect is furnished by the. fact that Vijya, the queen of Ranabhanja.
was the daughter of Rdnaka Niyamama. This Niyarnama has been
identified with the Kadamba chief Niyarnnava, grandfather of
Rdnaka Dharmakhedi, who is mentioned in a charter dated in the
year 520 of the Ganga Era.62 The epoch of this era is not yet defi¬
nitely determined, but is generally placed at the end of the fifth
century A.D. Dharmakhe^i may thus be taken to have lived in the
early part of the eleventh century A.D., and his grandfather, about
the middle of the tenth century A.D. If we accept the identification
of the latter with the father-in-law of Ranabhanja, this Bhanja king
may be placed in the second half of the tenth century A.D.

In spite of some uncertainties this date may be provisionally
accepted as a working hypothesis. Silabhanja I, who seems to have
laid the foundations of an independent Bhanja kingdom, may there¬
fore be placed at the beginning of the tenth century A.D.

Although Ranabhanja had a long reign of at least fifty-eight
years, his five successors must have reigned for short periods as the
same goldsmith served under all of them.63 The reigns of the Bhanja
kings of Khinjali, discussed above, some of whom might have been
contemporaries, may thus be regarded as having covered the tenth
and eleventh centuries A.D. The dynasty may be regarded as having
risen to power on the decline of the Karas, and, as already noted
above,64 might have played an important part in the last stage of
their history.

' If the dates proposed above be accepted, we may regard the
removal of the Bhanja capital from Dhritipura to Vanjulvaka, as
due to the invasion of Orissa by the Somavariisis who forced them to
take shelter in the south.

It is quite probable that the Bhanjas continued to rule even'
beyond A.D. 1100, either as independent or as feudatory chiefs. In
any case, their rule in Khinjali can be traced down to the mediaeval,
period. A copper-plate65 found at Baud introduces us to a line of
three kings, viz. Solanabhanja, his son Durjayabhanja, and the latter’s
son Kanakabhanja, who ruled in the neighbourhood of the Tel river,
i.e. in old Khinjali, about the fifteenth century A.D. There are still
Bhanja families living in a place called Kinjili between Aska and
Berhampore in the Gan jam District.66 This Kinjili might be an
echo of the old Khinjali.

On the other hand there are good reasons to believe that many
Bhanja chiefs flourished before those rulers whose history we have
discussed above. A verse in the copper-plates of the early- Bhanja
kings67 says that many Bhanja kings, thousands in number, flourish¬
ed in the past, and in their family was born ^ilabhanja (No. Ill),

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Even allowing for the obvious exaggerations, this verse may be taken
to testify to the existence of one or more Bhahja ruling families long
before the eighth century A.D. This theory is supported by a short
record below a tempera-painting on a rock-shelter in the village of
Sitabhinji, Keonjhar District. “The subject-matter of the painting
is a procession relating to a king on elephant who is preceded by
footmen, a horseman, and a dancing woman and followed by an
attendant woman. A painted inscription below the king gives the
name of the king as “Maharaja 6ri Disabhanja”.

Mr. T. Ramachandran, from whose account the above description

is quoted; refers the inscription to the fourth century A.D. and says

that this date is “corroborated by an ensemble of evidence furnished

by other associative antiquities.”68

Dr. D. C Sircar, on the other hand, thinks that the characters
of the epigraph belong to a much later date, between the eighth and
eleventh centuries A.D.69

There is no doubt that the Orissan inscriptions, even of the
same king, employ a variety of scripts, so that palaeography is a very
uncertain factor in determining chronology. This is amply illustrat¬
ed by the widely differing views about the dates of Kara, Sailodbhava
and Bhanja kings. Nevertheless, it has to be admitted that the
characters of the short record at Sitabhinji can by no means be
regarded as later than those of the charters of the early kings of
Kalihga who have been unanimously referred to the fifth century
A.D.70 Dr. D. C. Sircar's proposed identification of Disabhanja
of the Sitabhinji record with the king Digbhanja-Disabhanja
(No. VII), mentioned above, cannot therefore be upheld, and until
more definite evidence is available, Disabhanja of Sitabhinji may
justly be regarded as the earliest Bhanja king who flourished in the
fourth or fifth century A.D. The painted scene and the locality seem
to indicate that he was a powerful ruler whose kingdom included the
Keonjhar State. If we accept this view, we may well believe that
the Bhanjas had been ruling in Orissa almost continuously since the
fourth or fifth century A.D., though their power and status must
have varied in different ages. The territory called Bhanjabhumi or
Bhanjbhum, which includes the present Mayurbhanj, . was evidently
named after the Bhanjas.

B. The Bhanjas of Khijjihga

The records of this dynasty closely resemble each other and
are distinguished in some essential respects from those of other
Bhafijas described above. They are issued from Khiijlhga and give
a traditional account of the origin of the family. The Adi-Bhanja

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

or the first Bhanja, called Vlrabhadra Ganadan$a, is said to have
come out of the egg of a pea-hen and to have been brought up by
the sage Vasishtha. They refer next to Kottabhanja who may be
regarded as the first historical ruler of the family. The names of the
successors of Kottabhanja are, however, given differently in different
records. But since all the kings ruled in Khijjihga it is probable that
the differences are due mainly to the same king having different
names as we find in the Kara dynasty. On this assumption we may
tentatively draw the following gnealogy of the kings known to us.71

Vlrabhadra

Kottabhanja

Digbhanja alias Durjayabhanja I alias Vibhramatunga I

Ranab

rianja

Narendrabhanja I

Rajabhanja Vibhramatunga II Satrubhanja alias

| Frithvibhanja

i ' i

Durjayabhanja II Narendrabhanja II

(Yuvardj a) Kottabhanja

Vlrabhadra is described as ‘Chakravartisamah’ (like an emperor),
and ^atrubhanja is called Mahdmarujia.i-ddhipati-Mahardjddhiraja-
Paramesvara. Ranabhanja is called both Maharaja and Maharaja-
dhirdja. These titles and the fact that they issued charters without
reference to any overlord indicate that they were at least de -facto
independent rulers.

As regards chronology, we have two specific dates for Rana¬
bhanja, viz. 288 and 293. 72 These cannot be referred to the era used
by the Karas, as the royal Kara dynasty is not known to have con¬
tinued beyond the year 200 of that era, and there is nothing to indi¬
cate that their era was in use after them. The other possibilities
are the Harsha and the Gahga eras. Jf we assume the former, which
appears more probable, Ranabhanja nourished towards the close of
the ninth century A.D., and the dynasty must have ruled roughly
between A.D. 850 and 1000. We may then assume that it rose to
power out of the chaos and confusion in Orissa caused by the invasion
of the Palas under Devapala, and took full advantage of the downfall
of the Pala empire.

Although we' know very little of the history of this dynasty,
special interest attaches to it for more than one reason. In the first
place, the ruins of temples and images at Khiching, the old capital

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of the dynasty, testify to a very high development of art and archi¬
tecture under the Bhanjas/3 Indeed some of the sculptures found
here have been justly regarded as among the best products of
mediaeval sculpture in India. This rich artistic treasure gives us a
clear idea of the high culture and civilization of the people of Utkala
under the Bhahjas.. It may also be noted that the art of Khiching
shows close affinity with the art of the Palas rather than of Orissa,
and this may be easily explained by its geographical position as well
as the political influence of the Palas which was naturally more
effective in this region than that lying further south.

Secondly, there are good grounds to believe that the Bhahjas of

Khijjinga are represented by the dynasty lately ruling at Mayurbhanj.

This dynasty had its capital at Khiching until comparatively recent .

times, and Us rulers all bore names ending in Bhahja. In a royal

sanad. dated A.D, 1713-14, the ancestor of this family is described

as having been born of the egg of a pea-hen and nursed by the sage

Vasfshtha. This tradition, which we find in the old charters of the
«

family, is current even today with the result that their insignia is
a pea-fowl, and the killing of this bird is prohibited throughout the
state. According to a local tradition, recorded by Hunter, the chiefs
ruled till 200 years ago over both Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar, the
region where the Bhanjas of Khijjinga ruled about a thousand years
ago.71

This striking agreement in respect of the family name and
tradition, the capital, and extent of the kingdom leaves no doubt that
the modern ruling chiefs of Mayurbhanj are linked up with the old
Bhanja rulers of Khijjinga; and makes it highly probable that they
form one continuous royal line which has ruled for more than a
thousand years in an uninterrupted line of succession. Such a
phenomenon is very rare in Indian history, and the case of Mayur¬
bhanj may be regarded as almost unique.

GENERAL REFERENCES

1 . K. D. Banerji— Omsa.

2. I?, C. Majumdar, Outline of the History of the Bhanja Kings of Orisa (Dacca
University Studies , Vol. HI, No. 2, pp. 337-70). It contains a complete list of the
inscriptions of the dynasty with references. This aiticle is abbreviated as BKO,

. Inscriptions discovered since then are referred to in the footnotes, and in 1HQ,
XXVIII. 225 ft

3. Binayak Misra, Dynasties of Mediaeval Orissa.

3. The Minor Dynasties

In addition to the Karas and Bhanjas several minor dynasties
flourished in Orissa during the period under review. One of them,
the Svetaka branch of the Gangas, has been dealt with in connection
with Kalihga. Another is the Tunga dy nasty 7r> comprising two

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

kings, Salanatunga and hi s son Gaya^atuhga, born in the line of Raja
Jagattunga who came from Rohitagiri (Rohtasgarh in Shahabad
District). Gayadatuhga, who is described as Samadhigata-pancha -
make sab da and the ruler of Yamagarta, has been identified by some
with king Gaya^a of the Kara dynasty,70 but this is not very likely.
Perhaps the dynasty was at first feudatory to the Karas and assum¬
ed independence after their decline. The Talcher Plate of Sivakara-
deva,77 dated 149 (=c. A.D. 900), records a grant of land in
Purvarashtravishaya by the Kara king at the request of Ranaka
Sri Vinltatuhga, This Ranaka is probably the same as is mentioned
in the Bonai Grant78 together with his son Khadgatunga and
grandson Vimtatuhga II, ruler of Eighteen Gondamas including
Yamagarta. Gayadatunga probably belongs to this family79 which
is also said to have migrated from Rohitasva and ruled in parts of
Talcher, Pal Lahara and Keonjhar State. A ruler, Jayasimha, with
feudatory titles, issued a Grant80 from the banks of the Mandakini
river. As the donated lands belonged to Yamagarta -mandala, he
ruled in the same region as the Tuhgas.

Another Bonai Grant refers to the Buddhist Mayura-vaihsa
which originally came from the Chitrakuta mountain and ruled
over Vanai -mandala, which is evidently the same as Bonai. It
mentions Uditavaraha, his descendant Tejavaraha, and the latter’s
son Udayavaraha with the titles Paramasaugata Samadhigaia -
pancha-mahasabda Maharaja Ranaka.6 1 This, too, was probably a
feudatory line, assuming de facto independence. As the Grant of
this family has some verses in common with those of the Tunga
plates, the two families were probably closely connected and ruled
over the same or neighbouring territories.

More importance attaches to the Sulkis (called also Sulkikarhsa-
family) who are probably identical with the “Sulikas with an army
of countless horses” referred to in the Haraha Inscription of the
Maukhari king Lsanavarman.82 A number of records63 give us the
genealogy of the family, but there are some variations. It is not
easy to reconcile them, and different views have been entertained
by different scholars. The following genealogy may be tentatively
offered as the most satisfactory: —

Kanchana-stambha

Kalaha (or Kanada) -stambha alias Vikramaditya
. Raoa-stambha alias Kula-stambha84

i •

Jaya-stambha

Nidaya-stambha

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

It is probable that the second king was known as Kula-stambha.
A Grant of Rana-stambha contains a date which has been interpret¬
ed as 103. It may be referred to the era of the Kara kings. Rana-
stambha had the title Mahdrujadhiraja as well as Samadhigata -
pancha-mahasabda. denoting a feudatory rank.88 Like Vinltatunga II,
Rana-stambha is described as lord of Gondama, and the Sulki family
probably ruled in Talcher and Dhenkanal States. They might have
acknowledged the suzerainty of the Karas, but were de facto inde¬
pendent rulers. The name Sulki has been regarded by some as
variation of the name Chalukya or Solahki. Others have identified
Sulkis with the modern Sulkis of Midnapore and the Saulika of the
Brihat-samhitti and Markandeya Puruna ,86

The Tonga kings, Jayasimfia, and the Sulkis all claim to have
ruled over the whole of Gondama (or Gondrama) wrhich is some¬
times specifically referred to as Eighteen Gondamas. Gondama has
been taken to mean the Gond tribe, but it probably denotes a terri¬
tory which cannot be exactly defined.*7 It has been suggested that
Gondama denoted the entire hilly tract extending from Bonai and
Barnra in the north up to Jeypore in the Visakhapatnam District in
the south, but this is very doubtful.88

Another dynasty, called the Nanda, ruled over the same region,
Gondama, probably at a somewhat later' date. Four inscriptions
supply us with the names of the following kings:-— 89

Jay a nanda

Parananda /

&ivananda

Devananda I

Vilasatuhga * Vilasatuhga

Dhruvananda Devananda II

Dhruvananda is said to be Parama-saugaia (i.e. a Buddhist)
while Devananda was a Parama-mahesvara (i.e. Saiva).

The name or surname Vilasatuhga and the sovereignty over
Gondama indicate some relationship with the Tun gas. The plates
are issued from Jayapura which has been identified with Jaipur in
the old Dhenkanal State, and mention the maiuiala of -Airavata,
which has been located in the Cuttack' District.90 The Taimul
plates of, Dhruvananda contain a date which has been variously
read 91 but the correct reading seems to be Samvat 383. It may he
referred to the Ganga Era, though this is by no means certain.

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PA DA PERIOD

A copper-plate Grant, now in the Madras Museum, gives us the
name of a king named Narendra-dhavala, who is not known from
any other source. Some internal evidence shows that he was either
a contemporary of the Bhahja king Silabhahja I or ruled before his
time, and his reign may be placed in the tenth century A.D.

Kings with names ending in ‘dhavala’ are known to have ruled
in Medieval Orissa, and even now the members of the Dompara Kaj
family of the Cuttack District have similar name-endings. There
was evidently a ‘Dhavala’ ruling family of whom the only ancient
ruler so far known is Narendra-dhavala. The territory known as
Dhavalabhumi or Dhalbhum may be presumed to have derived its
name from this ruling family.92

GENERAL REFERENCES

1. DHNI, I. Ch. VII.

2, B. Misra, Dynasties of Mediaeval Orissa.

FOOTNOTES

1. Vo!. Ill, p. 138.

2. IV. 529-80.

3. Vol. Ill, p. 135.

4. Vol. Ill, p. 143.

5. Francke, Antiquities of Tibet, Part II, p. 87; Dr. Petech in IHQ, XV. Supple¬
ment, 65. The name of the king is written as K’ri-srofx-lde-btsan (by Petech)
and Khri-Sroh Lde-Brtsan ( JRAS , 1952. p. 149).

6. F. W. Thomas, Tibetan Literary Texts and Documents concerning Turkestan,
p. 270.

7. Francke, op. cit.. 89-90. According to Francke Ral-pa-can ruled from A.D. 804
to 816, but Dr. Petech (op. cit. 81) gives the date A.D, 817-836.

8. See p. 52.

8a. Petech, Mediaeval History of Nepal, 29.

9. See above p. 47.

10. JAS, vol. I. No. r, 1959, p. 47.

11. Petech, Mediaeval History of Nepal, 28-32.

12. A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscripts belonging to the
Drirhar Library of Nepal by H. P. Sastri, p. 21.

13. Cf. Vol. Ill, p. 141.

14. This is implied by the Haiyunglhal plate of Harjara-varman, though, on account
of some lacunae, the meaning of the passage is not quite clear.

15. Haiyungthal Plate and the Bargaon CP, of Ratnapala (v. 9).

26. Tezpur GP. of Vanamala, w. 6-7.

17. Now-gong CP. of Bala-varman, v. 10.

18. According to the published reading of the Tezpur CP. of Vanamala the name
is Pralamba. But as this reading goes as far back as 2840, and the original
plates are lost, we have adopted die reading Salambha which is quite clear in
the newly discovered Farhatiya Plate of Vananiala. (EL XXIX, 145).

19. For, as noted below, his son or nephew was on the throne in A.D. 829.

20. See p, 50.

21. Harjara-varman has been hitherto regarded as the son of Pralambha. But the
newly discovered Farbatiya plate of Vanamala, referred to in fn. 6 above, shows
that Harjara was the son of Arathi, brother and successor of Salambha. This
was first pointed out in P1HC, XII. 157-9 by Sri K. Dutta.

22. References are to the “List of Important Inscriptions” given on p. 61.

23. This is inferred from Ins. No. 2 which contains an order issued by Yuvardja
Vanamala.

24. Ins. No. 4, Hoemle took Jayamala and VIravahu to be separate kings, but
Kielhom regards the two as identical. This view is also accepted in KSS
(cf. DHNI , I. 246).

25. Bargaon CP. of Ratnapala, JASB( LX VII. 99.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

21 i
27.

23,

31 .

32.

33.

31.

M CT

« >0 ,

26.

37.

38.

3D.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

Voi. in, pp. 141 n.

Mr. R. D. Bunrrji thinks that “most probably they (the Karas) also claimed
descent from Naraka, like the early kings of Kamantpa." (EL XV. 2.) Cf
above, Vol. Ill, p. 88.

DKA. 51.

■'list a, op. rit. 80-82,

For the date, ci. Ganjam Grant of Jayavarma-deva (1HQ, XII. 4S9). The date
ef t Lis inscription has been toad as 50 by Mr. Misra who edited the Plates, but
the facsimile published by him shows that the symbol should be read as 20.
Mr. Misra docs not seem to notice that the symbol is different from that m
Nculpur Plate which he reads as 50 (o/>. c»c. 7; cf. also the chart facing p. 56). •

The date has been read as 8 by Mr. R. D. Banetji {El, XV. 1), 54 by Misi.i
(op. cit. 7), and 204 by Bhandarkar (List No. 1751).

The name and date of this king are known from a newly discovered plate, now
in tbe Utkal University, Cuttack. Dr. D. C. Sircar, while announcing this dis¬
covery ( JOR , XVIII. 49), considcrtu it possible, .though not veiy likely, that
this king might be identical with No. VII. But later he seems to have excluded
this possibility and definitely regarded the two as separate rulers ( JASL , XVII.
p. 16, fn. 1). This seems to be the more reasonable view.

An unpublished article of Dr. D. C. Sircar refers to the recently discovered Baud
plates of Tribhuvana-Mahadevi II, dated in the year 158. According to' those,
the kings Nos. X and XI having died without leaving any issue, the throne
passed lo Tribhuvana-Mahadevi II. the queen of No. X. This statement is in
conflict with the later records which vouch for the existence of two sons of
No. XI (Nos. XII, XIII), who actually ascended the throne after XI. The only
reasonable explanation seems to be that there was a party in the state who.
for some reason or other, did not recognise Nos. XII and XIII to be legitimate
sons of No. XI and set up Tnbhuvana-Mahadcvi II as a rival claimant to the
throne after the death of No. XI. Evidently she was overthrown, probably after
a short .reign, and No. XII obtained undisputed possession of the kingdom. For
further discussion about her reign, cf. the section on Somavamsis. Cb. VI. III.
The dates have been read as 280 anti 287 by Bhandarkar (Lists; Nos. 1413. 1416).
The second date -was read as 387 by Panday (JBORS, V. 571). But ef.
El, XXIX, 81.

El, XXVI. 248.

PIHC. XII. 69.

Mr. Misra has made (his assumption;, cf. the genealogical table on p. 71 of his
bock.

El, XV. 1.

El, VI. 136.

El, XV. 36^ Mr, S. C. Do, who supports this view, even goes fm llicr and re¬
gards &bbhbkara as the king of Orissa who initiated Rahulabhadrn in Mantra-
yana {PIHC, XII. 69).

Misra, op. c it. 76. In the ^eulpur plate the dkdra is indistinct, but it is quite
clear in the other inscriptions. There is no doubt that the name should be read
as J§ubhakar@.

Misra, op. cit. 72 IT. Misra’s statement that Kielhom took the ‘era of the Ganjam
Plate of Dundi-Mahadevi as the Harsha era’ is wrong. Keilhom referred the
plate dated 187 to the thirteenth century A.D. (El, VI, 136). Dr. D. C Sircar
also refers the date of the Karas to Harsha Era ( JKHRS , II. 103-4). But he has
recently informed me in a private letter that a newly discovered inscription in'
Orissa ‘seems to suggest that the era used in the inscriptions of the Bhauma-
Karas started from a date about the beginning of the 3th century AD.”

Cf. R. D. Banerji’s view about the date of the Neulpur Plate (EL XV. 1). On
the other hand, Mr. A. Ghosh thinks that the characters of the Khadipada in-

morL.°.r less similar to those of the Ganjam plates of Ssusahka”
(El, XXVI. 247), This would support the theory of Harsha Era.

There «an be hardly any doubt that Jayavarroan of the Ganjam Grant- (I HQ
XII. 488) is to be identified with the king, one of whose copper-plates has been
published in El, XXIII, 261. For the &vetakas, cf. VoL HI. plzii!

See above, p. 50.

IHQ, XXI. 218. '

P; Btanerieo points out the '‘striking similarity” between the scripts of the
laltak Hate of Vakula-Mahadevl and those of the • Somavaj&il kings which can
be dated about the middle of the tenth century A.p. (JASL, XVH. 247).

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PA LA PERIOD

48. Misra. op cit. 87. Thisview is supported by Dr. D. C, Sircar who has discover¬
ed a fragmentary inscription of 6ubhakara I amid the ruins of the Hamsesvara
temple at Sivadasapura, not far from the celebrated Viraja temple of Jajpur.
This is the only record of the Karas so far found within the boundaries of
modern Jajpur (JAS L, XVII. 15).

49. JBORS, XVII. 105; XV. 83-4; BKO. 147.

50. El, XVIII. 286.

51. Edited by R. D. Banerji (JBORS, XVIII. 387) and S. Rajaguru ( JKHRS , I. 181),
and commented upon by Dr. D. C. Sircar ( IHQ , XXVIII. 229). The name
Yathasukha was read as Pathasukha by Rajaguru, and the name of Mallagambhlra
as Paliagambhira by R.‘ D. Banerji. The date was read as 800 by Banerji, as
1012 by Rajaguru, 17 by Dr. B. Misra (op. cit. 105.), and 14 by Dr. Sircar. The
first figure may be easily read as 10, but the second one .is very unusual and
cannot be read with certainty. In any case, the date seems' to be a regnal year
and not one in Samvat or £aka era as held respectively by Banerji and Rajaguru.

52. Dr. Sircar (op. cit.) regards the rulers, mentioned in the Tekkali plates, as
belonging to a collateral line, ruling contemporaneously with the Bhanjas of
Vanjulvaka. But his chronological ideas are not very clear. In one place
(p. 229) he says that Satrubhanja flourished considerably after the reign of
Ranabhanja (about the middle or the third quarter of tenth century). Brt on
the very next page he remarks that “the use of the numerical symbols instead
of decimal 'figures in the record of Satrubhanja Mangalaraja (i.e. Tekkali Plates)
would, however, suggest that he flourished before the eleventh century.”

53. ABORl, XVII. 393.

54. IHQ, XXVIII. 228.

55. JBORS, XV. 85.

•56. Tekkali PI. cf. fn. 51 above.

57. JBORS, XVII. 104.

58. EL XXIV. 15.

59. It is, however, possible to identify him also with king No. VI or X. In Hint case
we shall have a new branch or a continuation of the old family.

60. Antirigan CP. El, XVII. 282, 298.

61. See above, fn. 51.

62. This was originally suggested by B. Misra (op. cit. 104) and Dr. Bhandarkar
(List No. 2053, fn. 2), and later by Dr. D. C. Sircar (PIHC, XII. 128).

63. Cf. IHQ, XXVIII. 228.

64. Sec above, p. 67.

65. Baud Plate, JBORS, II. 356.

G6. JAHRS, VII. 109.

67. Cf. Sonpur CP. of Satrubhanja (El, XI. 99) and Chakradharpur (Daspalla) CP.
of Ranabhanja (JBORS, VI. 269).

68. JAHRS, XIX. 191.

69. IHQ, XXVIII. 227-8.

70. Above, Vol. Ill, pp. 221 ff,

71. For detailed discussion and alternate views, cf. BKO, 137 ff.

72. JASB, XL (1871), 161; El, XXV. 147.

73. ASI, 1922-3, p. 124; 1923-4, p. 85; 1924-5, p. 111. Generally speaking, the archi¬
tecture and sculpture of Orissa during this period show a far greater progress
and development than we could reasonably expect from the petty principalities
ruling there. We have, therefore, devoted more space to its history than would
be justified by its political importance.

74. It may be more than a thousand years if we regard Disabhanja of Sitabhinji
ins. as flourishing in the fourth century A.D. (see fn. 68 above).

75. For inscriptions, cf. JASB, V (1909). 347; XII. 291.

76. DHNl, I. 420.

77. Misra, Orissa under the Bhavvxa Kings , p. 41.

78. JBORS, VI. 236. Bhandarkar thinks that the record refers only to Vinitatunga,
the donor, and his son Khadgatunga. ( Bh . List No. 1747).

79. There are striking resemblances between the wordings of the Bonai Grant and
the Tonga charters. Both again refer to the king Vanaryasatru.

80. JBORS. II. 417. The Editor reads the date of the Grant ns 99, but this is very
doubtful.

81. JBORS, VI. 241; XXXI 159. Bhandarkar thinks that the plate only mentions
Uditavaraha or Udavavaraha and his son Tejavaraha (List No. 1754).

82. Vol. Ill, p. 68.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

83. For the inscriptions of this dynasty, cf. El, XII. 156; JASB, LXIV (1895). 123 ff;

JBORS, II. 168 if; 395 ff. All the plates are issued from Kodalaka or Kodaloka
which has. been identified with Kualu in the Dhenkanal State (JBORS, XVI.
453). •-

84. H. P. Sastri takes Rana-stambha I as son of Kula-stamhha (JBORS, II., 460),
but cf. El, XII. 1.58.

85. According to MM. H. P. Sastri he made a land-grant in Ra$ha,-mandala or
West Bengal. The village granted, named Jara, according to Sastri, still exists
in tine Hooghly District, and a section of its inhabitants still call themselves
Sukli (JBORS, H. 168-71). But as Dr. D. C. Sircar has shown, this view is
erroneous and there is no reason to suppose that Rana-stambha conquered any
part of West Bengal as Sastri supposed (JOR, XVIII. 45).

86. El, XIV. 112; JASB, 1895, p. 124; 1911, pp. 443, 447; DHNJ, I. 439.

87. The Bonai Grant refers to Yamagartla-mandakx as situated in the Vishaya of
Eighteen Gondamas (JBORS, VI. 237, 239),

88. JBORS, XVI. 462-3.

89. JBORS,vXV. 87; XVI. 457. El, XXVI. 74; Ancient India, No. 5, p. 50; Misra
(op cit. 35) takes D hr u van an da (or Dhxivananda as read by him) as another
name of Devananda. The relation between the last three kings is not Certain/
For ,the views adopted, cf. El, XXVI. p. 76, fn. 2.

90. Ancient India, No. 5, p. 50.

91. See references under footnote 89. Misra (op. cit.) reads the date as 193 on
p. 35 and 183 in the plate facing p. 96. Dr. Bhandarkar reads the date as 293
(List, No. 2643). Hie hundredth figure, however, seems to denote 300, as there
are two distinct adjuncts, one above and one below the letter l which is usually
read as 100. The decimal figure resembles the one used in the plate of
Dandi-MahadevI, read as 80. If we read the date_as 183, the date may be re¬
ferred to the era used by the Kara kings, and we may assume that the family
was feudatory to the Karas but assumed de facto independence towards the end
of their rude. Bhandarkar refers the date 293 to the Harsha Era.

92. FIHC, XII. 127.

CHAPTER ¥

' CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

I. THE CHANDELLA DYNASTY

- After the break-up of the Pratihara Empire a number of
dynasties rose to power in Central and Western India. One of them,
known as Chan dell a or Chaodratreya, held sway over the country
now called Bundelkhand.

The Chandelias trace their descent from the sage Ghandratreya,
who was born of the Moon. Their social status was equal to that
of the Chahamanas. The bards mention them as one of the thirty-
six Rajput clans. The dynasty was founded by Nannuka in the first
quarter of the ninth century A.D, Epigraphic records connect the
early kings of the family with Kharjuravahaka, the modern village
of Khajraho, in old Chhatarpur State, Bundelkhand. Nannuka
appears to have ruled over the country around this place, which was
the early capital of his family. At .this time the Pratihara Empire
under Nagabha$a II extended up to Kalanj ava-mandala (Kalinjar)
which is nearly forty miles north-east of Khajraho and is situated
in the Banda District, in Uttar Pradesh. Deogarh, in the Jhansi
District, Uttar Pradesh, was within the kingdom of the Pratlharas.
Khajraho, which lies between Deogarh and Kalinjar, was^obviously
under the supremacy of the Pratihara kings, and the early rulers
of the Chandella dynasty may therefore be regarded as vassals of
the Pratlharas of Kanauj. Nannuka was succeeded by his son
Vakpati, who probably flourished in the second quarter of the ninth
century. The Vindhya hill is said to have been the “pleasure
ground” of Vakpati. It probably means that he fought battles in
this region, for at this time the Vindhya hill was the target of attacks
of £ number of kings, viz. the Pratihara Bhoja, the Pa la Devapala,
and the Kalachuri Kokkalla I. Vakpati had two sons, Jayasakti and
Vijayasakti. Jayaiakti, who was also known as Jejjaka and Jeja, suc¬
ceeded him on the throne. Henceforward the Country ruled by the
Chandelias was called Jejakabhukti after his name. Jayasakti appears
to have had a daughter named Nafta who was given in marriage to
the Kalachuri Kokkalla I. Jayasakti was succeeded by his younger
brother Vijayasakti, also known as Vijjaka. Both these brothers may
be taken to have flourished in the third quarter of the ninth century.
The Khajraho inscription states that Vijaya subdued the neighbour¬
ing countries, and “on his warlike expeditions reached even the

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

southernmost point of India.” This has led Dr. R. C. Majumdar to
suggest that Vijaya was probably an ally cf king Devapala of Bengal
and accompanied him in his southern expedition.1 Vijaya was suc¬
ceeded by his son Kabila. There is a village named Rahilya, two
miles south-west of Mahoba, in the Hamirpur District, Uttar Pradesh.
A tank in this village, on the bank of which stands an old ruined
temple, is known as Rahilyasagara, and tradition ascribes the
foundation of both to Rahila-varma. If Rahila-varma is identical
with the Chandella king of this name, Mahoba, the ancient Mahot-
sava-nagara, must have been included in the Chandella kingdom
during this period. After the death of Rahila, his son Harsha
ascended the throne.

Harsha ruled approximately from A.D. 900 to 925. . The Chan-
dellas evidently exercised greater political power during the reign
of this king. The Khajraho inscription reports that Harsha esta¬
blished king Kshitipaladeva on the throne. As has been mentioned
above,'2 it is generally held that Kshitipaladeva is identical with
the Pratihara Mahipala I, and Harsha helped him to recover his throne
of Kanauj after it was captured by the Rashtrakuta Indra III about
A.D. 914. This valuable military service, rendered by Harsha, won
for his family a high political status.3 Harsha married a Chaha-
mana lady named Kanchuka, who probably belonged to the Chaha-
mana family ruling in the Malava region.

After the close of Harsha’s reign (c. A.D. 925), his son Yaso-
varman, also known as Lakshavarman, assumed the royal state, j^s
noted above, the disintegration of the Pratihara Empire began about
this time, and Mahendrapala II’s successor Devapala1 was unable
to keep in check the revolutionary forces. Yasovarman, who was
a contemporary of Devapala, made use of this opportunity for
enhancing his political power and defied the authority of the Prati-
haras. The Khajraho inscription states that he was a scorching fire
to the Gurjaras. He conquered Kalanjara, which had been in the
possession of the Imperial Pratiharas. and pushed the northern
boundary of his kingdom up to the banks of the Yamuna. He is said
to have made the Yamuna and- the Gangs his pleasure lakes when
he went out for the conquest of the regions. After consolidating
his position in Bundelkhand, Yasovarman directed his army against
his southern neighbours. About this time, the Kalachuri Yuvaraja I
was ruling the Chcdi country from his capital Tripurl near Jubbul-
pore, and the Piramara Slyaka II was governing the adjoining
country of Malava as a vassal of the Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Yaso¬
varman fought successfully with both Yuvaraja I and Slyaka IT. and
pushed the southern boundary of his kingdom up to the borders of

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

Chedi and Malava. In the course of these campaigns he seems also
to have come into conflict with the SomavaihsI kings of Southern
Kosala, who suffered defeat at his hands. He is also known to have
led expeditions against distant countries.

In the middle of the tenth century Bengal was passing through
a period of stress and strain. The Kambojas deprived the Palas of
their sovereignty of Gauda and established their supremacy over
that country. The Pala king Gopala II was forced to take shelter
in Magadha and Mithiia. During this period of turmoil Yasovarman
invaded the territories of the Palas and the Kambojas. He is said
to have conquered Gautfa and Mithiia. The Khajraho inscription
states that Yasovarman “equalled6 the forces of the Khasas, the
Kasmiri warriors perished before him, and he was to the Kurus what
a storm is to the trees.” Yasovarman’s contemporary kings of Kash¬
mir were Yasaskara, Samgtamadeva, and Parvagupta. Lohara,
modern Lohrin, in Kashmir, was under the rule of the Khasa chiefs.
About this time Chanduraja seems to have been on the throne of
Lohara, and the Tomaras of Delhi were in possession of Kuru-
kshetra. It does not seem likely that Yasovarman, in the course of
conquest, went as far as Kashmir forcing his way through the
Punjab. This statement may, therefore, be taken as a vain pane¬
gyric of the poet.

Yasovarman was undoubtedly a general of high order. He
appears to have come to terms with his overlord Devapala, whose
nominal sway he continued to acknowledge. He received an image
of Vishnu from Devapala, 'which in turn had been received by
Devapala’s father Herambapala6 from Sahi, king of Kira or Kangra
Valley. Sahi obtained it from the lord of Bhota or Tibet. Yaio-
varman erected a magnificent temple at Khajraho, which is now
identified with the Chaturbhuja temple, and installed in it this
image of Vishnu. He also dug a beautiful tank. He was succeeded
by his son Dhahga.

Dhahga and his successors took pride in calling themselves
the lords of Kalanjara. Dhahga acknowledged the supremacy of
Vinayakapala, the successor of the Pratlhara Devapala, at least up
to A.D. 954. 7 At this time the Chandella kingdom extended “as far
as Kalanjara and as far as Bhasvat, situated on the banks of the river
of Malava; from here also to the river Kalindi, and from here also
to the frontiers of the Chedi country and even as far as that moun¬
tain called Gopa.” Bhasvat is the modern Bhilsa on the Betwa river
in old Gwalior State, Kalindi is the Yamuna, and Gopa is Gwalior.
Thus in the early part of the reign of Dhahga, Gwalior, the Yamuna,
Kalanjara. northern border of the Jubbulpore District, and Bhilsa

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

were the extreme limits of his kingdom. He obviously inherited
this kingdom from his father Yasovarman. He could not, however,
retain Gwalior for a long time as some time before A.D. 977 Vajra-
dainan, son of Lakshmana, of the Kachchhapaghata family, invaded
Gwalior and forced Dhahga and his overlord, who seems~“to have
been the Fratihara Vijayapala, to surrender it to him. It is claimed
that Vajradaman conquered Gopagiri by defeating the king of
Gadhinagara, i.e. Kanauj. A stone inscription of the reign of the
Maharajtidhiraj a Vajradaman, dated V. S. 1034 ( = A.D. 977) has
been found at Gwalior. This discomfiture of the king of Kanauj
seems to have encouraged Dhahga to rise against him. He invaded
his kingdom and inflicted a crushing defeat on him. The eastern
portion of the Fratihara kingdom to the north of the Yamuna now
passed into the hands ofuthe Chandellas. In A.D. 998 Dhahga issued
an inscription from Kasika (Banaras). Probably from the base at
Banaras, Dhahga led a successful military campaign against Ahga
or Bhagalpur, which was within the kingdom of the Palas, and
Had ha or West Bengal. The Pa la kings Vigrahapala II and Mahl-
pala I were his contemporaries. In the first quarter of the eleventh
century Southern Ra$ha was under the rule of Ranasura of the
£ura family. Ranasura’s predecessor probably had to bear the brunt
of Dhanga’s attack. The SomavarhsI kings of Kosala had also to
yield to his forces. During his southern campaigns he seems to have
come into conflict with the kings of Andhra and Kuntala. ’ Andhra
was under the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas. The "Rashfrakuta
supremacy in Kuntala was put to an end by Taila II of the Chalukya
dynasty in c. A.D. 972, \ The king of Kuntala, who was an adversary
of Dhahga, cannot be identified. The claim of the court-poet that
Dhahga defeated the kings of Kratha, Simhala, and Kahchi seems
to be a hyperbole.

Firishta relates" that Jayapala, king of the Punjab, in order to
save his kingdom from the attack of Arnir Sabukligin, sought help
from the kings of Northern India, and the Raja of Kalinjar was one
of those who responded to his call. The confederacy of the Hindu
chiefs met Sabukligin near Larnghan and was badly defeated about
A.D. 989. The Raja of Kalinjar was evidently Dhahga. The authen¬
ticity of the statement that the chiefs of Hindusthan joined in this
battle has been called in question, as it does not find mention in the
records' of earlier authorities. There is, however, definite evidence
to prove that Dhahga came into conflict with the Muslims. An
inscription from Mahoba states that he, :<by the strength of his arms,
equalled even the powerful Harhvlra.” It Is obvious that Harhvlra

refers to a Yaminl king of Ghazni, who bore the title Amir. So

/ %

Firishta 's report may be accepted as historical.

CENTRAL* AND WESTERN INDIA

Dhahga was the first independent king of the Chandelia dynasty.
He bore the title Mahamjadhimja, which indicates his independent
sovereign status. A number of temples were erected at Khajr&ho
during his reign. Frabhasa, bom in the lineage of Gautama Aksha-
pada, who was competent to explain the Nyaya doctrine* was appoint®
ed his chief minister. The dates of the inscriptions of Dhahga's reign
range from A.D. 954 to 1002. He died shortly after A.D. 1002, at the
age of one hundred, at Frayaga. He was succeeded by his son Gancja.

II. THE KALACBURIS
1. The Kaiachuris of Tripun

The kingdom of the Chandellas was bordered on the south by
that of the Kaiachuris of the Chedi country. The Kaiachuris, also
known as the Haihayas, were an ancient race.8 The Kaiachuris of
Chedi are sometimes referred to as the kings of Pahaia-r/mn^Ia, the
capital of which was Tripurl, now a village known as Tewar, six
miles west of Jubbulpore, Madhya Pradesh. The earliest known king
of this Kala churl dynasty is Kokkalla I.9 ^ahalA-man^ala was ruled
by a king named Lakshmanaraja in A.D. 841-2. It is known from
the San jin copper-plate of Amoghavarsha that the Rkshprakuta
Govinda III (A.D. 794-814), after conquering the p&hala country,
placed one of his servants there. This Bashprakuta officer, who was
made the governor ©f J^ahaia, was probably Lakshmanaraja or his
predecessor. Kokkalla I, whose relationship with La&himana t&j a is
not known, ascended the throne of pahala shortly after A.D. 842.10
The date of his accession may be fixed approximately at A.D. 845.
Kokkalla was one of the greatest generals of his age. Shortly after his
accession he involved himself in a war with the Pratlh&ras of Kanauj
and their feudatories. The Pratihara Bhoja I failed to check the in¬
vading Kalachuri army. The Kalachuri Sankara gana (of SarayupSra
in U.P.) the Guhila Harshartja (of Dhavagarfa, i.e. Dhod in Me war)
and the Chahamana Guvaka II of Sakambharl (near Ajmere), all of
whom were vassals of Bhoja, yielded to the forces of Kokkalla, who
is said to have carried away their treasures. Kokkalla granted
Bhoja and his feudatories ‘freedom from fear’, which probably means
an assurance that he would not lead any mpre aggressive campaign
against their territories.1 r In the course of his marauding excur¬
sions in Rajputana Kokkalla seems to have come into clash with the
Turushkas, who were obviously Turkish soldiers in the service of
the Arab governors of Sindh. The Turushkas had to acknowledge
defeat at his hands. To the east Kokkalla is said to have reached
Vanga or East Bengal in the course of his military campaign, and
plundered the wealth of that country. The king of Vanga at this

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

time was in all probability Kantideva,12 who was in possession of
Harikela, which is a synonym for Vahga. In the latter part of his
reign Kokkalla was engaged in a war with the Rashtrakutas of the
Deccan. Kokkalla vanquished the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II
(A.D. 878-914) who was his son-in-law, and invaded Northern Kon-
kan. Konkan was at this time ruled by a feudatory of the Rashtra¬
kutas named Kapardin II of the Silahara dynasty, who readily sub¬
mitted to the Kalachuri army. A treaty was ultimately concluded
between the Kalachuris and the Rashtrakutas.

All these conquests made by Kokkalla, though they did not
enable him to acquire new territc ries, certainly raised the Kala¬
churi dynasty to the rank of the imperial ruling families of the age.
Kokkallk married a Chandella princess, who seems to have been
the daughter of King Jayaiakti.13 He had eighteen sons, al] of whom,
except the eldest, were made rulers of different man(lalas or Divi¬
sions. A descendant of one- of these younger sons of Kokkalla sub¬
sequently founded a kingdom in Dakshina-Kosala, the capital of
which was Turn m ana. Kokkalla had a daughter who. was given in
marriage to the Rashtrakuta Krishna II during the reign of Amo-
ghavarsha I. The names of only two sons of Kokkalla are know**
Sankaragana and Arjuna. &aukaragana, also known as- Sahkila an
£ahkuka, was evidently the eldest and succeeded him to the throne
Kokkalla was a contemporary of tfye Rashtrakuta king Kristina T
who ascended the throne in c. A".D>. 878. Sahkarngana was on the
throne of Dahala when Gunaka-Yijayaditya III of the Eastern
Chalukya dynasty, whose reign terminated in A.D. 888. was the king
of the Andhra country. Hence Kokkalla must have been succeeded
by §ankaragana some time between’ A.D. 878 and 888.

Sahkaragana assumed the titles Mugdhatuhga , Prasiddhadhavala ,
and Raa.vig.raha. He fought with a Soma va rhs I king of Kosala. and
conquered; from him Pali, twelve miles north-west of Ratanpur, in
the Bilaspur District, Madhya Pradesh. He could not utilise his
energies for further conquests as his help was sought by his'brother-
in-law, the Rashtrakuta Krishna II, against the Eastern Chalukya
king Vijayaditya III, who had invaded the Deccan. Sankaragana,
at .the head ‘of the Kalachuri army, joined Krishna II at Kiranapura!
now a small town in the Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh. A
great battle was fought there with the Eastern Chalukvas in which
both Sahkaragana and Krishna II were worsted. The Kalachuris
and the Rashtrakutas were forced to retreat, and Kiranapura was
burnt by the Chalukya general, Panduranga. The Maliyapundi
grant of Amma .II states that Vijayaditya III “terrified Sankila. the
lord of the excellent Dahala. who was joined by the fierce Vallabha.

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

and burnt Kiranapura.” The Pithapuram inscription reports that
Vijayaditya frightened Sahkila, residing in KiranapuVa and joined
by Krishna. Thus Sahkaragana’s engagement with the Eastern
Chalukyas resulted in his complete discomfiture. The claim of the
Bilhari inscription that he raided the Malaya country does not seem
to have any historical basis He had two sons, Balaharsha and Yuva-
raja I, and a daughter named Lakshmi. Lakshml was married to
Jagattunga, son of the Rashtrakuta Krishna II. Lakshmi gave birth
to Indra III, who succeeded to the throne of his grandfather. Vijamba,
the grand-daughter of Sankaragana’s younger brother Arjuna, was
given, in marriage to Indra III. Sahkaragana died in the latter part
of the ninth century and was followed on the throne by Balaharsha.
Nothing particular is known about the reign of Balaharsha. He was
succeeded by his younger brother Yuvaraja I, who assumed the title
Keyuravarsha.

Yuvaraja flourished in the second quarter of the tenth century.
He inherited the military skill of his father and grandfather. In
the course of his conquests, he reached the Gau$a country and
defeated its king, who was either Rajyapala or his son Gopala II
of the Pala dynasty. Kalinga, which was at that time ruled by tKe
Garigas, had to bear the brunt of his attack. In the latter part of
his reign he had, however, to suffer some military defeats. The
Chandella Yasovarman. in his endeavour to push the boundary of
his kingdom further south, came into conflict with him. Though the
Chandellas claimed to have won a victory over him.. they did not
seem to have been able to acquire any part of the Kalachuri kingdom.
At this time the. Rashtrakutas reduced him to a very critical situa¬
tion. He ga;ve his daughter Kundakadevi in marriage to the Rash¬
trakuta Amoghavarsha III Vaddiga, who ruled from A. D. 936 to
939. Amoghavarsha’s son by this Kalachuri princess was Krishna III,
who ascended the throne of the Deccan in A.D. 939-40. Krishna III
led a successful expedition against Kalanjara during the reign of
his father. Some time after his accession Krishna III invaded the
kingdom of his maternal grandfather Yuvaraja I. The Kalachuris
failed to rise equal to the occasion and suffered a heavy defeat with
a disastrous result. The whole of Dahala-mandala was now at the
mercy of Krishna III.. The Karhad inscription of this Rashtrakuta
king, dated A.D. 959, states that he “conquered Sahasrarjuna (i.e.
the Kalachuri king)» though he was an elderly relative of his mother
and his wife.” A stone -inscription at Jura, in old Maihar State,
Baghelkhand, proves that the Rashtrakuta Empire extended at least
for some time up to Maihar during the reign of Krishna III. The
Rashtrakutas could not, however, keep the kingdom of the Kalachuris

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

under their subjugation for long, Yuvaraja I rallied his forces and
succeeded in driving them out of Pahala. The Bilhari inscription
mentions his victory over the Karnatas and the La tas. Lata or the
Southern Gujarat formed part of the Rashtrakuta Empire. The
great poet Rajasekhara evidently refers to this battle when he states
that ‘‘Yuvaraja (I) won a victory over Vallabha, who formed a con¬
federacy with other chiefs.” This achievement of Yuvaraja was
a memorable event in the history of the Kalachuris. To celebrate
this victory Rajasekhara staged his drama V iddhasdlabhanjikd at
the court of Yuvaraja. The authenticity of the statement in the
Bilhari inscription that Yuvaraja I raided Kashmir and the Himalaya
may well be doubted. It has been noticed above that the Khajraho
inscription puts forward similar claims on behalf of the Chandella
Yaiovarman, the northern adversary of Yuvaraja I.

Yuvaraja 1 helped the Saiva ascetics in preaching their doctrine
in his kingdom. There was a famous Saiva monastery known as
Golaki-matha in the pahala-manduZa, which was founded by Dur-
vasa. Sadbhavasambhu, a remote successor of Durvasa, and the
high priest of the Golaki-ma|ha, received from Yuvaraja a large
number of villages foj* the maintenance of that monastery. Yuvaraja I
married Nohala, the daughter of the Chaulukya Avanivarman, who
resided at the city of Mattamayura. There was a Saiva monastery
in this city, which exercised tremendous influence over that part of
the country during this period. Yuvaraja I invited Prabhavasiva of
this monastery to his kingdom and entrusted to him the charge of
a monastery, which was built at great cost, and which was richly
endowed by the king. At Chandrehi, twenty-nine miles south of
Rewa, Bagheikhand, there are remains of a temple of 2§iva and a
monastery. This might have been the monastery over which Pra-
bhavasiva had been placed in charge. Yuvaraja built a magnificent
temple at Gurgi, twelve miles east of the Rewa town. The place
is now in ruins. The queen Nohala erected a temple of Siva at
Bilhari, in the Jubbulpore District, and granted seven villages for
its maintenance.

The poet Rajasekhara, who lived for some time at the court of
the Pratlhara Mahendrapala and his son Mahipala of Kanauj, was
also intimately connected with the Kalachuri kings of his time. The
poet remarks that “of rivers the Mekalasuta (i.e. Narmada), of kings
Ranavigraha, and of poets Surananda are the ornaments of the coun¬
try of Chedi.” This obviously refers to the poet’s association with
the court of Tripuri during the reign of Sankaragana Ranavigraha,
the father of Yuvaraja I. Rajasekhara says that he wrote the drama
V iddhasdlabhanjikd to please Yuvarajadeva, and as already men-

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

tioned, it was staged in the court of the Kalachuris at the orders
of the assembly of Yuvaraja ( Y uvaraja-parishad ) . He seems to be
identical with the ‘wonder-struck poet Rajaiekhara,’ mentioned in
the Bilbao inscription of the time of Yuvaraja II, grandson of Yuva¬
raja I. Bhakamiira was the chief minister of the king. Yuvaraja I
was succeeded by his son Lakshmanaraja,’ who probably flourished
in the third quarter of the tenth century,

Lakshmanaraja pursued the traditional expansionist policy of
his predecessors. His father, as has been noticed, plundered Gau^a;
He raided the Vangala country or East Bengal* which was at this
time probably ruled by Trailokya-chandra of the Chandra dynasty.
It was apparently during this eastern campaign that he came in con¬
tact with the king of Odra or Orissa, and obtained from him an effigy
of the serpent Kaliya, wrought in jewels and gold. About the same
time Lakshmanaraja won laurels by inflicting a defeat on the king of
Kosala, who may be identified with Mahabhavagupta, son of Siva -
gupta, of the Soraavaihia. After finishing his eastern conquests,
Lakshmanaraja invaded the western region with all his infantry,
cavalry, elephant forces and feudatory chiefs. He humbled the chief
of Lata, who seems to have been a feudatory of the Rashtraku^as of
the Deccan, and won a victory over the king of Gurjara, who was
evidently Mularaja I, the founder of the Chaulukya. dynasty in
Anahilapa^aka, modern Patan in Northern Gujarat. Thereafter he
reached Somanathapattana, probably defeating Graharipu of the
Abhlra family, ruling in Junagadh, in his way, • On that occasion
he dedicated the effigy of Kaliya, which he had received from the
king of Odra, to the god Some£vara. The statement of the Gaharwa
inscription of Karna that Lakshmanaraja conquered Kashmir and
the Parity a country is obviously an exaggeration.

Like his father Lakshmanaraja also extended his patronage to
the Saiva teachers. He handed over the monastery of the holy
Vaidvanatha, which was situated at Bilhari or in its neighbourhood,
in the Jubbulpore District, to the iSaiva teacher Hfidayasiva of the
Mattamayura sect. His minister Bhatta Some^vara Dikshita, son
of Bhakamiira, prime-minister of Yuvaraja I, built a temple ,of
Vishnu at Karitalai, in the Mudwara sub-division of the Jubbulpore
District, Lakshmanaraja himself, his queen Rfiha<Ja, and his son
Sankaragana made donations for its maintenance. The Lakshmana*
sagar tank at Bilhari was probably dug by this king. Besides
Sankaragana, he had another son named Yuvaraja II, and a daughter
named BonthadevI, who was married to the Chfilukya Vikramft-
ditya IV. Bonthadevi‘s son Taila II put an end to the rule of the
Imperial Hashtrakutas, and re-established the sovereignly of the

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Chalukyas in the Deccan. Lakshmanaraja was succeeded by his
son Sankaragana, who was a great devotee of Vishnu (parama-
Vaishnava). His reign was uneventful and he appears to have ruled
for a very short period. He was succeeded by his younger brother
Yuvaraja II.

Yuvaraja II ruled in the last quarter of the tenth century. He
reconstructed the city of Tripuri in order to enhance its beauty and
grandeur. Both Yuvaraja II and his brother Sankaragana. lacked
that military prowess which brought success to their predecessors.
The enemies of the Kalachuris took advantage of this situation and
declared war on them. Chalukya Taila II, the king of the Deccan,
notwithstanding the fact that Yuvaraja II was his maternal uncle,
attacked his kingdom and carried on raids in the Chedi country.
Munja, the Paramara king of Malava, who made a bid for paramount
position. in Central and Western India, also fell upon the Kalachuris.
In vain did Yuvaiaja II try to defend his capital. Munja made a
triumphal entry into the city of Tripuri and held it for some time.
Some Kalachuri generals lost their lives in the battle, and Yuvaraja
appears to have fled from his capital. After the withdrawal of the

Paromaras from the Chedi country the chief ministers did not allow

• <

Yuvaraja II to assume royalty owing to the abject cowardice he
had shown on the approach of the Paramaras, but placed his son
Kokkalla II on the throne.

Yuvaraja II is said to have made donations to the holy
Somesvara. His reign appears to have come to a close before the
death of Munja, which took place between A.D. 993 and 998. The
Kalachuris regairted their power and prestige under the guidance
of Kokkalla II. Kokkalla led an expedition against the Gurjara
country, and defeated its king, who may be identified with the
Chaulukya Mularaja or his son Chamundaraja. He also avenged
the defeat inflicted by the Chalukya king Taila II on his father by
a successful invasion of the Deccan. He is said to have forced the
king of Kuntala to live in Vanavasa. About this time Kuntala
(Deccan) .seems to have been ruled by the Chalukya Satyasraya.
There seems to be a pun in the word Vanavasa, which may be re¬
ferring to Banavasi, modem Shimoga Taluq in Mysore, which was
situated in the kingdom of tile Chalukyas of the Deccan. To the
cast, Kokkalla advanced up to the Gauda country, which was then
ruled by the Pala Mahlpala I. Kokkalla is said to have forced the
Gauda king to take shelter in the watery fort of the sea. Thus
Kokkalla succeeded in re-establishing the authority of his family,
which had suffered an eclipse during the reign of his father.

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

2. Kalachuris of Sarayupara

At the time when Kokkalla I and his successors were on the
throne of Tripurl, a collateral branch of the Kalachuri family was
ruling on the banks of the Sarayu, modem Gogra, which flows by
the Bahraich and Gonda Districts, U.P. The territory over which
it ruled was known as Sarayupara. The earliest king of the family
is Rajaputra, who flourished in the latter part of the eighth century.
Rajaputra captured the Turagapati Vahali, destroyed the fame of
Kirtfin and other princes, and curbed the power of the kings of
Prachl (east). Vahali and Kirilin cannot be identified. The leader
of the kings of Prachl might have been Dharmapala of Bengal.
Rajaputra probably defended his kingdom successfully when
Dharmapala was making conquests in Uttar Pradesh, Rajaputra’s
son and successor was Sivaraja I. Sivaraja I was succeeded by
Sankaragana, who suffered a defeat at the hands of the Kalachuri
Kokkalla Ij Sankaragana flourished in the middle of the ninth
century. He was succeeded by his son Gunambhodhideva, also
known as Gui^asagara I, who ruled in the second half of the ninth
century. Gunambhodhideva defeated the king of Gautfa. It has
been suggested that he joined the Pratlhara Bhoja when the latter
invaded the kingdom of the Palas.14 It might have been in recog-
nition of this service that Bhoja granted some territories to this
Kalachuri chief.

To the east of the territory of the Kalachuris lay the kingdom
of the Malayaketu dynasty. Two inscriptions of this family have
been found in the Gorakhpur District, U.P. The capital of the
dynasty was Vijayapura, which was situated in the Uttara-giri-
kafaka. The city seems to have been situated at the foot of the
Himalayas in the northern part of the Gorakhpur District. Three
kings of this dynasty are known, viz. Maharajadhiraju Jayaditya I,
his son Maharajadhiraja Dharmaditya, and the latter’s son Maha-
rajddhiraja Jayaditya II. Jayaditya II was ruling in A.D. 870. Later
members of the Kalachuris of Sarayupara are found ruling over
the territories up to the banks of the Gandak, which included the
Gorakhpur District. It is not unlikely that the Pratlhara Bhoja I,
after putting an end to the rule of Jayaditya II, handed over the
latter’s kingdom to Gunambhodhideva. After Gunambhodhideva’s
death, his two sons Ullabha and Bhamanadeva successively occu¬
pied the throne. Bhamanadeva distinguished himself in a war with
the king of Dhara, the capital of Malava, which was at this time
ruled by the Paramara Vairisirhha II as a vassal under the Rashtra-
kutas of the Deccau. In the second quarter of the tenth century
Malava passed into the hands of the Pratlharas for some time.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bhamanadeva seems to have helped the Pratihara Mahipala I
in wresting Malava from the Paramaras.1- He was followed on
the throne in succession by Sankaragana II Mugdhatunga, Guna-
sagara II, Sivaraja II Bhamana, Sankaragana III, and Bhlma, each
being the son of his predecessor. Bhlma, who flourished in the early
part of the eleventh century, is said to have lost his kingdom by
the decree of fate. The cause of his dethronement is not known,
but probably he was worsted in a civil war. In A.D. 1031 Vyasa,
son of Gunasagara II, was raised to the throne. Vyasa’s son and
successor was the MaharcLjddhiraja Sodhadeva. who was ruling in
A.D. 1079. So^hadeva’s kingdom extended from the Sarayu or
Gogra to the Gandak, and comprised the Bahraich, Gonda, Basti,
and Gorakhpur Districts, in U.P. Nothing is known of the dynasty
after Sodhadeva.

III. THE PARAMARAS

The kingdom of the Paramaras of Malava was conterminous
with that of the Kalachuris of Chedi. It is generally assumed that
the original home of the Paramaras was Mount Abu, in the Sirohi
State, Rajputana. This assumption is based on a story related by
Padmagupta Pari mala in the latter part of the tenth century, and
repeated in the later inscriptions of the Paramaras. According to
this story the sage Vasishtha had a Kamadhenu (wish-granting cow)
which was stolen by the sage Visvamitra. In order -to recover it.
he made sorpe offerings to the sacrificial fire on Mount Abu with
holy incantations. A hero sprang out of the fire, forcibly carried
the cow from Visvamitra, and returned it to his creator. Vasishtha,
in recognition of this service, gave him the name Paramara, which
means ‘Slayer of the Enemy/ and made him king. In the lineage
of this hero was born Upendra, who is the earliest known king of
the Paramara dynasty. This story of the origin of the Paramaras
is not mentioned iii the inscriptions of the family issued prior to
the second quarter of the eleventh century. The earliest known
>pigraphic record of the Paramaras, viz. the Harsola grant, which
was issued nearly half a century before the time of Padmagupta,
relates on the ofher hand, that the kings of the Paramara dynasty
were bom in th$ family of the Rashtraku^as of the Deccan.

Dhara, modern Dhar, in Madhya Bharat, was the capital of the
main branch of the Paramaras. Since it is known that Vakpati-
Munja, the seventh king of the dynasty, commenced his reign about
A.D. 972, Upendra, who was also known as Krishnaraja, may be
taken to have flourished in the first quarter of the ninth century.
Shortly before A.D. 812 the Rashtrakuta Govinda III conquered
Malava by defeating the Pratihara Nagabhata II and handed it over

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

to one of his followers. As the early Paramara chiefs are known to
have been vassals of the Rashfraku$as of the Deccan, the follower
of Govinda III, who was made the ruler of Malava, was probably
Upendra. Govinda III realised that Nagabha^a II would make an
attempt to reconquer his home-territory of Malava. and Upendra
would not be able to resist him. So he commissioned Karkkaraja,
the chief of lA\ar to defend Malava against the incursion of the
Pratiharas, Nagabha^a II could not reconquer Malava though he
succeeded in capturing some of its outlying hill fortresses.

Upendra had two sons, Vairlsiihha I and pambarasimha.
Dambarasimha and his successors ruled in Vagada, corresponding
to modern Banswara and Dungarpur, until the early part of the
twelfth century, as vassals of the main branch at Dhara. Vairi-
sirhha I ascended the throne of his father. He was succeeded by
his son Sly aka I, whose son and successor was Vakpati I. Padma-
gupta does not mention the names of Vairisimha and Siyaka I, but
merely states that there ruled in the Paramara dynasty more than
one king between Upendra and Vakpati I. The Rash^rakuta Arnogha-
varsha I, who was a contemporary of Upendra, Vairisimha, and
Siyaka I, claims that he was worshipped by the king of Malava.
The Udepur Pra^asti mentions Vakpati I as the king of Avanti. It
was probably during his reign that the Rash{rakufa Indra III halted
at Ujjain while advancing with his army against the Pratlhara Mahl¬
pala I. It is not unlikely that Vakpati I accompanied Indra III in
that expedition. The Udepur Praia sti mentions that he led his army
up to the tanks of the Gahga. Vakpati’s son and successor was
Vairisimha II, also known as Vajrata. The successors of Indra III
were busy with their own affairs at home till the accession of
Krishna HI in AJD. 939. Mahlpala I, who had suffered an igno¬
minious defeat at the hands of Indra III, took advantage of the
situation and invaded the Rashtraku\a Empire. Vairisimha II could
not resist the invading army. Mahlpala and his subordinate, the
Kalachuri Bhamanadeva, the chief of the Gorakhpur Division, con¬
quered all the territories up to the banks of the Narmada including
Uj jay ini and Dhara. A Pratlhara governor was posted at Uj jay ini.
The Paramara sovereignty in Malava had ceased till after A.D. 946
when Mahendrapala II, son of Mahlpala I, was on the throne of
Kanauj. Shortly after this date Vairisimha II reconquered Malava,
apparently with the help of the Rashtrakuta Krishna III. The Udepur
Prasasti avers that Vairisimha proved by the strength of his sword
that Dhara belonged to him. He was succeeded by his son Siyaka II,
who was known also as Harsha.

Siyaka IT owed allegiance to the Rashfrakuta Krishna III. He
ascended the throne at a time when the Pratlhara Empire was

the Age of imperial kanauj

gradually disintegrating. His kingdom extended on the west up to
the Sabarmati river beyond which lay the kingdom of the Chau-
lukya Mularaja I. The chief, of Khe^aka-man^aia, modern Kaira,
in Gujarat, was his ally. Slyaka defeated a chief named Yogarajk
and, while returning to his capital, encamped on the banks of the
Mahi river. This vanquished chief may be identified with tho
Chalukya Avanivarman Yogaraja II, the ruler of Saurashtra. To
the north-west of Malava was situated Huna-raandaZa, which was
ruled by a chief named Jajjapa in the second half of the ninth
century. Slyaka II claims to have defeated a Huna chief, who was
obviously one of the successors of Jajjapa. On the north-east,
Siyaka II had to acknowledge defeat at the hands of the Chandella
Yasovarman of Khajraho. Yasovarman pushed the boundary of
his kingdom up to the Malava river, which is probably identical
with the Vetravati, modern Betwa.

In the latter part of his reign Siyaka II decided to throw off
the yoke of the Rashtrakut>as, and the death of the Rashtrakuta
Krishna III presented a favourable opportunity. He refused to avow
allegiance to Khottiga, successor of Krishna III, and openly re¬
volted. Khottiga marched against the rebel, and was opposed by
the latter at a place known as Kalighafta, on the banks of the
Narmada. In this fateful battle Slyaka was assisted by the Para-
mara Kamka, also known as Chachcha, the ruler of Vagada, and
the successor of Dhanika, a descendant of Dambarasimha. Kamka
died fighting bravely with the enemy. Slyaka succeeded after a
hard fight in dispersing his adversaries. He pursued Khottiga up to
Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashfrakutas, which for the first time
experienced the invasion of a foreign army. The city was plundered
by the Paramaras without encountering any opposition (A.D. 972).
The encampment of the Emperor was, however, bravely defended
by the Ganga Marasimha II. Siyaka had eventually to withdraw
from the Deccan, but he pushed the southern boundary of his king¬
dom up to the Tapti. He deserves credit for achieving the independ¬
ence of his dynasty. On the north Siyaka’s kingdom was bounded
by that of the Mahardjadhirdja Chamundaraja, who was ruling in
old Jhalawar State in A.D. 971.

Siyaka had two sons, Munja and Sindhuraja. Merutuhga relates
that Munja was not the son of Slyaka. Slyaka was, we are told,
without afiy issue for a long time. Once, while touring the country¬
side, he picked up a new-born child from a tuft of Munja grass. He
gave him the name Munja and adopted him as his heir. Subse¬
quently a child was born to him who was named Sindhuraja. The
birth of the child did not, however, lead Siyaka to lessen his affection

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

towards Munja. He arranged that he should be succeeded by Munja
and Sindhuraja successively. In the latter part of his reign he
adopted the life of an ascetic- and “clothed himself in the grass-robe
of a royal sage.” Munja succeeded him to the throne some time
between A.D. 972 and 974.

Munja was also known as Utpala and Vakpatiraja II,. and
assumed the titles Snvallabha, Pj-Uhvivallabha, and Amoghavarsha .
He inherited a kingdom which extended on the north up ' to the
southern border of Jhalawar, on the east up to Bhilsa, on the south
up to the Tapti and on the west up to the Sabarmati. He directed
his energies towards its further expansion. On the east, he defeat¬
ed the Kalachuri Yuvaraja II and plundered his capital Tripurl,
but could not annex any part of the Kalachuri kingdom. He led
an extensive campaign against numerous states in Rajputana. The
Hunas of Huna-mandala yielded to his sword. The Guhilas of
Medapata were the next victims of. his attack. He^ destroyed the
elephant forces of the king of the Guhilas, who was either Nara-
vahana or his son Saktikumara, and plundered his capital Aghafa,
modern Ahar, in Udaipur, Rajputana. The vanquished chief saved
his life by taking shelter with the Rashtrakuta Dhavala of Hasti-
kun<JI. This success brought Munja on the border of the kingdom
of the Chah&manas of Na&lula, modern Nadol, in Jodhpur. He
wrested from the Chahamana Baliraja Mount Abu and the southern
part of Jodhpur up to Kiradu, sixteen miles north-west of Balmer.
His attempt to conquer Nad^ula was, however, foiled by this Chaha¬
mana king. The conquered territories were divided between the
princes of the Paramara dynasty for efficient administration. Munja’s
sons Aranyaraja and Chandana were made the governors respec¬
tively of Mount Abu and Jabalipura, modern Jalor, in Jodhpur.
His nephew Dusala, son of Sindhuraja, was placed in charge of
Bhillamala or Srlmala, modem Bhinmal, in Jodhpur. Successors
of -these princes ruled their respective territories for many years.
Munja invaded the kingdoms of Anahilapataka and Lata on the
west. Mu la raj a of the Chaulukya dynasty, king of Anahilapataka,
being worsted, fled with his family to the desert - of Mar war. His
army had at last to take shelter with the Rashtrakuta Dhavala of
Hastikundi for safety. Munja’s adversary in Lata was the Chaulukya.
Barappa, the general of the ; Chalukya Taila II of the Deccan.
Taila II, who had established his authority over the Deccan after
overthrowing the Rashtrakutas, considered himself the master of
the whole of the Rashtrakuta Empire. In order to recover the terri¬
tories; which seceded from it, he sent his general, Barappa, to Lata
and himself led ’successive campaigns against Malava. Munja

A.I.K.-7

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

defeated Barappa and repulsed Taila’s attacks six times. Then, v in
order to get rid of this menace once for all by crushing the military
power of his sworn enemy, he thought of an aggressive campaign.
His veteran minister Budraditya did not approve of this, and tried
to dissuade him from it. On being unsuccessful he requested the
king not to cross the Godavari under any circumstances. Muhja
led his army to the Deccan and crossed the Godavatf in pursuit of
the enemy, totally disregarding the advice of his minister. On re¬
ceipt of this news Budmdifya, who had a premonition that a dire
calamity would befall his master, committed suicide. The faithful
minister preferred death to the shock of seeing the dismal fate of
his master. Munja was soon entrapped in the country of his enemy
and taken prisoner. Taila II took possession of the southern part
of the Paramara kingdom, possibly up to the banks of the Narmada,
and kept his adversary confined in the prison of his capital. Munja’s
officers went there in disguise, and made a secret plan for his rescue.
But the plan was detected and on the orders of Taila the captive
king was executed. Such was the tragic end of a great king, who
was not only a great general and a great poet, but also a great,
patron of art and literature. The poets Dhananjaya, Bhafta Hala-
yudha, Dhanika, Padmagupta, Amitagati and many others benefited
from his munificence. He also dug many tanks and built a number
of temples.

The death of Munja took place between A.D. 993 and 998. He
was succeeded by his younger brother Sindhuraja, who assumed the
titles of Kumar andrdy ana and Navaa&hasdnka. He defeated the
Chalukya Satya^raya, king of the Deccan, and recovered the terri¬
tories which Munja had to surrender to Taila II. The poet Padma¬
gupta, who lived in his court also, composed a book Navasdhasdnka -
charita or the life of N avasdhasdnka Sindhuraja. The book nar¬
rates how a king of the Naga dynasty, whose kingdom lay two
hundred miles south of the Narmada, sought help from Sindhuraja
against a neighbouring demon-king named Vajrahku£a. Sindhuraja,
along with the Vi dyad haras, reached the country of the demons
after crossing the Godavari and killed the demon-king in a battle.
In gratitude the Naga king gave his daughter gaiiprabha in mar¬
riage to the victor. That the outline of this story, narrated by
Padmagupta, is based on historical facts is admitted on all hands.
It has been suggested that the Naga king was a chief of the Naga
dynasty ruling in old Bastar State, and the demon-king was a chief
of the Non-Aryan Mana tribe of Vajra, modem Wairagarh, in the
Chanda District, Madhya Pradesh. The Vidyadharas were the
Silaharas of Thana, whose ruler at that time was Aparajita. Sindhu-

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

raja is known to have conquered Aparanta. It was probably during
his campaign against Wairagarh that Sindhuraja plundered the
territory of the SomavamsI kings of Kosala. On the north Sindhuraja
scored a victory over the chief of the Huna-man^ala. The Paramara
Chantfapa, son of Kaihka, ruler of Vaga<$a, tried to assert his inde¬
pendence, but was readily put down by Sindhuraja. Sindhuraja was
also involved in wars with the Chaulukyas of Lata and Anahiiapafaka.
Though he could easily subjugate Lata, which was then ruled by
Barappa’s successor ^Gohgiraj a, his attempt to assert supremacy over
northern Gujarat was frustrated by Chamuri^araja, son of Mularaja
I. His reign came to an end about A.D. 1000 and he was succeeded by
his son Bhoja.

IV. THE MINOR DYNASTIES OF GUJARAT

AND KATHIAWAR

During the period under review, Saurashtra was ruled by a
number of dynasties like the Saindhavas, the Chalukyas, the Chapas,
and others, whose history may now be briefly related.

1. The Saindhavas^

The Saindhava dynasty, also known as the Jayadratha dynasty,
ruled the Western Saurashtra ( apara-Saurdshfra-man^ala ) from its
capital Bhutambilika, also mentioned as Bhumilika, modern Bhumili
or Ghumli. in Kathiawar, twenty-five miles north-east of Porbandar,
in a gorge of the Barda hills. The earliest known king (kshitipati)
of the dynasty is Pushyadeva, who flourished in the second quarter of
the eighth century. It was probably during the reign of this king,
in or before A.D. 739, that the Arabs of Sindh invaded the kingdom
of the Saindhavas.17 Pushyadeva appears also to have suffered a
defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga. He was succeed¬
ed by his son Krishnaraja, whose son and successor was the Maha-
samanta Agguka I. Agguka ruled in the last quarter of the eighth
century. During the reigns of these two chiefs the Arabs made fresh
attempts by sea to establish their supremacy over Saurashtra. About
A.D. 756 Hisham was appointed governor of Sindh, Hisham sent
“Amru bin Jamal with a fleet of barks to the coast of Barada.” Barada
obviously is the tract of the country along the Barda hills. The fact
that the Saindhavas called themselves masters of the western sea
( apara-samudrddhipati ) indicates that they had strong naval forces.
As the Muslims do not claim any victory on this occasion they were
certainly routed by the Saindhavas under the leadership of Krishna.
Twenty years after this incident, about A.D. 776, the Arabs sent
another naval expedition against Barada. It is stated that they cap-

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

tured a city there but had to withdraw from the country because of
the outbreak of an epidemic, which carried away a large number of
their soldiers. After this disaster the Caliph Mahdl “gave up the
project of conquering any part of India/’ The town which was con¬
quered by the Arabs may be identified with Ghumli. The real cause
which forced the Arabs to withdraw from the shores of Barda was
not, however, the outbreak of epidemic in their military camps.
That was probably the report which the Arab generals sent to the
Caliph to save their skin. There is evidence to prove that Agguka I
inflicted a defeat on them and freed his country from their designs.
An inscription states that Agguka I “showed the greatness of Varaha
when he easily rescued his country, which was being drowned in
an ocean of naval force sent by powerful enemies.” This obviously
refers to Agguka’s victory over the Arabs.

Agguka I was succeeded by his son Kanaka, who seems to have
ruled in the first quarter of the ninth century. During this period
the Partlhara Nagabhata II led an expedition against Saurashtra
and won a victory over the Saindhavas. Kanaka had by his two
queens two sons, K|*ishnaraja II and Jaika I. The king (raja) Krish¬
na raj a II succeeded his father to the throne. From this time there
was a protracted war between the Saindhavas and the Chapas of
Vardhamana. Krishna II fought successfully with the chief of the
Chapas, who may be identified with Vikramarka. He is stated to
have brought happiness to the inhabitants of Parvata, which pro¬
bably refers to the Barda hills. Krishna II died at an early age
and was succeeded by his young son Agguka H. Jaika I, the step¬
brother of Krishna II, acted as a regent of this young prince. Jaika
issued a charter as regent in A.D. 832 and professed that “though
Kamala (Royal Fortune) was anxious to be united to him in pre¬
ference to Agguka, her rightful lord, he spurned her wily overtures
and decided to be the disinterested guardian of his young and in¬
experienced nephew/' But later Jaika is found occupying the throne
of Bhutambilika, and it is not unlikely that he deposed his nephew.
He is credited with a victory over the Chapas of Vardhamanapura.
He had two sons, Chamun^araja and Agguka III. Chamui?<Jaraja
ascended the throne after his father, and was succeeded by his
younger brother Agguka III, whose son was Ranaka II. It is stated
that after being on the throne for a long time Agguka III decided to
crown his son, noticing how “Lakshml, the goddess of Royal Fortune,
had become eager to be united with his son Ranaka, who had become
quite capable of bearing the burden of administration.” It appears
that Agguka III abdicated in favour of his son Ranaka II in order
to establish the right of the latter to the throne in supersession of

100

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

the claim of his nephew Agguka IV, son of Chamun^araja. Ranaka
IPs known date is A.D. 874. His son Jaika assumed the position
of the Yuvardja, but after Ranaka II, Agguka IV is found occupying
the throne. This suggests that he succeeded in overthrowing his
cousin. He was ruling in A.D. 886. After his death his son Mahd -
sdmantadhipaiti Jaika II came to the throne whose known dates are
A.D. 904 and 915. He is the last known king of his family. His
successors were probably overthrown by the Abhira chief, Graha-
ripu.

The Saindhavas ruled Western Saurashfra as feudatory chiefs,
but we cannot definitely say who their suzerain lords were. It is
not unlikely that they acknowledged the suzerainty of the Pratlhara
Nagabhata II and his successors, whose Empire is known to have
extended at least up to Junagadh, which bordered the kingdom of
Bhutambilika on the west.

2. The Chdlukyas

A Chalukya dynasty ruled in some part of Saurashtra, possibly
in Junagadh', contemporaneously with the Saindhavas. Their his¬
tory is based entirely on two copper-plate inscriptions18 found in the
town of Una, in Junagadh. The earliest known king ( mahipati ) of
this dynasty is Kalla, who was succeeded by his brother Mahalla.
These two royal brothers flourished in the latter part of the eighth
century. The successor of Mahalla was Kalla’s son. This ruler,
whose name cannot be deciphered from the inscription, was succeed¬
ed by his son Vahukadhavala. Vahukadhavala ruled in the first
quarter of the ninth century. About this time the Chalukyas came
under the sway of the Pratlharas of Kanauj, whose king Nagabhata II
conquered all the territories up to Western Saurashtra. Vahuka¬
dhavala claims to have defeated Dharma, Karnata army, and -"rhany
other imperial kings. Dharma was evidently Dharmapala of Beh-^
gal, and the Karnata army refers to the forces of the Rashtrakufas
of the Deccan. It is obvious that Vahukadhavala fought these battles
under the leadership of the Pratlhara Nagabhata II. Vahukadha-
vala’s son and successor was Avanivarman I, who was succeeded
by his son Mahasdmanta Balavarman. Balavarman acknowledged
the supremacy of the Pratlhara Mahendrapala I, and was ruling in
A.D. 893. He won a victory over Jajjapat of the Huna-man$ala to
the north-west of Malava. After Balavarman, his son Avani¬
varman II, also known as Yoga, ascended the throne. Avanivarman
was ruling in A.D. 899 as a vassal of the Pratlhara Mahendrapala I.
He led an army against the Chapas of Vardhamanapura, and defeated
their king Dharanlvaraha, who was a feudatory of the Pratlhara
Mahipala I, son of Mahendrapala. This clash between the feuda-

101

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

tones of the Pratiharas shows that about this time the latter had
lost effective control over the outlying provinces of their Empire.
Avanivarman had to acknowledge defeat at the hands of the Para-
mar a Slyaka II in the latter part of his reign which extended up to
the middle of the tenth century. The rule of the Chalukyas in
Saurashtra was put an end to by the Abhlras in the third quarter
of the tenth century.

3. The Ahhiras

The Abhlras established their supremacy over the Southern and
Western Saurashtra under their king Graharipu in the second half
of the tenth century. Their capital was Vamanasthali, modem
Vanthali, nine miles west of Junagadh. Graharipu, who is described
as a Mlechchha chief, carried on anti-Brahmanical activities. He
ate beef, and plundered the pilgrims to Prabhasa tirtha (Somanatha).
In order to end this menace, the Chaulukya Mularaja, king of
Anahilapataka, marched with his army against Graharipu. Graha¬
ripu strengthened his position by securing assistance from Laksha,
son of Phula, king of Kachchha -deic, also known as Jartra-deia,
modern Kutch. A great battle was fought on the banks of the
Jambumali river in which Laksha lost his life and Graharipu was
taken prisoner.19

4. Vardhas (?) of Saurya-Mandala

In the third quarter of the eighth century a king named Maha-
varaha was: ruling somewhere in Saurashtra. He came into clash"
with the Rashtrakuta Krishna I (c. A.D. 758-773) of the Deccan. The
Baroda plate, dated A.D. 812, states that he attacked Krishna I, but
was repulsed.20 A fragmentary stone inscription, now deposited in
the Barton Museum, Bhavnagar, states that Krishna was made to
retreat along the banks of the Narmada by a king whose name ends
in Varaha. Dr. Bhandarkar is inclined to restore the name as Maha-
varaha, who, in his opinion, was identical with the chief, of this
name, referred to above*:21 The battle between Kpishna and Maha-
varaha was indecisive. Mahavaraha seems to have been succeeded
by Jayavaraha, who, as noted above,22 is known to have been ruliqg
in A.D. 783 in the territories of the Saury as to the west of Vardha-
mana, modern Wadhwan, in Kathiawar. Nothing is known of this
dynasty after Jayavaraha.

5. The Chapas

The Chapas were also known as Chava^as, Chavotkatas, and
Chapis. There were two branches of the Chapa dynasty. One of

102

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

them ruled from Vardhamana and the other from Anahilapataka,
modern Patau, in Northern Gujarat, which was the capital of the
Sarasvata-mau^aia. The first known king of the family at Vardha-
man a is Vikramarka, who ruled in the first quarter of the ninth cen¬
tury. He had apparently to bear the brunt of an invasion by the
Pratlhara Nagabhata II. He was succeeded by his son A<J<Jaka, after
whom the country around Wadhwan, including Limbdi, came to be
known as A<Jdanaka-de£a. A<J<Jaka*s son and successor was PulakeSi,
who had two sons, Dhruvabhata and Dharanlvaraha. Dhruvabhata
ascended the throne in the closing years of the ninth century. Dhru¬
vabhata and his predecessors fought a series of battles with the
Saindhavas of Western Saurashfra. After Dhruvabhata, his younger
brother Dharanlvaraha became king, Dharanlvaraha, who was
ruling in A.D. 914 as a vassal of the Pratlhara Mahipala I, had to sub¬
mit to the forces of the Chalukya Avanivarman II Yogaraja. His
kingdom was invaded by the Chaulukya Mularaja, who captured his
throne and drove him out of SaurasKtra* In his distress, he saved
his life by taking shelter with the Rashtrakuta Dhavala of Hasti-
kundi.23 Addanaka-deia was annexed to the kingdom of the Chau-
lukyas.

Vanaraja was the founder of the other branch of the Chapa
dynasty ruling in Anahila pataka. It is stated that Vanaraja built
this city and established there the supremacy of his family in
A.D. 745. After him ruled Yogaraja, Ratnaditya, Kshemaraja,
Akadadeva, and Bhuyadadeva or Bhuyaga<Jadeva, also known as
Samantasimha. The story runs that once Samantasimha held a
cavalry parade. It was attended by three brothers Raji, BTja, and
Dan^aka, sons of Bhuvanaditya, king of Kalyana-kataka, in femauj,
who halted at Anahilapataka in the guise of beggars on their way
back to Kanauj from Somanatha. Raji, by his wise criticism of the
cavalry movement, attracted the attention of the king who, taking
him to be a member of a royal family, gave his sister Liladevi in
marriage to him. Liladevi died while giving birth to her son, who
was given the name Mularaja. Mularaja served his maternal uncle
as a general for some time and then usurped his throne after putting
him to death in A.D. 942. The authenticity of this story, narrated
by the Gujarat chroniclers, may reasonably be doubted. But that
Mularaja put an end to thet rule of the Chapas admits of no doubt.
The Vadnagar Prasasti states that Mularaja carried away “the for¬
tune of the kingdom of the Chapotkata princes.’* The traditional
date of the end of the rule of the Chapas and the accession of the
Chaulukya Mularaja in A.D. 941-42 is corroborated by an epigraphic
record.

103

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

V. THE CHAULUKYAS

It is generally assumed that the names Chalukya and Chaulukya
are synonymous. But the traditional belief of the Chalukyas in
regard to their origin is different from that of the families calling
themselves Chaulukyas. The existence of at least three branches
of the Chaulukya dynasty is known. The oldest of them ruled at
Mattamayura, which was situated in Central India in the neighbour¬
hood of Malava and Chedi. The earliest known chief of this branch
is Simhavarman, whose son and successor was Sadhanva. Sadhanva’s
son and successor was Avanivarman, who ruled in the last quarter
of the ninth century. Avanivarman gave his daughter in marriage
to the Kalachuri Yuvaraja I. He was a patron of the Saiva ascetics
residing in his kingdom.

Mdlaraja I, as has already been noticed, was the founder of an¬
other branch of the Chaulukya dynasty, which in course of time rose
to imperial eminence. He established his capital at Anahilapataka,
which was also known as Anahilapura, Anahilanagara, Anahila-
pattana, and Anahilavada. His inscription states that he conquered
Sara svata -manual a (i.e. the country on the banks of the Saras vati
river) with his own arms and resided in the city of Anahilapataka.
He was an ambitious king, and chose Saurash^ra as the field of his
first military excursion. He forced the Chapa Dharanivaraha to flee
from his capital Vardhamana, and annexed his kingdom. He led
successive invasions against Kachchha-desa, modem Cutch, but was
repulsed, by its ruler Laksha or Lakh a. About this time the anti-
Brahma nical activities of the AbhTra chief Graharipu of Vamanasthali
prompted him to lead an army against him. In this religious war
he is said to have been helped by contingents from the chiefs of
Abu, Srlmala, Marava^a and other places. Lakha, king of Kachchha,
came with his army to assist Graharipu. In the battle that followed
Lakha lost his life and Graharipu was taken prisoner. Mularaja
brought Kachchha-desa under his sway.

Mularaja had to fight defensive wars in other directions. Once
his kingdom was invaded on the north by the Chahamana Vigraha¬
raja, king of Sekambhan. To make the situation worse, the Chaulukya
Batappa, the chief of Lata, and a general of the Chalukya Taila II,
made an onslaught on the southern border of his kingdom. In this
predicament he, on the advice of his ministers, retired to the fort of
Kantha, modern Kanthakot, in Cutch, to bide his time, hoping that
Vigraharaja would withdraw to his own country during the following
rainy season. But contrary to his expectation Vigraharaja, dis¬
regarding the obstacles caused by the rains, overran SSrasvata-
ynanddla and Lata and reached the banks of the Narmada. Being

104

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

thus hard pressed, Mularaja concluded a treaty with the Chaha-
manas.24 After the departure of the Chahamana army he sent his
son Chamun^araja against Barappa who was killed in the battle.
Mularaja’s fight with the Paramara Munja proved disastrous for him.
He, along with his family, had to withdraw to Marwar, and his army
had to take shelter under the Rashtrakuta Dhavala. Though Mula¬
raja eventually succeeded in recovering his kingdom, he had to suffer
another defeat at the hands of the Kalachuri Lakshmana. The his¬
torical value of the report of the Gujarat chroniclers that he fought
successfully with Sindhuraja and the king of North Kosala cannot
be ascertained.

Mularaja’s kingdom extended on the north up to Sanchor in
Jodhpur, and was bounded on the east and south by the Sabarmati
river. He founded a temple at Man<Jali, modern Mandal, in the
Viramgam Taluk, Ahmadabad District. He also built two temples
at Anahilapataka. The dates of his reign, known from epigraphic
sources, range between A.D. 942 and 994. Meratunga’s Vichdrasrem
mentions V.S.1052 (=A.D. 995) as the date of the end of his reign.
He abdicated his throne in favour of his son Chamun<Jaraja.

Chamun^araja defended his kingdom against the incursion of
the Paramara Sindhuraja, the brother of Munja. But he had to
yield to the forces of the Kalachuri Kokkalla n, the son of Yuva-
raja n. He committed a grave social crime and, being penitent,
started for Banaras for expiation after handing over the charge of
the government to his son Vallabharaja. While passing through
Malava, he was forced to give up the insignia of royalty by the king
of that country, who was evidently the Paramara Bhoja, son of Sin¬
dhuraja. On his return from Banaras he asked his son to punish the
king of Malava for his impudence. Vallabharaja marched with an
army against Malava, but died of small-pox on the way. Chamunqia-
raja then handed over the sovereignty to his second son Durlabha-
raja. According to the Gujarat chroniclers, Chamun<Jaraja’s reign
ended in A.D. 1008.

Barappa founded the supremacy of another line of the Chaulukya
dynasty in Lata, the capital of which was Bhrigukachchha, modern
Broach in Southern Gujarat. A collateral branch of the Rashtra¬
kuta dynasty ruled in Lata till the first half of the tenth century.
In A.D. 948 Khetaka-mari^aZa, modem Kaira, was ruled by a feuda¬
tory of the Rashtrakutas, who was an ally of the Paramara Sly aka II.
Barappa, who is described as a general of Taila II, king of the Deccan,
established his supremacy over Lata by defeating the feudatories of
the Rashtrakutas after the fall of Manyakheta. Barappa could not

enjoy his throne peacefully. His kingdom was invaded by the Para-

* \

105

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAXJJ

raara Munja. He tried to gain some advantage over his northern
neighbour, the Chaulukya Mularaja, when the latter’s kingdom was
invaded by the Chahamana, Vigraharaja. Eventually he lost his life
in an encounter with Yuvamja Chamundaraja, son of Mularaja. who
took possession of his territory for some time. Barappa’s son and
successor Gongiraja succeeded in recovering the territory from his
northern rival, for he claims to have relieved his country, which had
been seized by powerful enemies,

VI. THE CHAHAMANAS

There were several branches of the Chahamana dynasty. The
earliest known branch ruled in La$a up to the middle of the eighth
century.26 Another branch established its supremacy in the £akam-
bhari-pradesq, the capital of which was Sakambhari, modem Sam-
bhar, in Jaipur, in the early years of the seventh century. The
territory over which .this branch ruled was also known as Sapa-
dalaksba country, Vasudeva was the founder of this line. In his
lineage was bom Samanta, who was followed on the throne by
Purnatalla, Jayaraja, and Vigraharaja I in succession. Vigraharaja’s
son and successor was Ghandraraja who Nourished in the middle of
the eighth century. After Ghandraraja, his younger brother Go pen-
draraja ascended the throne. Gopendraraja’s successor .was his
nephew Duriabhsraja I, son of Ghandraraja I, who ruled in the last
quarter of the eighth century. About this time, the country of
Sakambhari was included in the kingdom of the Prat'ihara Vatsarajp,
which extended from Avanti to Didwana, in Jodhpur, Burlabha-
raja is said to have defeated the king of Gauqa, and to have reached
Ganga-sagara in the course of conquest. This seems to refer to his
participation in the battle between his overlord Vatsaraja and Dinar-
mapala of Bengal. Burlabharaja’s son and successor was Govinda-
raja I, also known as Guvaka I, who is said to have attained pre¬
eminence in the court of Nagavaloka, ie. the PratShara Nagabhata II.
The Prabandhakosa , a work of a later period, mentions that the
Chahamana Govindaraja repulsed an attack of the Sultan Vega
Varisa. Vega Varisa is identified with Bashar, son of Da’ud, who was
the governor of Sindh under the Caliph Al-Ma’mun (A.D. 8f3-833).
It Is also known from Khurarndma-Rdso that the Guhila Khommana II,
along with many other Indian chiefs, resisted the onslaught of the
Arabs under the Caliph Al-Ma’mun. The Pratlhara Nagabhata II,
as has already been noticed, came into conflict with the Muslims.
It seems that Bashar, the Arab governor of Sindh, during the Cali¬
phate of Al-MaTnun, attacked the western part of the Pratlhara
Empire, but Nagabhata II with the help of his feudatories, Govinda-
rija I and Khommana IT, succeeded in repulsing him. After the

106

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

close of Govindaraja’s reign, his son Chandraraja II, also known as
Jsasinripa, ascended the throne, Chandraraja had a son named
Guvaka II and a daughter named Kalavatf. Guvaka II, after his
accession to the throne, gave his sister in marriage to the king of
Kanauj, who seems to have been the PratHiara Bhoja I. The king
of Sakambhari, who was worsted by the Kalachuri Kokkalla I,26
seems to have been Guvaka II. Guvaka ITs son and successor Chan-
dana killed in battle Kudrena, a king of the Tomara dynasty.
Chandana’s queen laid the foundation of some religious buildings
at Pushkara-tlrthu. His son and successor was Vakpati-raja, who
ruled in the first quarter of the tenth century, Yakpatiraja I is
stated to have harassed Tantrapala, who was on his way to Atlanta-
gochara with a message from his overlord. The overlord of Yak-
pa tiraj a I was apparently the Pratihara MahTpala I. Anantagochara
seems to have been the name of the country round Sikar. The above
statement makes it clear that about this time the Chahamanas had
acquired enough power to defy the authority of the Fratiharas.
Vakpatiraja built a temple of 5§iva at Pushkara. He had three sons,
Simharaja, Vatsaraja, and Lakshmana, Lakshmana founded a king¬
dom at Naddula, in Southern Marwar, where his successors ruled for
several centuries. Simharaja ascended the throne after Vakpati¬
raja.27 He defeated a Tomara leader named Salavana, and put into
prison a number of princes, who were feudatories of the Fratiharas
of Kanauj. In order to liberate them, the king of the Pratihara
dynasty, who was one of the successors of Mahipala I, possibly Deva-
pala, came to his house in person. Subsequently Simharaja freed
his territory from the suzerainty of the Fratiharas, who had about
this time lost their imperial position. He is the first among the
Chahamana kings of Aakambharf to assume the title Mahdrdjddhi -
raja. He granted a number of villages to the temple of Harsha-
natha, which was constructed in A.D. 956, and lies near the village
of Harshanath, about seven miles south of Sikar, in the Shaikh a wati
Province of Jaipur, He was succeeded by his son Vigraharaja II.
who was ruling in A.D. 973. Vigraharaja invaded Gujarat, forced
the Chaulukya Mularaja to take shelter in the fort of Kanthakot,
in the Kachehha-dcsa, and led his victorious army up to. the banks
of the Narmada. He built a temple of the Goddess Asapuri at Blrri-
gukachchha on the bank of the Narmada. Subsequently Mularaja
came to terms with him and regained his kingdom. After Vigraha¬
raja II, his younger brother Durlabhariaja, also knowil as Durian-
ghyameru, came to the throne. He was ruling in A.D. ■ 999, and hia
kingdom extended up to Farbatsar, in Jodhpur,, on the west. He
conquered Hasosittana--rmrndala? which cannot be identified, He also
invaded the territory of the Chahamana Mahendra, king of Naddula,

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Mahendra failed to stand up to his adversary and sought protection
under the Rashtrakuta Dhavala of Hastikun^jS.

In the closing years of the tenth century, the kingdom of the
Chahamanas of Sakambharl extended at least up to Sikar on the
north, the town of Jaipur on the east, Pushkar near Ajmere on the
south, and Parbatsar, in Jodhpur, on the west.

It has been noticed above that Lakshmana, the youngest son of
the Chahamana Vakpatiraja I of Sakambharl, founded a kingdom at
Na&lula, modern Nadol, in Jodhpur. Lakshmana was succeeded by
his son Sobhita, who annexed Mt. Abu in Sirohi to his kingdom. His
son and successor was Baliraja, who had to surrender Mt. Abu and
the adjoining territory to the Paramfira Muhja. Muhja, as has al¬
ready been noticed, established the princes of his family to rule
over Mt. Abu, Jalor and Bhinmal, which lay to the southern border
of the Chahamana kingdom of Nadol. After Baliraja’s death his
cousin Mahendra, also known as Mahendu, son of Sobhita’s brother
Vigrahapala, ascended the throne. During this time the Chaha¬
manas of Sakambhari became hostile to their kith and kin at Nadol.
It has been mentioned above that when king Durlabha of Sakambharf
overran the kingdom of Nadol, Mahendra saved his life by taking
shelter under the Rashtrakuta Dhavala. Mahendra, however, re¬
gained his position within a short time. He had two sons, AJvapala
and Anahilla, and was succeeded by the former.

A branch of the Chahamana family ruled in Dholpur in the
ninth century, apparently as a feudatory of the Imperial Pratlharas
of Kanauj. Three chiefs of this family are known. They were
Isuka, his son Mahisharama, and the latter’s son Chantfamahasena.
Chan<3amahasena was ruling in Dhavalapuri, modem Dholpur, in
A.D. 842. He claims to have been served by the Mlechchha lords,
who settled on the banks of the Charmanvati, i.e. the Chambal river.
These Mlechchha lords cannot be identified. Chamjamahasena built
a temple at Dhavalapuri. Nothing is known of his successors.

Another branch of the Chahamana family ruled in Partabgarh
as a feudatory of the Imperial Pratlharas.28 The first known chief
of this family is Govindaraja, one of whose predecessors is said to
have been a source of great pleasure to the Pratihara Bhoja, After
Govindaraja, his son Durlabharaja occupied the throne. . Durlabha-
raja’s son and successor was the Mahastimanta Indraraja. Some¬
time before A.D. 942 Indraraja built a temple of the Sun-god in
the village of Ghont&varshika, in the Western Pathaka of Dasapura.
The village is identified with Ghotarsi, seven miles east of Partab¬
garh. It is not known how the rule of this family came to an end.

108

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

VII. THE GUHXLAS
1. Guhilas of Mewdr

Adjoining the kingdom of the Chahamanas of Na^ula to the
south-east lay that of the Guhilas of Medapa^a or Mewar, whose early
history up to the reign of Bappa has been discussed in the third
volume.29 Bappa is said to have abdicated the throne in A.D. 753,
and this date may be regarded as approximately correct. As noted
above, Bappa’s name does not occur in the genealogical list given
in the epigraphic records of the dynasty, but he may be regarded
as identical with either Kalabhoja or Khommana of that list. After
the close of Khommana I’s reign, Mattata, Bhartppatta I, Simha, and
Khommana II occupied the throne one after another. It has been
noticed above that Khommana II joined hands with the Pratlhara
Nagabhata II and the Chahamana Guvaka I in a battle with Bashar,
the Arab governor of Sindh. Khommana II was followed in succession
by Mahay aka, Khommana III, and Bhartjripatta II. Bhaptfipatta is
given the title Mahdrajadhirdja, which signifies that he enjoyed inde¬
pendent position. A stone inscription of his reign, bearing the date
A.D. 943, has been found in Ahar, ancient Aghata, a few miles north
of Udaipur. From this time, Aghata is known to have been the capital
of Medapata. In A.D. 942 the Mahdrdjddhirdja Bhartripatta granted
a field in the village Palasakupika to the temple of the Sun-god
Indradityadeva, founded by the Chahamana Indraraja- in Ghonta-
varshika, modern Ghotarsi, seven miles east of Partabgarh. His
kingdom, therefore, seems to have extended on the south-east up
to the border of Partabgarh.30 His son and successor was Allata,
whose known dates are A.D. 951 and 953. Allata killed Devapala
in battle. This adversary of the Guhilas might have been the Pratl¬
hara king of this name ruling in Kanauj, whose known date is
A.D. 948, and whose reign ended before A.D. 954. About this time
a Pratlhara king of Kanauj, who was apparently Devapala, came to
Sakambharf to liberate his feudatories, who were imprisoned by the
Chahamana Simharaja. On that occasion Devapala seems to have
come into conflict with Allata and lost his life in the encounter.
Allata married a Huna lady named HariyadevT. During this time
Aghata became a great centre of trade frequented by merchants
from Karnata, Lata, Madhyade£a, and Takka. After Allata, his son
Naravahana ascended the throne and ruled till at least A.D. 971.
His queen belonged to the Chahamana family. He was succeeded
by his son Salivahana, whose son and 'successor was Saktikumara.
Three stone inscriptions of ^aktikumara’s reign have been found at
Ahar. One of these bears the date V.S. 1034 (r=A.D. 977). It was
probably during the reign of Saktikumara that the Paramara Munja

109

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

. destroyed Agha$a, the pride of Medapafa. ^aktikumara had five
sons, Ambaprasada, Suchivarman, Naravarman, Anantavarman, and
Kirttivarman. He ruled up to the close of the tenth century. It
appears from the inscriptions of ^aktikumara and his predecessors
that Samoli, in the Bhumat District, Ahar, and Ekalingaji, north of
Udaipur, were included in the kingdom of the Guhilas which ex¬
tended up to the border of Partabgarh on the south-east. Chiira-
ku|a, modern Chi tor, nearly sixty miles north-east of Ahar, is not
known to have been included in the kingdom of this branch of the
Guhilas at least up to the tenth century.

2. Guhilas of Dhod

Reference has been made above31 to another branch of the
Guhila dynasty ruling in the north-eastern part of Udaipur and to
its ruler Dhanika with his capital at Dhavagarta, modern Dho4 in
the Jahazpur District, Udaipur. After Dhanika, his son Auka and
his grandson Krishna ruled one after the other. Krishna, who
flourished in the last quarter of the eighth century, seems to have
acknowledged the supremacy of the Pratlhara Vatsaraja, whose king¬
dom extended from Malava to Jodhpur. Krishna’s son and succes¬
sor was £»ahkaragana, who defeated a general of the Gaupa king,
and presented the latter’s kingdom to his overlord. The Qau^a king
was' Dharmapala, and the king, who was Sahkaragana’s overlord,
was apparently the Pratlhara Nagabhata II. S§ankaragana obviously
helped Nagabhata II in wresting the kingdom of Kanauj from Dhar-
mapala. ^ankaragana was succeeded by his son Harsha, who was
a feudatory of the Pratlhara Bhoja. Harsha claims to have con¬
quered the kings of Udlchya, i.e. Uttarapatha, and presented to
Bhoja horses, which were expert in traversing the Sindhu. This
seems to refer to Harsha rendering assistance to Bhoja in conquering
the Eastern Punjab. Harsha had to suffer defeat at the hand of
the Kalachuri Kokkalla I. If Chitrakuta -bhup&la, mentioned in the
Banaras copper-plate of the Kalachuri Karna, really refers to Harsha,
Chitrakuta or Chitor is to be taken to have been the capital of this
branch of the Guhila dynasty.

As regards the history of Chitrakuta during, this period, it is
known that it was in the possession of the Gurjaras during the
reign of the Rashtrakuta Govinda III. The place was also under
the sway of the Gurjaras when it was invaded by the Rashfra-
kufa Krishna III shortly before A.D. 939. As there is no evid¬
ence to prove that the early Guhila kings of Medapafa were
in any way connected with Chitor, there is nothing against the
view that Harsha was the ruler of Chitrakuta. Harsha is mentioned

110

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

in the inscription of his great-grandson as a dvija , i.e. Brahmana,
He was succeeded bv his son Guhila II, who is said to have con-
quered the king of Gauda and levied tribute from the princes of
the east. He seems to have joined Bhoja32 or helped Mahendra-
pala in conquering the Gau<Ja country by defeating king Naravana-
pala of the Pala dynasty. Some silver coins, discovered at Agra,
bearing the legend ^ri-Gu.hila, are ascribed to him. He married a
Paramara princess, who gave birth to a son named Bhatta. Bhafta.
who succeeded his father, seems to have been a contemporary of the
Pratlhara Mahipala I. He defeated the king of the Deccan at the
behest of his master. He apparently joined hands with the Chandella
Harsha to help Mahipala in his war against the Rashtrakuta Indra III.
Bhafta’s son and successor was Baladitya, who married a Chahamana
princess, the daughter of king &ivaraja, Baladitya erected a femple
of Vishnu at Chatsu, in Jaipur, where an inscription of his reign has
been found. The history of the predecessors of Baladitya is known
mainly from this epigraph. He is the last known king of his family,
and although he had three sons, nothing is known about his
successors.

VIII. THE TOMABAS

The kingdom of the Chahamanas of &akambharl seems to have
been bordered on the north-east by that of the Torharas. Tomaras are
included in the thirty-six Rajput clans by the bards. They ruled
the Hariyana country from their capital Dhillika, modern Delhi.
The tradition runs that the Tuars, a contraction of Tomaras. founded
Delhi in A.D. 736. The earliest reference to the Tomarar is found
in an inscription at Pehowa, ancient Prithudaka, in Karnal District,
Punjab, of the reign of the Pratlhara MahendrapaJa I. It states that
there was the king (raja) Jaula of the Tomara dynasty, who “obtain¬
ed prosperity by looking after the affairs of a king.” He was ap¬
parently in the service of an unknown king in the early years of
his life, and subsequently attained royal position. In the lineage of
Jaula was bom Vajrata, who seems to have flourished in the middle
of the ninth century. About this time the Tomaras of Delhi must
have acknowledged the supremacy of the Pratlhara Bhoja, whose
kingdom extended up to Sirsa and Karnal Districts in the Punjab.
Vajrafa’s son and successor was Jajjuka, who was again succeeded
by his son Gogga. Gogga, who is known to have been a feudatory of
the Pratlhara Mahendrapala I, is described as bhundtha or the lord
of the earth. Gogga and his two step-brothers Purnaraja and Deva-
raja, built at Prithxldaka, on the banks of the Sarasvatl, three temples
of Vishnu, during the reign of Mahendrapala I. Kielhorn remarks
that these three Tomara princes were probably connected with Delhi,

III

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and they might not have any political connection with Pehowa, a
place of pilgrimage, where they, like many others from different
parts of India, founded religious establishments. According to
Firishta Thaneswar, about 20 miles east of Pehowa, was within the
kingdom of Delhi in the early part of the eleventh century. In the
tenth century the Tomaras came into conflict with the Chahamanas
of Sakambhari. A Tomara chief named Budrena (Rudra?), who was
probably a descendant of Gogga, lost his life in a battle with the
Chahamana Chandana, son of Guvaka II. Chanda na’s grandson
Simharaja, who flourished in the third quarter of the tenth cen¬
tury, won a victory over the Tomara leader (nay aka) Salavana, and
captured a large number of his soldiers. The Tomaras continued to
rule the Hariyana country till the middle of the twelfth century when
they were overthrown by the Chahamana Vigraharaja III Visaladeva.

IX. THE SHAHIS (OR SHAHIYAS)

It has been noticed in a previous chapter that the Eastern Punjab,
up to Sirsa, if not up to the Sutlej, was within the Pratihara Empire
in the second half of the ninth century. In the early years of the
tenth century, Sankaravarman, king of Kashmir, deprived the Prati¬
hara Mahendrapala of his territories in the Punjab and handed them
over to one of his officers, who belonged to the Thakkiya family.33
In the latter part of this century a king (raja) named Satrughnadeva
is found ruling from Tribhandapura, modern Bhatinda, in Patiala,
where a stone inscription of his reign has been discovered.

A Turkish Shahiya family ruled the Kabul Valley and the
Gandhara country for a long time. Kallar, a Brahmana minister of
king Lagaturman of this dynasty, overthrew his master and occupied
the throne. Kallar, who thus founded the Hindu Shahi dynasty in
the second half of the ninth century A.D., is identified with Lalliya
Shahi referred to in the Rajatarangini. Lalliya could not keep Kabul
under his control for a long time. It was taken possession of by the
§affarid Ya’qub ibn Layth in A.D.* 870. Lalliya then fixed his capital
at Udabhanda, modern village of Und, on the right- bank of the
Sindhu, fifteen miles above Attock, in Rawalpindi District. Lalliya’s
kingdom is stated to have been situated between those of the
Turushkas (Kabul valley) and the Darads (Kishanganga valley in
Kashmir). Alakhana, the king of Gurjara, who ruled the “upper
portion of the flat Doab between the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers,
south of Darvabhisara, and probably also a part of the Punjab plain
further east,” was his protege. King Sahkaravarman (A.D. 883-
902) of the Utpala dynasty of Kashmir invaded the kingdom of Ala¬
khana and wrested from him Takka-land, which was the country ad¬
joining the lower hills east of the Chenab. Next the Kashmir king

112

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

invaded the territory of Lalliya but failed to gain any advantage.
Kalhana highly praises the valour and achievements of Lalliya, and
states that Lalliya’s glory outshone that of all the rulers in the north,
and many kings found safety in his town Udabhan^a. Lalliya had a
son named Tor a man a. After his death, his throne was usurped by a
scion of the Shahi family named Samanta. Some. coins, found in
Afghanistan, bearing the legend Srl-Samanta, are ascribed to him.
Prabhakara, a minister of 6ankaravarman’s son and successor Gopala-
varman, plundered Udabhantfa, dethroned the rebellious Shahi, and
placed Toramana on the throne of that country:34 He gave Toramana
a new name Kamaluka. Kamaluka is mentioned by Al-Blrunl as
Kamalu, and is called Kala(Kamala)varman in an inscription of his
successor. Muhammad ‘Aufi (c. A.D. 1211) mentions him as the Rai
of Hindustan. Fardaghan, the governor of Zabulistan (region round
Ghazni) under ‘Amr ibn Layth (A.D. 879-900), the brother and suc¬
cessor of Saffarid Ya’qub ibn Layth, plundered Sakawand, a place of
Hindu pilgrimage, which was within the kingdom of the Shahis.
Kamaluka organised a large army against the Muslims in retaliation.
But he abandoned the project on receipt of the news that the Muslims
had collected a strong force to oppose him. Baihaki (A.D. 1059)
mentions Sakawand as a pass to Kabul from India. It was situated
at or near Jalalabad.

After the death of Kamaluka his son Bhlma ascended the throne.
A stone inscription of the reign of Mahardjddhirdja Paramesvara
Shahi Sri-Bhimadeva has been discovered at Dewai, Gadun terri¬
tory.35 Bhlma gave his daughter in marriage to Simharaja, king of
Lohara, identified with the valley of Lohrin, comprising the moun¬
tain Districts, south-west of Kashmir, in the hill state of Punch.
Didda, the queen of Kshemagupta (A.D. 950-958) of Kashmir, was the
daughter of Simharaja and daughter’s daughter of Bhlma. On account
of this relationship it was possible for Bhlma to exercise influence
over the royal court of Kashmir. He built a magnificent temple of
Vishnu, richly endowed it and called it the shrine of Bhlmakesava.
It is identified with an old temple at Bumzu, near the sacred springs
of Martantfa (Bavan), which has now been converted into a Muslim
Ziarat. The temple possessed valuable treasures even during the
reign of Harsha (A.D. 1080-1101). Some silver coins bearing the
legend SrT-Bhlmadeva, found in Kabulistan, are assumed to have
been issued by the Shahi Bhlma.

The fact that Bhlma’s grand-daughter (daughter’s daughter)
Didda was married to Kshemagupta, who ruled from A.D. 950 to
958, shows that Bhlma must have been born not later than A.D. 900.
It is also clear from the Kashmir Chronicle that he was on the throne

113

A.I.K.— 8

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

at least during a part of the reign of Kshemagupta. But the dates
of his accession and death are not definitely known.

The Muslim chroniclers refer to Jaipal or Jayapala as the next
king. But the Rdjaiaranginl is silent about him, though it mentions
another Shahi king named Thakkana in the reign of Abhimanyu
(A.D. 958-72), the son of Didda. Some scholars take the name¬
ending of Jayapala as indicating a change of dynasty, but this view
is refuted by well-known examples of similar changes in royal
names in the same family. The fact, however, that Firishta
describes Jaipal as the son "of Ishtpal (probably Ishtapala) may be
taken to indicate that Jayapala was not the son of Bhlmapala and
there might have been one or more kings between the two; Jayapala
probably ascended the throne in the last quarter of the tenth century
A.D.

A fragmentary stone inscription of the reign of Paramabhafoa-
raka Mahardjadhiraja 6rI-Jayapaladeva has been found on a hill
north of Bari Kot, in Upper Swat,36 It records that some persons
founded something at Vajirasthana. Rai B'ahadur Daya Ram Sahni
identified the king, mentioned above, with the Shahi Jayapala, and
Vajirasthana with Waziristan. Vajirasthana seems to have been
the country round Bari Kot, where the stone inscription has been
found. This proves that the Shahi kingdom during this period ex¬
tended up to the Swat valley.

The Adah ul Muluk wa Kij&yat ul Mamluk , composed by
Muhammad bin Mansur during the reign of the Sultan Xltutmish
(A.D. 1210-1236), gives an account of Jayapala’s war with the chiefs
of Lahore. It relates that Hah, son of Bhadra, founded the town of
Lohur, and ruled there for seventy-five years. He was overthrown
by his son Bharat, who imprisoned him in the fort of Kahlur.
Bharat built a fort at Lohur, and founded a village on the bank of
the river Biyah. He made an audacious bid to conquer the salt mines
of Nanduna, the district of Jhelum, and Takeshar, which were in the
possession of Jayapala. He crossed the Chandrahah river with his
army and attacked Takeshar where he was opposed by Jayapala’s
son, Anandapala. After a short engagement, Bharat was defeated
and made a prisoner. Anandapala marched towards Lohur and cap¬
tured the town. On receipt of a large sum of money, he allowed
Bharat to rule his territory as a feudatory. After the departure of
Anandapala, Bharat was dethroned by his son Handrat, who usurped
the throne. Jayapala sent Anandapala with an army to chastise
Handrat, Handrat was defeated and imprisoned and his sons took
refuge with Sam ah Kora Rav of Jalandar. Jayapala annexed the
kingdom of Lohur in A.H. 389 ( = A.D. 999). 37

114

CENTRAL. AND WESTERN INDIA

Jayapala thus ruled over a large kingdom extending from Sir-
hind to Lamghan (or Laghman) and from the borders of Kashmir to
Multan, Roughly speaking it included the Western Punjab, N.W.F.
Province and Eastern Afghanistan. Unfortunately for him a power¬
ful Muslim kingdom was establised about this time in the imme¬
diate vicinity with Ghazni as capital. The history of Jayapala and
his successors is, practically speaking, the history of a long-drawn
struggle with this kingdom. They fought with valour and tenacity
for nearly half a century, but in vain, and the great Shahi kingdom
ultimately collapsed before the repeated onslaughts of Sultan Mah¬
mud of Ghazni. That story will be told in the next volume.

X. KASHMIR
1. Karkota Dynasty

Lalitaditya Muktapl^a of the Karkota dynasty, whose career has
been described above,38 was followed on the throne of Kashmir by
his twfo sons Kuvalayapida and Vajraditya Bappiyaka one after the
other. Vajraditya, who ruled from c. A.D. 782, is said to have sold
many men to the Mlechchhas and introduced into his kingdom prac¬
tices which befitted only the Mlechchhas. These Mlechchhas seem
to have been the Arabs of Sindh. It is known that Hisham ibn JAmr
at-Taghlibl, the governor of Sindh (A.D. 768^-772), raided Kashmir
and secured many prisoners and slaves. This invasion is likely to
have taken place during the reign of Vajraditya, who thus came in
contact with the Mlechchhas. Vajraditya had three sons: Ppithivya-
pl$a, Saihgramapl^a I, and Jayapida. Ppthivyapl^a, who ascended the.
throne after the death of his father, was overthrown by his step¬
brother Samgramaplda. S am g ramapRi a died seven days after his
accession, and the sovereignty was then assumed by Jayapida.
Jayapida, who was also known as Vinayaditya, was a valiant gene¬
ral like his grandfather Lalitaditya. In the early part of his reign
he launched an expedition against the eastern countries. Kalhana
narrates that during Jayaplda’s absence from Kashmir, his brother-
in-law named Jajja usurped his throne. The soldiers who. accom¬
panied him gradually deserted his camp in large numbers and re¬
turned to Kashmir. At Prayaga he left the remainder of his troops
who were still with him, and began to travel incognito from country
to country. Once, while residing ip the city of Pundravardhana, he
earned the good grace of its king named Jayanta by killing a big
lion. Jayanta, who soon discovered his identity, gave his daughter
in marriage to him. Jayapida defeated the five chiefs of Gauda
and honoured his father-in-law by making him their sovereign.
Kalhana’s narrative of Jayapltja’s adventure in Gauda contains obvi-

115

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ously a touch of romance. The report that the king won victories
over some chiefs of that country, however, seems to have a historical
foundation. From Gautfa he is said to have gone back to Prayaga
to meet his troops and thence started for Kashmir. On his way he
defeated the king of Kanyakubja, who seems to have been Indraraja.
As soon as he reached the Kashmir valley he was opposed by the
usurper Jajja, who was easily defeated and slain. After a period of
three years’ absence from his country, he made a triumphant entry
into his capital.

Kalhana states that some time afterwards Jayapida again went
out for conquests. He invaded the kingdoms of Bhimasena of the
eastern region and Aramutfi of Nepala. On these occasions he fell
a captive into the hands of his adversaries, though he eventually
succeeded in effecting his escape. His last expedition was against
the ‘Stri-rajya’. The authenticity of this report of Jayapida’s mili¬
tary excursions may be doubted, for the existence of a king named
Bhimasena in the eastern region or of a king named Aramudi in
Nepal is not known from any other source.39 Jayapi^a’s court was
graced by learned scholars like Kshira, Bhatta, Udbhata, Damodara-
gupta, and others. In the later years of his life, he is said to have
incurred unpopularity by oppressive taxes. A conspiracy of the
Brahmanas brought about his end in the thirty-first year of his reign.
He ruled from c. A.D. 770 up to the closing years of the eighth cen¬
tury. Thereafter his sons LalitapI<Ja and Sarhgramapida II occupied
the throne in succession. After the death of Sarhgramapida, who bore
another name Prithivyapi<Ja, Lalitaditya’s son Chippatajayapltfa,
born of a concubine named JayadevI, became king. Chippatajaya-
pi^la, who was also called Brihaspati, was very young at the time of
his accession. 'Important offices of the State were held by his mater¬
nal uncles, Utpalaka and four others, who were sons of a spirit-distil¬
ler. Chippata jayapida was killed in c. A.D. 813 through the intrigue
of his maternal uncles, who then began to fight among themselves for
power. They ruled Kashmir without hindrance by setting up pup¬
pet kings for nearly forty years. Thus Utpalaka placed Ajitaphja,
grandson of Vajraditya Bappiyaka, on the throne by force of arms.
Ajitaplda was overthrown by a rival faction, which set up Anahga-
pltfa, son of Sarhgramapida II, as king. Sukhavarman, son
of Utpalaka, removed Anahgaplda and placed Utpalapltfa, son
of Ajitaplda, on the throne* During this time the merchant
Nara of the Khaia tribe established his authority over Darvabhisara
and the neighbouring territories. Sukhavarman, who became the
de facto ruler, was killed by his own relative. The minister &ura
thereupon dethroned Utpalapitfa and declared Avanti-varman, son of

116

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

Sukhavarman, as king in A.D. 855-56. Thus the rule of the Karkota
dynasty came to an end.

2. The Utpala Dynasty

Avanti-varman was the founder of the Utpala dynasty. He
devoted his energies to the amelioration of the economic condition
of his subjects, who had suffered badly during the last few decades.
The overflowing water of the Mahapadma (modem Vulur) lake caused
frequent floods, damaging crops in the neighbourhood. Lalitaditya
had tried to get over this difficulty by draining off the surplus water,
but his successors did not take any interest in the matter. Avanti-
varman engaged his able minister Suyya to remove this danger per¬
manently. Suyya undertook the work in right earnest, and removed
the boulders which had rolled down from the mountains into the bed
of the Vitasta, obstructing the normal flow of the water. Stone em¬
bankments were built along the banks of the river to prevent further
landslides from the mountains. He shifted the place of the con¬
fluence of the Vitasta (Jhelum) with its tributary the Sindhu by
diverting their courses, and thereby made the extensive lands in
the neighbourhood fit for cultivation. As a result of these engineer¬
ing operations the annual output of grains increased to an enormous
extent, and their prices correspondingly fell.

The prime minister Sura exercised great influence over the king.
He killed a powerful Damara (a feudal land-owner) named Dhanva
for misappropriating temple funds in the Lahara District. The king
extended his patronage to men of learning like Muktakana, Sivasva-
min, Anandavardhana, and Ratnakara. His death in A.D. 883 was
followed by a civil war between a number of the descendants of
Utpala. The’ chamberlain Ratnavardhana declared Avanti-varman’s
son Sankara-varman as king. Karnapa, a councillor, set up Sukha¬
varman, a nephew of Avanti-varman. as Yuvaraja. Sankara-varman,
after a strenuous fight, put down Sukha-varman and other rivals
and made himself the absolute ruler of the country.

£ankara-varman made- an > attempt to restore Kashmir to its
former position as a great political power by launching expeditions
against the neighbouring chiefs in the south. He subjugated Darva-
bhisara, the territory between the Jhelum and the Chenab to the
north of Gujrat, in the Punjab. Its king Naravahana, son of the
Kha£a Nara. wa^ allowed to rule for some time, but was subsequently
killed together w^jth his followers by £ankara-varman, who suspected
him of treachery. After being deprived of his sovereignty, Nara-
vahana’s son Phulla founded a kingdom in Lohara, where he was
followed in succession by Satavahana, Chanda, Chanduraja, Gopala

117

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and Simharaja. About this time Ppthivfchandra, the king of Tri-
garta, modern Kangra, acknowledged Sankara* varman’s supremacy
without opposition, &ahkara-varman next invaded the Gurjara
country, modern Gujrat in the Punjab, and forced its king Alakhana
to surrender to him the fakkadand which was to the east of the
Chenab. His military operation against Lalliya Shahi of Udafehan$a,
who lent his support to Alakhana against him., did not meet with
success. The Pratihara Mahendrapala also had to cede his territories
in the Punjab to Sankara- varman who handed them over to a mem¬
ber -of the Thakkiya family. After finishing his conquests, Sankara -
varman returned to his capital with glory. However, he was addict¬
ed to vices and did not prove an efficient administrator. He oppres¬
sed his subjects by numerous exactions. His son Gopalavarman tried
to save the people from his father’s greed, but failed. Taking advan¬
tage of the disturbed, state of things, the Kayasthas appropriated a
large slice of territory.

banker a- varman met his death under tragic circumstances. His
officer in charge of the passes leading into Kashmir in the western
border of his kingdom lost his life in an affray at Vlranaka, the seat
of the Khalas, identified with the village Viran, in the Vitasta Valley
between Muzaffarabad and Kathai. This led Sankara-v&rxnan to
march with an army to punish the offenders. After destroying Virl-
naka he proceeded to Uttarapatha and compelled a number of chiefs
ruling on the banks of the Sindhu to submit to him. When he was
passing through Urasa, modern Hazara, the inhabitants of the coun¬
try objected to the quartering of his army there. In the conflict
that ensued, an arrow discharged by the enemies from the summit
of a hill pierced his neck, and he succumbed to the injuries within
a short time. For the safety of the army, the news of his death was
kept concealed by the Kashmiri officers. After six days* march, the
minister Sukharaja, along with the army, reached Bolyasaka, which
was within the borders of Kashmir. The place is identified with
the village of Buliisa on the old route from Muzaffarabad to Kash¬
mir, on the right bank of the Jheium, four marches below Baramula.
There the funeral rites of the king were performed.

Sankara-varman’s son Gopale-varman ascended the throne
shortly before A.D. 900. 40 As he was still young, his mother Sugan-
dha carried on the administration of the State. She fell in love with
the minister Prabhakara. Prabhakara led an expedition against the
ShIM kingdom and secured the throne of UdabMn$a for Lalliya
Shlhi’s son Toramana-Kamaluka by defeating the usurper Samanta.
Prabhfikara killed Gopaia-varman by a stratagem and placed San-
kapt, an alleged son of Sankara-varman, on the throne. This new

118

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

king died ten days after his accession. As there was no direct heir
to the throne, the queen Sugandha assumed the royalty at the wishes
of the people. At this 'time, the Tantrin infantry formed a powerful
political organisation in Kashmir and made their power felt in mak¬
ing and unmaking kings. The queen tried to secure the throne for
Nirjita-varman, also known as Pahgu, who was the grandson of
Sura-varman, a half-brother of king Avanti-varman. But the Tan-
trins deprived the queen of her sovereignty, and placed Partha, the
son of Nirjita-varman, who was ten years old, on the throne in A.D.
908. Sugandha left the royal palace and took her residence at Hush-
kapura. Eight years later, in A.D. 914, with the help of the Ekahga
troops, a military body, rival to the Tantrins, she advanced towards
the capital to regain her power. But the Tantrins defeated the
Ekahgas and put Sugandha to death. Nirjita-varman, with the
sanction of the Tantrins, became the guardian of his son Partha.
He maintained his position by paying heavy bribes to the Tantrins,
and oppressed the people with numerous fiscal exactions. At this
time, in A.D. 917, a great famine broke out in Kashmir, causing
the death of a large number of people. In A.D. 921 Nirjita-varman
deposed Partha with the help of the Tantrins and himself assumed
the royalty. In A.D. 923 he placed his other son named Chakra-
varman on the throne, and died soon after. Chakra-varman ruled
for ten years under the guardianship of his mother and grandmother.
The Tantrins, eager for more money, overthrew him and placed
his half-brother &ura-varman I on the throne. After a year, Aura-
varman had to yield his throne to Partha, who had regained the
fayour of the Tantrins. A year later, in A.D. 935, Chakra-varman
got back the sovereignty by paying a higher price. Shortly after¬
wards Chakra-varman, having failed to meet the demands of the Tan¬
trins, fled in fear. Thereupon the minister Sambhuvardhana, by
offering handsome bribes, purchased the throne for himself. Chakra-
varman sought the help of the Damaras (feudal landowners) who
were hostile to the Tantrins. The Damara Sarh grama took up his
cadse and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tantrins near Padmapura.
Chakra-varman entered the capital ^rlnagara, where he was received
with honours by the feudal lords, chiefs, ministers and the Ekahgas.
Sambhuvardhana was taken prisoner and executed. Chakra-varman
abandoned himself to vicious pleasures, and alienated the sympathy
of the people. In A.D, 937 he lost his life at the hands of robbers.
Unmattavanti (Mad Avanti), son of Partha, was. then raised to the
throne by the ministers. He was one of the most vicious and tyran¬
nical kings that ever occupied the throne of Kashmir. At his insti¬
gation, his subordinates killed his father in a most diabolical manner.

119

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

He had an able minister in Kamalavardhana whom he feared. Just
before his death in A.D. 939 he declared a child named Sura-varman
II as his son and placed him on the throne. After the death of the
king, Kamalavardhana put down the Damaras, who had been exer¬
cising great influence over the rulers of Kashmir from the time of
Chakra-varman, entered the capital with his army after overcoming
all opposition offered by the Ekangas, Tantrins and the feudal chiefs,
and dethroned £ura-varman II. He could have secured the throne for
himself without any difficulty. But he foolishly left the election of
the king to the assembly of the Brahmanas, fondly hoping that the
choice would fall on him. But the assembly offered the crown to a
Brahmana named Yasaskara, son of Prabhakaradeva, treasurer of
the kings Sankara-varman and Gopala-varman, who had earned great
reputation as a man of learning. The rule of the Utpala dynasty thus
came to an end in A.D. 939.

3. Dynasties of Yasaskara and Parvagupta

Yasaskara restored peace and order in the country. Though his
career was occasionally marred by vicious actions, he administered
his kingdom with success. He built a matha (monastery) for the
residence of the students coming from Arya-desa to Kashmir for
higher education. Once when he became seriously ill, he wanted to
place Varna^a, the sqn of his paternal grand-uncle, on the throne in
preference to his son Samgramadeva, who however as a matter of -
fact was not begotten by himself. But the designing minister Parva-
gupta ultimately persuaded the king to hand over the sovereignty
to Samgramadeva. After the installation of Samgramadeva, Yasas¬
kara left the royal palace unceremoniously and took his residence
in his matha where he was poisoned by his attendants in A.D. 948.
A year after the death of Yasaskara, Parvagupta killed the young
king Samgramadeva and captured the throne for himself.

Parvagupta was the son of Samgramagupta and grandson of
Abhinava, who was a writer. He died in A.D. 950 leaving the throne
to his son Kshemagupta. Kshemagupta married Didda, the daughter
of the Khasa Sirhharaja, king of Lohara, modern Lohrin valley in
the. territory of Punch, and the daughter’s daughter of Bhlma Shahi
of Udabhantfa.41 Didda, who was a woman of keen intelligence,
played an important role in Kashmir politics in the second half of
the tenth century. Kshemagupta died after an inglorious reign of '
eight years, and was succeeded by his young son Abhimanyu. Didda.
who. became the regent for her son, tried to assume all the royal
power into her hands and had no scruples in removing anybody who
stood in her way. She quarrelled with the prime minister Phalguna

120

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

and dismissed him. She put down the revolt of Yasodhara and his
associates and won over some ot them to her side by offering them
high posts in the government. Yasodhara was made the commander-
in-chief of her army. He led an expedition against the Shahi Thak-
kana and forced him to submit. But he soon) fell into the ill graces
of the queen and was dismissed. His old associates again revolted
and besieged the royal palace. The queen, with the help of her
faithful minister Naravahana and some othei^ officers, brought the
situation under control. Shortly after this the queen, on the report
of '^malicious persons, lost confidence in Naravahana who, in order
to avoid disgrace and humiliation, committed suicide. About this
time the Damaras were also trying to raise a revolt. The situation
was made worse for the queen by the death of Rakka, the commander-
of the army. In order to cope with the situation Didda recalled
Phalguna and made him the chief of the army. Phalguna conquered’
RajapurT, the modern hill state of Rajauri.

King Abhimanyu died in A.D. 972 after a rule of fourteen years,
leaving behind three sons Nandigupta, Tribhuvana and Bhlma-
gupta. Nandigupta assumed the royalty. Didda received a severe
shock by the death of her son. For a year she kept her evil propen¬
sities under control and engaged herjself exclusively in establishing
religious foundations and building new cities. But soon after, she
resumed her vicious activites. She brought about the death of
Nandigupta. He was succeeded by Tribhuvana, who also shared
the same fate two years later (A.D. 975). The young Bhlmagupta
was then placed on the throne. He Was allowed to enjoy this posi¬
tion for onlv five years. About this time Phalguna died. The queen
then killed Bhlmagupta and ascended the throne in A.D. 980.

Didda made the Kha£a Tuhga of the Parnotsa country her prime
minister. The appointment of Tuhga, who was formerly a herdsman
of buffaloes, caused great resentment among the people. Vigraha-
raja and Sarhgramaraja were the two sons of king Udayaraja of
Lohara, the brother of Didda. The refractory elements brought the
prince Vigraharaja to Kashmir to help them against Tuhga. Vigraha-
raja rallied the Brahmanas against the queen. But Didda succeeded
in bringing the Brahmanas back to her side by heavy bribery. All
attempts to dislodge Tuhga failed. Tunga earned great renown by
leading a successful expedition against Prithvlpala, the king of
RajapurT, who had become hostile. As Didda had become fairly old
she appointed her nephew Samgramaraja of Lohara as her successor.
She died in A.D. 1003 and was followed on the throne by Samgrama¬
raja. The supremacy of the Lohara dynasty was now established in
Kashmir.

121

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

XI. THE HILL STATES OF CHAMBA

A number of dynasties were ruling in the hill states of Rajapurl,
Darvabhisara, Trigarta (Jalandhar), Kira (Kangra), Chamba, Kulu
(Kuluta), etc. during this period. Of them the history of the Mushana
family of the Chamba State can be traced chronologically with the
help of the Vamsdvali and the epigraphic records.

The Mushana dynasty established its supremacy over Chamba
in the sixth century A.D. The capital of its early kings was Brahma*
pura, modern Brahmaiur, about twenty-five miles south-east of the
Chamba town. The^king Ajita-varman of this family flourished in
the middle of the eighth century. After him ruled Suvarna-varman,
who was succeeded by LakshmI-varman. The Vamsdvali narrates
that during the reign of LakshmI-varman a large number of people
died as the result of an epidemic. Taking advantage of this situation
the Kiras (of the Kangra valley) killed the king and took possession
of the country. Lakshmi-varman’s son ' Mushana-varman recovered
his throne after defeating the Kiras. Mushana-varman was followed
on the throne by Hamsa-varman, Sara-varman, Sena-varman, and
Sajjana-varman in succession. According to Dr. Vogel, Sajjana-
varman founded the city of Chanpaka (Chamba) and transferred his
capital there.

An inscription of the tenth century, engraved on a rock at Proli*
ragala on the Dhauli Dhar, belongs to the reign of a king Mrity un-
jav a-varman, who is not mentioned in the Vaihsdvali . Dr. Vogel
suggests that this king succeeded Sajjana-varman. Epigraphic records
refer to another king Sahilla-varman who fought successfully against
a confederacy of the Kira forces, the lord of Durgara (Jammu State),
and the Saumatikas. The king of Trigarta (Jalandhar) sought his
alliance softer suffering a defeat at his hands, and the chief of Kuluta
(Kulu) sought his favour for granting him royalty for services ren¬
dered. The VamMvali states that the war between Sahilla-varman
and the Kulu chief continued for twelve years. It is also known
from an inscription that Sahilla-varman routed the forces of the
Turushkas in a battle. He probably joined with the Shahis in repuls¬
ing an attack of the Turks in the Kabul valley during the reign of
Alptigin. After achieving all these victories, he assumed the epi¬
thets Sahasdnka , Nis$ankamalla, and Matamatasimha. He is also
said to have assumed the title Karivarsha after making a gift of
elephants to the Sun-god at the time of a solar eclipse at the holy
Kurukshetra. His reign came tp a close in the middle of the tenth
century, and he was succeeded by his son Yugakara-varman, whose
son and successor was Vidagdha-varman. Both Yugakara-varman
and Vidagdha-varman issued inscriptions from their capital at

122

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

Chanpaka granting lands in the Maridalas of Brahmaputra and
Tavasaka. Vidagdha-vartnan’s successor Dodaka-varman, known
from a single inscription, ruled in the closing years of the tenth
century. In the eleventh century, Salavahana, his son Soma-varman,
and the latter’s son Asa£a of the family ruled the Chamba State.

XII. KUMAUN AND GARHWAL

A detailed analysis of six ancient inscriptions of Kumaun and
Garhwal is available to scholars,42 although it is not based on quite
satisfactory transcripts of the original records. Only one of these
records has been satisfactorily edited,43 while the rough transcript of
another' has also been published.44 The texts of the remaining four
inscriptions still await publication.

The inscription, of which only a tentative transcript was pub¬
lished in 1838, is the one on a stone-slab in the temple of Siva called
BageSvar (Vyaghresvara) situated at the junction of the Gomati
and Sarju in PottI Katyiir in Kumaun (Almora). The inscription
contains no less than three grants made by three different kings
in favour of the god Vyaghresvaradeva. The defective nature Of
the published transcript renders it difficult to be definite about
the names of the two kings mentioned in the first and probably
the, earliest of the three charters as they are given in the absurd
forins £ri~Bhasantanadeva (also Masantanadeva or Basantanadeva)
and £dya-svairam-svairam-dadau.46 The names of the kings mention¬
ed in the second of the three charters have been read as &ri-Kharpara-
deva, his son Srl-Kalyanarajadeva, and his son Sri-Tribhuvanaraja-
deva. It seems that these rulers flourished later than those men¬
tioned in the first charter referred to above, but before the "kings
known from the third charter. The third and last grant incor¬
porated in the Bagesvar inscription mentions four generations o^
kings. The third name in this list of four kings is that of Lalita-
Suiradeva who is also known from two other of the six ancient
inscriptions from Kumaun and Garhwal referred to above. These
are two copper-plate grants dated in the 21st and 22nd years of
Lallitasuradeva’s reign, preserved in the temple of Yogabadari at
P an dukes var in the Garhwal District. Both the charters were issued
from the city of Karttikeyapura by Paramabhaftdraka Maharaja -
dhirdja Paramesvara Lalitasuradeva, the son of P.M.P. Ishtagana-
deva and Mahadevi VegadevI and the -grandson of Nimbara and
Mahadevi Naiudevl. Nimbara, who is not endowed with imperial
titles in the records, was probably the founder of this line of kings.
Their capital was probably at the city of Karttikeyapura which has
been identified with modern Baijnath or Vaidyanatha in the "Almora

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

(Kumaun) District. According to tradition, the city was built by
a Katyur! king of the Katyur valley in Kumaun on the ruins of an
ancient city named Karavirapura. It is not improbable that the
name of Karttikeyapura is a S2nskritized form of the aboriginal name
Katyur. Possibly Kartripura of the Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudra-gupta was just another Sanskritized form of the same name.

The astronomical details of the dates of Lalitasuradeva’s grants
appear to suggest that his 21st and 22nd regnal years corresponded
respectively to A. I}. 853 and 854. The reigns of his father and
grandfather may thijis be ascribed roughly to the period A.D. 790-832.
According to the Bagesvar inscription Lalitaiuradeva was succeed¬
ed by his son Bhudevadeva whose reign may be tentatively assigned
to the third and fourth quarters of the ninth century.

The three remaining inscriptions out of the six ancient records
of Kumaun and Garhwal disclose the names of five generations of
rulers who belonged to a different dynasty and apparently succeeded
the house of Nimbara. The earliest of the three records of this new
family is a copper-plate charter preserved at the temple of Balesvar
in East Kumaun (Almora). It was issued from Karttikeyapura in
the fifth regnal year of P.M.P. Desa{adeva who was the son of P.M.P.,
Ichchhatadeva and the grandson of Salonaditya. The two other
charters of the family are preserved in the temple at Pan<Jukesvar.
One of them was issued from the same Karttikeyapura in the 25th
regnal year of P.M.P. Padmatadeva, son of Ichchhatadeva, while
the 6ther was issued from the city of Subhikshapura in the fourth
regnal year of P.M.P. Subhiksharajadeva, son of Padmatadeva.
Subhikshapura, apparently named after Subhiksharajadeva, was
probably the name of a new city built by this king in the vicinity
of the old city of Karttikeyapura. These five kings seem to have
ruled abbut the last quarter of the ninth as well as in the tenth
century It appears that the last member of Nimbara’s family w as
overthrown by Salonaditya who founded a new dynasty; but the
events leading to this dynastic revolution are unknown. Little is
known about the history of Kumaun and Garhwal after Subhiksha-

Raja’s death.

An earlier line of kings of the Kumaun-Garhwal region is known
from two plates found at Talesvar in Almora District.46 The re¬
cords have been assigned on palaeographical grounds to the sixth
century A.D. One of the copper-plate grants was issued in the fifth
regnal year of Paramabhatttiraka Mahdrdjddhirdja Dyutivarman.
In the legend on the seal attached to the plate, the king is repre-

124

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

sented as the son of Agnivarman, gradson of Vrishavarman and
great-grandson of Vishnuvarman I. The other charter was issued
in the twenty-eighth regnal year of Paramabhaftdraka Maharaja -
dhiruja Vishnuvarman II, son of Dyutivarman. The family to which
the kings belonged is described as ‘the lunar dynasty’ as well as
‘the lineage of the moon and the sun’, while it is also specifically
called ‘the Paurava line of kings.’ Both the charters were issued
from the city of Brahmapura which was apparently the capital
of the Paurava kings of the Almora region. They record certain
grants of the kings made in favour of the god Viranesvara who
is described as an incarnation of Ananta or Vishnu. The god was
apparently installed in a temple at Brahmapura and was probably
the family deity of the Pauravas. In the seventh century A.D.
the celebrated Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited the country of
Brahmapura, no doubt meaning the kingdom of which the city of
the same name was the capital. The same country is also mentioned
in Varahamihira’s Bj-ihat-samhitd composed in the sixth century A.D.
Both Varahamihira and Hiuen Tsang appear to refer to the king¬
dom of the Pauravas of Brahmapura, although the inscriptions apply
the name Parvatakara to their rdjya. Little is known about the rela¬
tion of the Paurava kings mentioned in the Taleivar plates with
the later rulers of the Kumaun-Garhwal region known from other
sources and discussed above.

XIII. THE ARABS IN INDIA
1, Kabul and Zabul

The early attempts of the Arabs to conquer Kabul, Zabul and
Sindh have been noted in the preceding volume, and we have seen
that, by the middle of the eighth century A.D. , although they main¬
tained a precarious hold on Sindh, they could not establish their
authority in the other two kingdoms.

This was partly due to the decline in power of the central
authority in the Islamic world. The Caliphs of the Umayyad
dynasty were gradually weakened by internal dissensions and other
causes and were supplanted by a new dynasty, the ‘Abbasids, in
A.D. 749. Under a few able rulers the ‘Abbasids restored the power
and glory of the Caliphate and its effect was also felt in India.
During the reign of Al-Man§ur, the second Caliph of this dynasty,
who ruled from A.D. 754 to 775, Kandahar was conquered, and
the Muslim governor of Sijistan again demanded tribute from the
king of Zabul. The latter sent some camels, tents, and slaves, buf
reckoned each article at double its value. The Muslim governor

125

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

thereupon invaded Zabul but evidently could not subdue its ruler.
For we are told that during the next three Caliphates (A.D. 775-
809) the Muslim officers collected tribute as best as they could (or
according to their strength and weakness). When Caliph Al-
Ma mum (A.D. 813-833) visited the eastern region, the ruler of Zabul
paid double tribute to him.

It is said that the Caliph sent an army against Kabul and forced
its ruler to submit and pay taxes. But evidently both Kabul and
Zabul regained independence. Two more expeditions were pro-r
bably sent against Kabul in A.D. 769 and 786, but without any
conspicuous success. It was not till about A.D. 870 that both Kabul
and Zabul were conquered by Ya’qub ibn Layth, the founder of
th$ $affarid dynasty, who began his life as a brigand iiji Sijistan
and ultimately became the ruler of Persia and the neighbouring
regions in the east. The king of Zabulistan was killed and the
people embraced Islam. Henceforth this petty state, that had car¬
ried on a prolonged and heroic resistance against the Arab aggression
for more than two hundred years, ceased to belong to India either
politically or culturally. But Kabul probably regained indepen¬
dence and formed a part of the Hindu Shahiya kingdom, whose his¬
tory has been narrated above.47

The story of the successful resistance of the tiny states of
Kabul and Zabul against the Arabs has not obtained its due place
in the history of India. It is worthy of note, however, that they
defied the conquerors of the world and ultimately succumbed, not
to the political power of the Caliphate,' but to the local principalities
that arose on its ruins.

2. Sindh

The ‘Abbasid Caliphs made a determined effort to consolidate
the power of Islam in India. They sent expeditions to drive away
the old officers of the Umayyad dynasty who refused to recognise
the new authority. Hisham, who was appointed governor of Sindh
by Al-Manjur (A.D. 754-775), took possession of Multan and Kun-
duhar, usually identified with Kandahar. He is also said to have
conquered Kashmir, but this must be regarded as extremely doubt¬
ful. For it has been reasonably inferred from a statement in the
Rajatarahgini that Lalitaditya Muktapl^a thrice defeated a ruling
chief of the Arabs. Possibly the Arabs made a successful border
raid into Kashmir, but the fact' that we do not hear of any further
Arab invasion of that country seems to indicate that Lalitaditya
successfully defended his kingdom against Arab aggression.

12G

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

According to A1 Idrisi, the famous city of Mansura, which be¬
came the capital of Sindh, was founded by the ‘Abbasid Caliph
Al-Man$ur; but Baladhurl tells us that it was built by a son of
Muhammad ibn-Qasim when Hakam was the governor of Sindh
under the Umayyads. Probably the town was founded in the time
of Hakam but finished in the time of the ‘Abbasid Caliph Al-
Man§ur. This great and opulent Muslim capital of Sindh, of which
we get a detailed account from Muslim writers, was founded on
the ruins of the Hindu city of Brahmanabad and lay 43 miles north¬
east of the modem city of Haidarabad and eight miles south-east
of the railway station of Shadadpur.

Caliph Al-Mahdi (A.D. 775-785), who succeeded Al-Man^ur,
sent a naval expedition against India but it could not gain any
success.48 During the Caliphate of Harun Al-Bashld (A.D. 786-809),
his governor is said to have conquered a few places in Western
Sindh. The Muslim army had also to fight with the hardy Jaths
of Kikanan who are known to have resisted the Arabs as far back
as A.D. 662. Evidently they were not completely subdued even
during this long interval. There were also frequent conflicts be¬
tween the Muslims on the one side and the Jaths and Meds on the
other in the neighbourhood of Alor, the old capital of Sindh. Some¬
times We hear of a successful Hindu rising. Thus the Hindu chiefs
of Sindan, a place conquered during the Caliphate of Al-Ma’mun
(A.D. 813-833), rose against its ruler and killed and crucified him.
According to Baladhurl the Hindus became masters of the city but
‘‘left its mosque for the Muslims to assemble in and pray for the
Caliph.”

On the whole, it would appear from a study of the Muslim
chronicles that the ‘Abbasids, even in their palmiest days, could
not gain any conspicuous success in their Indian expeditions. They
not only failed to extend their dominions beyond Sindh, but were
even unaible to consolidate their conquests in this province. This
was undoubtedly due to the active vigilance of powerful Indian
states bordering on Sindh. The Pratlharas, whose chief Nagabhafa
I saved Western India from Arab aggression49 in the eighth century
A.D., founded a strong principality which proved to be a bulwark
against any further Arab aggression. King Nagabha^a II of this
dynasty,60 who was a contemporary of the great Caliphs Harun
Al-Rashld and Al-Ma’mun, is described in an almost contemporary
record as having captured the strongholds of the Turushkas. The
reference is probably to the Muslim rulers of Sindh some of whom
originally belonged to Tukharistan. The Pala king Dharmapala,
who also belonged to the same period, claims in his own record

127

THE AGE UF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

that a Yavana vassal chief made obeisance to him. Here again the
reference seems to be to a Muslim ruler of Sindh. An inscrip¬
tion, dated A.D. 842, states that powerful Mlechchha rulers on the
river Chambal made obeisance to the Chahamana king. These and
similar other isolated references51 point to the fact that since the
initial success of the Arabs in Sindh, in the first quarter of the eighth
century A.D., they were unable to make much headway in India
owing to the vigour and alertness of the Indian chiefs.

The decline of the ‘Abbasid power about the middle of the
ninth century A.D. had its natural repercussions on Sindh. During
the Caliphate of Al-Ma’mun (A.D. 813-833), Bashar, the governor
of Sindh, rebelled but was defeated by Ghassan. The latter took
Bashar as captive to Baghdad, leaving Musa as his deputy in Sindh.
Musa nominated his own son as his successor, and henceforth the
governors of Sindh ruled practically as independent chiefs. Later,
it formed a part of the dominions of the $affarids (A.D. 872-903).
After the fall of the $affarids the Muslim territories in Sindh were
divided into two independent states, viz. those of Mansura and
Multan. The former extended from the sea to Alor> and the latter
comprised the upper valley of the united Sindhu up to this city.
Little is known of their history, but it appears that the greater
part of the administrative authority was left in the hands of the
Hindus.

Neither ^of the two states was very powerful. Multan was
always in dread of the mighty Pratlhara power. The Pratihara
army frequently marched gainst Multan, and its Muslim ruler
secured his safety by playing upon the religious sentiments of the
Hindus. There was a famous image of the Sun-god in the city of
Multan which was venerated all over India. We learn from Al-Ma’-
sudi that “when the unbelievers march against Multan and the faith¬
ful do not feel themselves strong enough to oppose them, they
threaten to break their idol and their enemies immediately with¬
draw.” I§takhri, who makes a similar statement, adds that “other¬
wise the Indians would have destroyed Multan.”

The other Muslim state in Sindh, viz. Mansura, was equally
exposed to the attacks of the Hindus. According to Al-Ma’sudi, “it
was constantly at war with a nation called the Meds, who are a
rdpe of Sind, and also with other races on the frontiers of Sind.”

The older generations of historians like Elphinstone felt sur¬
prised at the slow progress of the Islamic conquest of India, ^nd
sought to explain it by various hypotheses which have no founda¬
tion in fact. The real matter for surprise, however, is that the

128

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

vestige of Arab authority continued in Sindh for three hundred years.
Even according to the testimony of the Muslims, the Pratiharas
could have easily conquered Multan that guarded the flank of every
possible route which a future Muslim conqueror from the outside
would have to follow. That they were deterred from doing this by
the fear that the holy images at Multan might be broken by the
Muslim ruler of the place, only shows a lack of foresight and states¬
manship and a deplorable want of rationality on the part of the Hindu
leaders. If they had possessed even a general knowledge of the poli¬
tical condition of the lands immediately outside the borders of India
on the west, they would have made serious efforts to defend India
against the almost inevitable danger of Muslim invasion. The first
steps in this direction should have been to drive away the Muslims
from the petty principalities which they still held in Sindh and to
establish a strong garrison in Multan and other strategic places in
the Punjab. The Shahis and the Pratiharas were both powerful
ruling dynasties who could have easily accomplished this task. But
they did not do so. Either they were ignorant of the new political
situation created by the rise of strong Muslim states on the frontiers
of India, and of the consequent dangers threatening their country, or
they were too parochially minded to take a broad view of the
interests of India as a whole. This, how’ever, can hardly apply to
the Shahis, who were too near the danger to ignore it and whose
own interest, in this case, coincided with that of India. The united
stand made at a later date by the Indian chiefs on the invitation of
the Shahi rulers proves that a real sense of patriotism was not al¬
together absent in them. We can, therefore, only conclude that the
lack of knowledge of the outside world, or failure to grasp the real
significance of contemporary events, was the principal cause of the
indifference of the Hindu chiefs to the great danger that was destined
to overwhelm them at no distant date.

The danger was brought home to the Shahi rulers by the
foundation of the state of Ghazni in the last quarter of the tenth
century A,D. Ere long the inevitable conflict broke out and the
Shahi rulers were worsted in the fight. Then the horrors of Muslim
invasions, inspired by greed and animated by fanatic religious zeal
and iconoclastic fury, were let loose on the fair temples and cities
of India. She paid dearly for her remissness in the past, but some¬
how escaped the great doom which had overtaken Persia, Egypt and
other countries. The history of this great crisis will be dealt with
in the next volume.

* f -

129

A.I.K. — 9.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

1. HER, 121. Cf. above, pp. 50-52.

2. See pp. 33-4.

3. Harsha, the adversary of Kalachuri Kokkalia I, is wrongly identified with the
Chandelia king of this name. He is identical with Guhiia Harsha of Dhava-
garta. Cf. 7HQ, XIII. 485.

4. See p. 37.

5. This is the translation of Kielhorn {El, I. 122); but Dr. R.C. Mazumdar suggests
that the correct translation would be ‘defeated* (IHQ, XXV. 213).

6. See pp. 33-4.

7. See p. 37.

8. Vol. I, pp. 274, 278 ff, etc.

9. The name is also written as Kokkala and Kokalla.

10. Prof. MLrashi thinks that Lakshmanaraja belonged to the Kalachuri Dynasty
and was a predecessor of Kokkalia 1. — El, XXIII. 255.

11. Tire Bilhari inscription {El, I. 264) mentions that Kokkalia I set up two columns
of his fame— Krishna on the south and Bhoja on the north. The Benares copper¬
plate ( Ibid, II. *306) states that Kokkalia granted freedom from fear to Bhoja,
Vallabharaja, grl-Harsha, king of Chitrakuta, and the king ^ahkaragana. These
two reports are taken to imply that Kokkalia helped the Rashfrakuta Krishna
II and the Pratihara Bhoja I in consolidating their sovereign position, which was
threatened by their enemies. But in view of the information supplied by the
Amoda plates (El, XIX. 78) that Kokkalia I raided the treasuries of Kamata,
Gurjara, and those born of the Raghu family, this king of the Kalachuris
cannot be regarded as an ally of the Rashfrakutas and the Pratiharas, As
Kokkalia I is known to have been succeeded by his son SanJcaragana before
A.D. 888, his adversary Harsha cannot be assumed to have been the king of
this name of the Chandelia dynasty, who ruled from c. A.D. 900-925. It has
been suggested that Chitrakuta, referred to, is the hill of this name in the
Banda District, U-P., 25 miles north-east of Kalinjar, and its king was evidently
the Chandelia Harsha. The Chandelia Harsha, the king of Khajraho, was not,
however, in possession of even Kalinjar, about 40 miles north-east of Khajraho.
Chitraku|a hill was outside the Chandelia kingdom, at least up to A.D. 954,
when it was bounded on the east by Kalinjar. The expression ‘Chitrakuta-
bhupdla s may not, therefore, be referring to the Chandelia Harsha. This king,
whose name has not been mentioned, and who was the ruler of Chitor, might
have been another adversary of Kokkalia. For detailed discussion, cj. IHQ, XIII.
482 ff.

Dr. R. C. Majurndar has recently expressed a different view on the subject
(P1HC, Xll. 123 ff). He points out that ‘not a single record of the 9th or 10th
century A.D. refers to the Kalachuris as a great power in the period of
Kokkalia I, and that the posthumous military glories of this king gradually
grew with passing years’. He holds the view that Kokkalia was a dashing
military chief who joined with one great power against another as suitable
opportunity offered itself, and that far from exercising supremacy over the
Pains, Pratiharas mid the Rashtrakutas he probably owed allegiance first to
the Rashtrakutas and then to the Pratiharas. He also points out that Kokkalla’s
daughter was married to Krishna II long before the latter ascended the
Rashtrakuta throne. On the other hand we have to remember the following
facts. Harsha, king of Chitrakuta, Sankaragana (king of Sarayupara), kings
of Gurjara and &akambhari, mentioned in the Benares and Amoda plates as
adversaries of Kokkalia, are known to have been feudatories of the Pratibara
Bhoja, and the king of Konkana mentioned as another adversary of Kokkalia
in the Amoda plates only, was a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Krishna. It
appears that when Kokkalia fought with Bhoja and Krishna, his adversaries
were assisted by their feudatories. It is thus obvious that when Bilhari in¬
scription mentions only the two chief adversaries of Kokkalia, the Benares and
Amoda plates furnish more details of the conflicts by mentioning the names
of the feudatories of those two adversaries who participated in them. Amoda
plates, however, mention two new military adventures of Kokkalia, viz. that
he won victories over the king of Vanga and the Turushkas, which arc not
found referred to in the Bilhari and Benares inscriptions. Dr. Majumdar- has
virtually accepted elsewhere {HER, I. 136) Ihe statement of the Amoda pbtes
that Kokkalia conquered Vanga as authentic.

1.30

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA

12. See above, p. 54.

13. See above, p. 83.

14. See above, p. 31.

15. See above, p. 36.

16. The history of this family is principally based on the copper-plates (El, XXVI.
185) discovered at Ghumli in 1936.

17. See above, Vol. Ill, p. 173.

18. EIt IX. 1 ff.

19. This account is based on chronicles only and is not supported by epigraphic
evidence. Cf .^DHNI, II. 941.

20. IA, XII. 159, i. 13. The inscription states that Mahavaraha, kindled with the
rays of the sun, attacked Krishna I ( Sauryy-o$hma-samdipitam—.dpatantam ).
Kielhorn corrects Sauryya as £auryya, meaning bravery. ButN there is no diffi¬
culty in accepting the reading of the passage as it occurs. In my 'opinion there
is a pun on the word Saurya, which may be taken to mean also the people of
this name (cf. Sauryaroam — adhimarulale etc., in Jain Harivamsa) . The verse
purports to say that Mahavaraha, being strengthened by the support of the
Sauryas, attacked Krishna I.

21. El, XIX. 175. Also cf. Bh. List. No. 210G in. 1

22. See p. 21.

23. The Rashtrakufa Dhavala’s grandfather Vidagdha was ruling in A.D. 916, and
his father’s known date is AD. 939. In his old age Dhavaia abdicated his throne
in favour of his son Balaprasada, who is found ruling in A.D. 997. So it is not
unlikely that the Chapa Dharanivaraha was a contemporary of both Dhavaia
and the Chaulukya Mularaja, who ascended the throne in A.D. 942.

24. According to Nayachandra Suri’s Havimira-Mahdkdvya, Mularaja was killed by
the Chahamana Vigraharaja. This seems to be unlikely,

25. Cf. Vol. Ill, pp. 162-3.

26. See p. 87.

27. The Bijoli Rock Ins. (El, XXVI. 91) mentions Vindhyanripati as the successor
of Vakpati I. For the account of Sirhharaja and his predecessors, cf. El, 11. 116 ff.

28. El, XIV. 176.

29. Ch. X, pp. 158 ft.

30. The nature of the political relation of Bhartripatta II with the Imperial Prati-
haras cannot be ascertained from the Fartabgarh inscription (El, XIV. 176).
All that can be gathered from it is that the Maharajadhiraja Bhartripatbi made
a grant to the temple of Indradityadeva in AJD. 942 and the Maharaja Mahcndra-
paia II from his residence at MahGdaya donated land to the same temple in
A.D. 946.

31. Vol. Ill, p. 160.

32. See p. 31.

33. See pp. 33, 118.

34. Karnalu ascended the throne in or before AD. 900. As he obtained the sove¬
reignty during the reign of Gopala-varman who, according to Kalhana, began
his rule in A.D. 902, the date of the latter’s accession is to be shifted back by a
few years.

35. El, XXI. 298.

36. El, XXI. 301.

37. Firishta mentions Lahore as the capital of Jayapala. This does not seem to be
correct. Al-BirunI describes Luhavur (Lahore) as a country, the capital of
which was Mandahukur (Sachau, I. 206).

33. Vol. Ill, pp. 133-136.

39. S. Levi (Le Nepal, II. 176-77), however, thinks that there may be some historical
basis of the story of J&yapida’s fight with Nepal. Nepal was at that time a pro¬
tectorate of Tibet and there was a long-standing hostility between this kingdom
and Kashmir. According to Levi a story-teller would hardly invent an un¬
couth and barbarous name like Aranvudi, who was perhaps a Tibetan general
sent to oppose Jayaplda, The river Kala Gandika, on the banks of which the
battle is alleged to have taken place, almost certainly represents the Kala
Gandaki, the westernmost branch of the seven Gandakis, which was the first
natural barrier against an invader coming from the west.

131

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

40. For the date of Gopala-vannan, sec fn. 34 above.

41. See above, p. 113. . -

42. E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of
India, Vol. II (forming Vol. XI of the Gazetteer, N.W.P.), 1884, pp. 496-85. Cf.
BV, XII. 149-52.

43. I A, XXV. 177 ft.

44. JASB , Vol. Vir, 1838, pp. 1056-58.

45. This name apparently begins with sri or srimat and ends with deva.

46. El, XIII. 109. The editor of the inscription regarded them to be forged without
sufficient justification. Cf. Bhandarkar, List Nos. 1786-7. Bhandarkar does not
notice all the inscriptions analysed by Aktinson.

47. See pp. 112-115.

48. See pp. 99-100.

49. Vol. Ill, p. 155.

50. See pp. 24 ff,

51. See pp. 20, 25, 39.

V)2

CHAPTER VI

THE DECCAN

I. THE EASTERN CHALUKYAS

When Vijayaditya I died after a rule of 18 or 19 years about
A.D. 764, his son Vishnuvardhana IV became king and ruled the
Vehgl country for 36 years, i.e. down to about A.D. 799. Shortly
before A.D. 769-70, the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I sent his son,
the crown-prince Govinda II, to invade the Vehgl country. Accord¬
ing to the Alas grant1 of the Rashtrakuta crown-prince, issued in
A.D. 769-70 from the camp of his victorious army at the confluence
of the Krishnavsna and the Musi, the king of Vengl was humbled
and ceded his treasury, forces and kingdom. Soon after A.D. 779,
there was a struggle for the Rashtrakuta throne between Govinda II
and his younger brother Dhruva, in which the former managed to
get the assistance of the rulers of Malava, Kahchl, Gangavadi and
Vengl, all of whom had been previously subdued by the Rashfra-
kutas and were apparently eager to improve their position by exploit¬
ing the situation arising out of the fratricidal war. But Govinda II
was defeated by Dhruva who next ascended the Rashtrakuta throne.
Govinda II having been eliminated, Dhruva now set himself with full
vigour against his brother’s allies. An epigraph of A.D. 802, 2 sup¬
ported by the Radhanpur grants3 of A.D. 808, says that “at half a
word from the mouth of Dhruva’s letter-bearer, the king of Vehgl,
wherever he was, constantly performed his service without inter-
- mission, by his own wish, and built for him an outer wall, lofty as
the sky, of 'marvellous splendour, with the constellations around its
head like a garland of pearls.” Although the exact nature of the
claim is difficult to determine and although the capital city of Manya-
khe^a is said to have been built by Amoghavarsha, some writers go
so far as to suggest that Vishnuvardhana TV was himself compelled
to construct a wall for Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Hyderabad
State). It is, however, probable that the Vengl king was forced to
become a subordinate ally of the Rashtrakuta monarch. The Jethwai
grant4 dated A.D. 786 speaks of his daughter SllamahadevI who was
married to Dhruva.

Vishnuvardhana IV had several sons, viz . Vijayaditya II, Bhlma-
Salukki (i.e. Bhlma-Chalukya) and Npiparudra (born of a Haihaya
or Kalachuri princess). About A.D. 799, Vijayaditya II became king,
and assumed the tiiles Narendramrigaraja , Chalukyarjuna and

133

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Tribhuvandnkusa. The duration of his rule is variously given in
different records as 40, 41, 44 or 48 years. Fleet accepted 44 years as
the proper duration of the reign although from the actual date of the
accession of the king's great-grandson Chalukya-Bhlma _ I, it now
appears that Vijayaditya II ruled for 48 years and died about A.D.
847. The real cause of the discrepancy regarding his regnal period
seems to be that for some years during this reign the Eastern Cha-
lukya throne was occupied by a rival. The king built a large num¬
ber of &iva temples in different parts of his dominions.

Vijayaditya II, who assumed the titles Paramabhattdraka Maha-
rajadhiraja-Paramesvara, was one of the most powerful rulers of the
family. But his early years witnessed a series of failures. His
brother Bhlma-Salukki deserted him and joined the Rashtrakutas.
The king was utterly defeated by the Rashtrakutas under Govinda III
and their allies the Gahgas, and Bhlma-Salukki was raised to the
throne of VengT. But Vijayaditya II continued the struggle and,
when after the death of Govinda III (A.D. 814) his minor son
Amoghavarsha I ascended the Rashtrakuta throne and was facing a
rebellion of his officials and feudatories, the Chalukya king succeeded
in recovering his throne by overthrowing Bhima-Salukki in spite
of the assistance the latter received from the Rashtrakutas and
Ganges. This success was pursued by Vijayaditya II with redoubled
vigour. The Eastern Chalukya army now overran considerable por¬
tions of the Rashfrakuta empire and reached the city of Stambha
(modern Cambay in Gujarat)5 which they plundered and devastated.
In the records of his successors, Vijayaditya is said to have fought
108* battles in a continuous struggle of 12 years with the Rashtra¬
kutas and Gahgas, to have destroyed the Dakshina Gahga (the
southern Gangas), and to have taken possession of Vengi-man^ala by
extirpating his younger brother Bhlma-Salukki. The records of the
Rashtrakutas- themselves cf. Navsari grant0 of Indra III) admit that,
in the early part of the reign of Amoghavarsha I. the glory of the
RaRa (Rashtrakuta) kingdom “was drowned in the ocean of the
Chalukyas” who had “completely devastated the city of Stam¬
bha. But the success of the Eastern Chalukyas against the Rashtra¬
kutas was shortlived. Amoghavarsha I. who received considerable
help from Karkka, the Rashtrakuta viceroy of Gujarat, is said to
have later raised the glory of the Rashtrakutas once again. The re¬
bellious feudatories were subdued and the Eastern Chalukya army
was driven out of Rashtrakuta territory. In the records of his
successors. Amoghavarsha I is described as having destroyed a large
host of the Chalukyas at the battlefield of Vingavalli. The hostilities
continued in spite of the marriage of a Rashtrakuta princess named
SilamahadevI (probably a daughter of Dhruva by SllamahadevT who

THE DECCAN

was a sister of Vijayaditya II) to Vishnu-vardhana V, son of Vijaya-
ditya II. The Eastern Chalukyas had to acknowledge Rashtrakuta
supremacy.

Vijayaditya II came into conflict with a Naga king probably of
the Bastar region. But the reference may also be to Nagabha^a II of
the Gurjara Pratlhara dynasty, with whom he fought, according to
the Gwalior inscription7 of Bhoja I, probably in connection with his
Gujarat expedition.

The next king of Vengl was Vijayaditya’s son Vishnu vardhana V,
also called Kali-Vishnuvardhana (Kali-Bittarasa), Sarvalokasraya
and Vishamasiddhi. He ruled only for 18 or 20 months and died
about A.D, 848. He left several sons, viz. Vijayaditya III (born of
the Rashtrakuta princess SllamahadevI), Ayyaparaja, Vikrama-
ditya (I) and Yuddhamalla (I). Vijayaditya i III succeeded him on
the throne of the Vengl country and ruled for 44 years (A.D. 848-92).
The new king had a number of virudas such as Gunaka ( Gunaga ),
Parachakrardma, Ramarangasudraka, Manujaprahara , Vikrama -
dhavala, Nrpatimartanda , Virudangabhlma, Bhuvanakandarpa,
Arasankake sarin , Tripuramartyamahesvara and Tribhuvanankusa.

Like his grandfather, Vijayaditya III was bent upon Digvijaya
in which he was assisted by his able minister Vinaya<Jisarman and
by two reputed generals, namely Ka<Jeyaraja and his son Pan<Jaranga.
In the south, he conquered the city of Nellura (Nellore), probably
from the Pallavas of Ranchi. Vijayaditya III is said to have carried
away gold from the Pallavas. He is further credited with a victory
over the Pandyas and with giving shelter to the Chola king. Hav¬
ing been goaded to retaliation by the Raffa . or Rashtrakuta king
(rattesa-surhchodita) , he cut off the head of Mangi, king of Nolamba-
rashtra in Mysore, in a great battle, and also defeated the Gahgas
completely in the west. Next turning to the north, the Eastern
Chalukya king defeated the combined forces of the Rashtrakuta king
Krishna II8 and the latter’s brother-in-law (wife’s brother) and ally,
the Kalachuri king £ankila or Sahkuka (5ahkaragaj>a), lord of
Dahala (the Jubbulpore region), at the great battle of Kiranapura,
probably modern Kiranpur in the Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh.
Like his grandfather, Vijayaditya III overran the Rashtrakuta empire
and burnt Achalapura (modem Ellichpur in Berar). Vijayaditya III
is also said to have defeated Baddega, very probably the Chalukya
chief of Vemulavada who was the grandfather of Narasimha (a feuda¬
tory of Indra III, grandson and successor of Krishna II). He is fur¬
ther said to have burnt the city of Chakrakuta in the old Bastar State,
captured the elephants of the king of Kosala (South Kosala in Chhat-
tisgarh and the adjoining area), and taken by force the gold of the

135

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ganga king of Kalihga, from whom he also received elephants as
tribute. Vijayaditya III appointed his younger brother Vikrama-
ditya his heir apparent, but the latter probably predeceased him.
After Vijayaditya’s death the throne passsed to Chalukya-Bhima I,
son of Vikramaditya.

Fleet suggested that Chalukya-Bhima I ascended the throne in
A.B. 883; it is however now known from the Attili inscription9 that
this king’s coronation took place in 6aka 814 corresponding to A.D.
892. Chalukya-Bhima I was also known as Vishnuvardhana and
had the virudas TribhuvCLndnkusa , Droharjuna, Sarvalokdsraya and
Jftitasiddhi. He is often called Paramabrahrnanya. He ruled for 30 -
years and died about A.D. 922. He is said to have fulfilled the de¬
sires df distressed and helpless persons and of the ascetics just like
their parents, friends and preceptors.

The Anakapalle inscription10 of Chalukya-Bhima I proves his
control over Devarashtra in Ela m ahc h i -Kalin g a d e£ a , i.e. the Yella-
manchili tract of Visakhapatnam District. He made Pandaraiiga his
general. Another general of Chalukya-Bhima I was Mahakala who
was the son of a daughter of the king’s foster-mother.

During this reign, the struggle with the Rashtrakutas continued.
According to the Pampa-Bhdrata or Vikramdrjuna-vijxiya by the
Kanarese poet Pampa, the Chalukya’ chief Ba$$ega (probably
feudatory of Krishna II) defeated Bhlma, apparently Chalukya-Bhima..
and took him prisoner. The forces of Krishna II overran the Andhra
country as far south as Guntur and Nellore Districts and the Rash-
trakuta king actually appointed his own officials in charge of various
forts in the Eastern Chalukya country. Pan^arahga, general of Cha¬
lukya-Bhima 1, made attempts to overthrow the domination of the
foreigners. At the battle of Niravadyapura — one of the many that
took place between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas —
Chalukya-Bhima !s son killed a Bashtrakuta Daiu^Lesa (general) named
Gundaya, but was also himself killed. Pan^arahga captured some 12
strongholds from Vaso-Boya, probably a Bashtrakuta partisan, and
also the hill-forts of Vehglnandu (the Vehgl country). Chalukya-
Bhima I, who was evidently released after some time, is said to have
illumined the Vehgl country which had been overrun by Bafta (Bash¬
trakuta) chieftains “just as by dense darkness after sunset’’ and to
have defeated the army of Krishnavallabha (Krishna II) and his
allies, the kings of Karnata and Lata. Chalukya-Bhlma’s successes
may have been achieved during the latest years of the reign of
Krishna II.

Chalukya-Bhima I had at least two sons, viz. Vijayaditya IV
and Vikramaditya. of whom the former succeeded him about

THE DECCAN

A.D. 922. Hostilities with the Raahtrakutas continued unabated.
Vijayaditya IV defeated the HashtrakQta forces but lost his life after
a reign of 6 months, at the battle of Virajapurl to the south of the
Krishna. The city is said to have been the capital of a viceregal
family known as the Parichchhedins who ruled “the country of
6000” lying on the southern bank of the Kj-ishnavena (Krishna).

Vijayaditya IV had at least two sons, viz. Amma I, alias Vish-
nuvardhana, and Chalukya-Bhlma II (bom of Melamba), of whom the
former succeeded him about the end of A.D. 922 with the virudas
Rajamahendra and SarvalokcLsraya. Amma I ruled for 7 years, i.e.
till about A.D. 929. The Pulivarru inscription1 1 records the grant of
a village by the king in favour of Indaparaja, grandson of Indaparaja
of the Maha-Hattavarh^a who was the lord of the city of Manyakheta.
There is apparently reference here to a grandson (named Indra) of
the Kashtrakuta king Indra III of Malkhed. It has been suggested
that the donee may have been a son of Ampghavarsha II (c. A.D. 927),
who might have taken shelter at the Eastern Chalukya court when
his father was overthrown by the latter’s younger brother
Govinda IV (c. A.D. 927-36). The non-mention of Amoghavarsha II
in the Eastern Chalukya record may, however, suggest that the
father of the donee was not a crowned monarch.

Two sons of Amma I, viz. Vijayaditya V and Bhlma, are known
from records; the former succeeded (A.D. 929) him under the name
Kanthika-Vijayaditya or Kanthika-Beta. A fortnight after the
installation of Vijayaditya V, the young king was overthrown by
Tala (Talapa, Talapa or Tatja), son of Yuddhamalla and grandson
of Vishnuvardhana V. Tala’s success was specially due to the assis¬
tance he received from the Rashtraku|a king Gojjiga or Govinda IV
and from Ayyappa, king of Nolamba-rashtra. Vijayaditya V was
imprisoned and Tala declared himself king (A.D. 929), Vijayaditya
however escaped from captivity and took shelter at the court of the
Chdlukya ruler Arikesarin II (great-grandson of Ba^tega and patron
of the poet Pampa), ruler of Vemulava^a and a feudatory of the
Rashtrakutas.

The new king Tala was, however, ousted after only a month
by another claimant to the throne named Vikramaditya (II) who
was a $on of Chalukya-Bhlma I. Vikramaditya is said to have
ruled over the Vengl country together with Trikalinga for nine or
eleven months or for a year (A.D. 929) when he was himself over¬
thrown by Bhlma II who was a son of Amma I and a brother of
Vijayaditya V. But after a rule of 8 months (A.D. 930) Bhlma II
was killed by one Malla, Mallapa or Yuddhamalla (II), who was a
son of ,Tflla and a prot6g4 of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda IV. This

187

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

king, who ruled for seven years (A.D. 930-36), built the Malles-
varasvami temple at Vijayawada. During Yuddhamalla’s rule, the
Rashtrakutas were all powerful in the Andhra country. An inscrip¬
tion12 of Amma II naively admits that the Sabara chiefs, the
commanders of the army of Vallabha (the Rashtrakuta king), and
others apportioned the Eastern Chalukya kingdom among them-
selves for seven years (i.e. the duration of Yuddhamalla’s reign).
With Rashtrakuta help, however, Yuddhamalla succeeded in hold¬
ing his position against a number of rival claimants to the throne,
including Chalukya-Bhlma II who was a son of Vijayaditya IV and
a step-brother of Amma I; but Yuddhamalla was ultimately ousted
by Chalukya-Bhlma II. According to the Maliyapundi grant,13
the five years following the death of Vikramaditya II witnessed the
princes of the family who coveted the kingdom, viz. Yuddhamalla,
Rajamartanda, Kanthika-Vijayaditya (V) and others, fightipg for
supremacy and oppressing the people like Rakshasas; then Chalukya-
Bhlma “slew Rajaraayya in battle, made Kanthika-Vijayaditya and
Yuddhamalla] go to foreign country and despatched to, the abqde
of death many others who, though respectable kings, had sho^n
themselves puffed up by evil conduct and were causing distress \o
the country.” Another record14 says that Bhlma (Chalukya-
Bhlma II) ruled for 12 years (A.D. 935-46) after having extirpated
Yuddhamalla and other claimants to the throne. The Kalachum-
barru inscription16 of Amma II says that Chalukya-Bhlma II
slew the glorious Rajamayya, the mighty Dhala^a the fierce
TataBikki (or Tata-Vikyana, i.e. Tata Vikramaditya), Bijja always
ready for war, the terrible Ayyapa (the Nolamba king), the army
of Govinda (Govinda IV Rashtrakuta), Lova-Bikki who was the
ruler of the Cholas, and Yuddhamalla. Western Ganga records16
refer to a struggle between the Nolarhba king Ayyapa and Mahendra
(i.e. Chalukya-Bhlma II).

Chalukya-Bhlma II was also known as Bhlma, Raja-Bhlma and
Vishnuvardhana. He bore the virudas Sarvalokdsraya , Tribhu-
vandnkusa , Rajamartanda and Ganda-Mahendra. One of his feuda¬
tories was Vijjaya of the Panara dynasty. An important official
was the Velanandu chief Malliya. Chalukya-Bhlma II had several
sons, viz. Amma II (born of Lokamahadevi) , Danarnava (born of
Ankidevi) and Kama. Of these Amma II, who was younger than
Danarnava, became king (probably because he was the son of the
chief queen) after his father’s death in Saka 867 corresponding
to A.D. 946.

Amma, II, who became yuvardja at the age of 8 and king at
12, was also known by the name Vijayaditya and bore the virudas

138

THE DECCAN

Rajamahendra, Tribhuvanankusa' and Samastabhuvanasraya. There
is a tradition which connects the foundation of the city Raj amah en-
drl or Rajamahendrapura (which probably became the capital or
a secondary capital of the later Eastern Chaiukyas) with a Chalukya
king named Vijayaditya-Mahendra. This king seems to have been
no other than Amma II who was known both as Vijayaditya and
Hajamahendra. He married the daughter of Nripakama, lord of
Saras or Kolanu (Colair lake) in Godavari District. Durgaraja,
great-grandson of the celebrated warrior Pandarahga, was the
king’s general. His minister was Kuppanayya (son of Turkkiya-
Yajvan) who was also known as Vipranarayana. Amma II is des¬
cribed as lord of both Vehgi and Kalinga and is known to have made
grants of lands in the Barupunan^Ju-uishaya in Elamanchi-Kalinga,
i.e. the Yellamanchili tract of Viiakhapatnam District. One of his
records refers to the yuvardja Ballaladeva Velabhata, sumamed
Botftfiya, son of Pammava of the PattavardhinI family. At the re¬
quest of Chameka (a courtesan loved by the king) of the same family,
the king granted a village in favour of the Jain temple of Sarva-
lokaSraya Jinavallabha. He is also known to have made gifts to the
Jain temples at Vijayavajika (Bezwada). One of his grants was in
favour of the temple of Siva Samastabhuvanasraya built by Naren-
drampigaraja at Vijayavata (Bezwada).

After Amma H had ruled for eleven years, i.e. about A. D. 956,
he was driven out of the Vehgi country by Badapa1., son of king
Yuddhamalla. Badapa became king with the help of the Rash^rakuta
king Karna or Kannara, i.e. Krisha IH (e. A.D. 939-67), and Amma
II proceeded to the Kalinga country (Elamanchi-Kalihga) owing to
Krishna's (Krishna ni Rashtrakuta) wrath against him. Shortly
afterwards, Amma II regained his kingdom.

Badapa styled himself Vijayaditya and Samastabhuvana&raya.
One of his officers appears to have been Gan<Janarayana, son of
Nripakama of Saras (father-in-law of Amma II). This Gan^anara-
yana, who was a famous archer, earned the appellation Karmu-
karjuna and Satyavallata.

Badapa was succeeded by his younger brother Mahdr&jddhir$ja
Tala (n), sumamed Vishnu vardhana. His minister was Kuppa¬
nayya, son of Makariyaraja and grandson of Kalivarman of - the
family of Pallavamalla (probably king Nandi varman of Kanchi).
Tala was slain in battle after a short reign by Amma II,* who was
slain in turn by his elder brother Danarnava in A.D. 970. Amraa’s
death was avenged by his wife's brother Jata Choda-Bhlma who
defeated and killed Danarnava in A.D. 973 and made himself king
of Vehgi. The sons of Danarnava went into exile at the Choja court

189

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

until Rajaraja conquered Vengi for them from Jata Choda-Bhima in
A.D. 999. 1 7

The inscriptions of the descendants of Danarnava do not re¬
cognise the rule of Badapa and his successors. They record that
“after Danarnava, through the evil action of fate, the country of
Vengi was \yithout a ruler for 27 years (c. A.D. 973-99), after which
the son of king Dana (Danarnava), that glorious Saktivarman who
resembled the king of gods, having overcome the enemies by force
of his valour, protected the earth for 12 years (c. A.D. 999-1011)”.
Saktivarman, also called Chalukya-Narayana, Chalukya-chandra and
Vishnuvardhana, is said to have risen to fame even in his youth by
his victory in a battle with the Cholas (probably the Telugu-Chodas).
He put to flight one Badyema-Maharaja and killed Chola-Bhlma (i.e.
the Telugu-Choda chief, Jata Choda-Bhima). As Bhlma is also said
to have been killed by Rajaraja I, it is clear that Saktivarman joined
Raj a raj a I in his campaign against Vengi in A.D. 999. Jata Choda-
Bhima was defeated and killed, and Saktivarman became the ruler
of Vengi in that year.

GENERAL REFERENCES

A. S. Altekar — The Rashtrakutas and their Times.

J. F. Fleet — I.A., XX; Bombay Gazetteer, I, ii.

D. C. Ganguly — The Eastern Chdlukyas.

B. V. Krishna Rao —JAHRS, X. 16.

H. C. Ray — Dynastic History of Northern India , Vol. I.

R. Sewell — The Historical Inscriptions of Southern India.

N. Venkata ramanayya— The Eastern Chdlukyas of Vengi; The Chdlukyas of
Le (Ve)mulavdda.

II. THE EASTERN GANG AS (e. A.D. 750-1000)

The Early Eastern Gangas of Kalihganagara were rulers of a
small territory in Srikakulam District. At a later date, the members
of a branch of this family, who are usually called the ‘Later Eastern
Gahgas* but may be styled the ‘Greater or Imperial Gangas*, extend¬
ed the Gahga power over wide regions of the coastal area from the
lower course of the Bhaglrathl in the north-east to that of the Goda¬
vari in the south-west. The history of the Eastern Gangas till the
middle of the eighth century has already been narrated.18

1. Later Members of the Early Ganga Family

Of the later rulers of the Early Gahga dynasty mention may be
made of Rajendra-varman I (who seems to have been the successor
of Devendra-varman II, c. A.D. 747-52) and his son Anantavarman
II known from records dated in the Gahga years 284 (A.D. 780-82)

140

THE DECCAN

and 304 (A.D. 800-02). 19 Ananta-varman II was succeeded by his
brother Devendra-varman III who issued charters in the Gahga years
308 (A.D. 804-06) and 310 (A.D. 806-08). 20 The successor of Deven¬
dra-varman III was Rajendra-varman II, son of the former’s brother
Ananta-varman II. King Rajendra-varman II is known from his re¬
cords with dates ranging between the Gahga years 313 (A.D. 809-11)
and 342 (A.D. 838-40). 21 This king was succeeded by his cousin
Satya-varman who was a, son of Devendra-varman III and issued a
charter in the Gahga year 351 (A.D. 847-49). 22 The next three
rulers appear to have been Ananta-varman III (Gahga year 358),
another son of Devendra-varman III, Bhupendra-varman Mara-
siriiha,23 and his son Devendra-varman IV who issued the Cheedi-
valasa grant in the Gahga year 397 (A.D. 893-895). 24 A grant issued
by the son of a king named Devendra-varman in the year 393
(A.D. 889-91) has been recently published.25 This king’s name has
been taken to be Manujendra-varman, although the reading intended
may be Rajendra-varman.

No definite history of the Eastern Gahgas is available for about a
century after Devendra-varman IV. The earliest records of the
Greater Gahgas have to be assigned to the close of the tenth century.
There is some evidence to show that during this century, the Gahga
kingdom was split up into five tiny principalities, mostly under
different branches of the royal family. One of these appears to
have been under the Gahga house of Svetaka and another was pro¬
bably under the Kadambas of Jayantyapura. During this period
the Eastern Chalukyas appear to have encroached upon the Gahga
territories. King Vijayaditya III (A.D. 844-92) is said to have taken
by force the gold of the Gahga king of Kalinga and received ele¬
phants as tribute from that country. Eastern Chalukya influence
seems to have been at the root of the introduction of the Saka era
in the land that had previously used the era; of the Gahgas them¬
selves.

2. Rise of the Greater Gahgas

The earliest definite and undisputed date in the history of the
Greater Gahgas is the 9th of April, 1038 A.D.26 when Vajrahasta-
Ananta-varman, father of Rajaraja and grandfather of the great
Ananta-varman Cho<Jagahga, was crowned. The records of Vaj-
rahasta and his son as well as the earlier ones of his grandson give the
following information about the early history of this branch of the
Gahga family.27 In the Atreya gotra and the Gahga family (a
Brahmana family according to Muslim chroniclers) was born
Gunamaharnava who acquired the glory of samrdjya ; his son Vaj-
rahasta united the earth which had been divided into five kingdoms

141

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and ruled for 44 years; the next rulers were his three sons, viz.
Gundama (3 years), Kamarnava (35 years) and Vinayaditya
(3 years); thereafter Kamarnava’s son Vajrahasta-Aniyankabhlma
became king and ruled for 35 years; he was followed by his three
sons, viz. Kamarnava (6 months) who married Vinayamahadevi of the
Vaidumba family (holding sway in the land about Arcot, Cuddappa
and Nellore Districts from the ninth to the thirteenth century), Gun¬
dama (3 years) and Madhukamarnava (19 years). Vajrahasta-
Ananta-varman, who was crowned in A.D. 1038, was the son of Ka¬
marnava by the Vaidumba princess. This account evidently suggests
that Gunamaharnava was the first king of this branch of the Ganga
family, that the Ganga kingdom had been divided into five princi¬
palities apparently owing to the weakness of the central government,
and that Gunamaharnava’s son Vajrahasta succeeded in reuniting
the diverse units under his sole sway. But though this account of
the rise of the Greater Gangas is not altogether improbable, at least
in regard to the broad outline, it has to be noted that the tradition
recorded in the later records28 of the family, from the latter part of
the reign of Ananta-varman Chodaganga, is somewhat different.

The later account represents the Ganga family as a branch of
the lunar dynasty and reminds us of the fabricated genealogy of
the Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas and others. It traces the descent
of the family from Ananta (Vishnu), Brahman born of Vishnu’s
navel, > his mind-born son Atri (the gotrarshi of the Ganga family),
and Atri’s eye-born son Sasanka (Moon). From the moon to Yayati’s
son Turvasu, the Puranic account of the lunar dynasty is followed.
It is then said that Turvasu had, through the favour of the goddess
Ganga, a son named Gangeya whose descendants were known as
Ganga. The seventeenth descendant of Gangeya, as enumerated
in the list, was Kolahala (also called Ananta-varman) who is said
to have built Kolahalapura (modern Kolar in Mysore) in the Gah-
gava^i vishaya. Here is an attempt to trace the descent of the
Eastern Gangas of Orissa from the Western Gangas of Mysore, who
however claimed to have belonged to the Kanvayana gotra and the
solar dynasty of Ikshvaku.29 Kolahala’s son was Virochana in whose
lineage, after 81 kings had ruled at Kolahalapura, flourished Vira-
sirhha. Virasirhha’s son Kamarnava presented his own territory to
his paternal uncle and set out to conquer the earth with his four
brothers, viz. Danarnava, Gunarnava. Marasimha and Vajrahasta.
He came to Mount Mahendra in Kalinga (in Ganjam District)!
and worshipped the god Gokarnasvamin (Gokarnesvara). Through
the god’s favour, Kamarnava obtained the Vrishabha-lanchhana (bull
crest) and the insignia of sovereignty. He then took possession of
the Kalinga country after having defeated £abaraditya and ruled for

142

THE DECCAN

36 years at Jantavura (Dantapura or Jayantyapura?). He was suc¬
ceeded by his brother Danarnava, who ruled for 40 years, while to his
other brothers were assigned the districts called Ambavadi-vishaya
(Ambavalli in Parlakimedi), Sodaman^ala (Soda in Parlakimedi) and
VarahavartanI (Tekkali-Chicacole area). Danarnava’s *son Kamar¬
nava; who ruled for 50 years, built a city named Nagara and a
temple of Isa (Siva) under the name Madhukesa. His son Ranarnava
ruled for five years and was succeeded by his two sons, viz. Vajra-
hasta (15 years) and Kamarnava (19 years). The son and successor
of this Kamarnava was Gunarnava, who is said to have ruled for
27 years and is apparently the same as Gun-amah arnava mentioned
in the earlier account as the founder of the Greater Gafiga family.
But in the present account the successor of Gunarnava (Gunamahar-
nava) is said to have been his son Potankuia (15 years), who was him¬
self succeeded by his brother’s son Kaligalahkuia (12 years), followed
by Potankusa’s brothers Gundama (7 years), Kamarnava (25^years)
and Vinayaditya (3 years). It has been suggested that this Kamar¬
nava and Vinayaditya are mentioned in the Conjeeveram inscrip¬
tion of Jata Choda-Bhima, dated A.D. 982, as having been killed by
that chief.30 The next king was Kamarnava’s son Vajrahasta who
is the same as Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhlma of the first account. It
will be seen presently that we are on surer grounds from this reign.
The account of the predecessors of this king up to Gunarnava (Guna-
maharnava) is extremely doubtful at least in regard to details, while
the tradition about the earlier history of the family, not found in
the earlier account, seems to have been entirely fabricated. Some
scholars find in the reference to the construction of the city called
Nagara a historical allusion to the foundation of Kalinganagara. This
is impossible in view of the fact that the builder of Nagara is placed
about eight generations before a king who was crowned in A.D. 1038,
while the city of Kalinganagara is known to have existed at least as
early as the sixth century A.D.

If Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhlma (35 years) was succeeded by his
three sons, Kamarnava (6 months), Gundama (3 years) and Madhu-
kamamava (19 years) who was followed by Vajrahasta-Ananta-
varm'an, crowned in A.D. 1038, the regnal periods of these kings may
have been as follows: Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhlma, A.D. 980-1015;
Kamarnava, A.D. 1015-16; Gundama, A.D. 1016-19; Madhukamar-
nava, A.D. 1019-38. This chronology appears to be supported by
epigraphic evidence. To Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhlma (son of Kamar¬
nava), A.D. 980-1015, no doubt is; to be assigned the Ponduru grant
issued by king Vajrahasta, son of Kamarnava, in the Ganga year
500 (A.D. 996-998). 31 The Mandasa grant of the Kadamba chief
Dharmakhedi, son of Bhimakhe^i, was issued during the reign of the

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ganga king Ananta-varman in the Saka year navasatakasaptarasa.
Navasataka no doubt indicates 900 and saptarasa is probably a
hybrid Sanskrit-Prakrit word standing midway between Sanskrit
saptadasa and Prakrit sattarasa meaning 17. 32 This epigraph, dated
in Saka 917 (A.D. 995) and referring to the Ganga king Ananta-
varman, suggests that Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhima, like his grandson,
was also known as Ananta-varman. The suggestion seems to be
supported by the Chicacole grant of the Ganga year 526 (A.D. 1022
24) which was issued by the Ganga king Madhukamarnava repre¬
sented in the record as the son of Ananta-varman. This king is
apparently no other than Madhukamarnava who was the son of
Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhima and ruled in A.D. 1019-38. The Kadamba
chief Dharmakhedi, who issued the Mandasa grant in A.D. 995, later
issued the Santa-Bommali charter33 in the Ganga year 520 (A.D.
1016-18) during the reign of t*he Ganga king Devendra-varman, son
of Ananta-varman (Vajrahasta-Aniyahkabhima). Devendra-varman
seems to have been a second name of either Kamarnava (A.D. 1015-
16) or Gundama (A.D. 1016-19) who were both sons of Vajrahasta-
Aniyahkabhlma-Ananta-varman.

The later history of the family from Vajrahasta- Ananta-varman
(crowned in A.D. 1038), who is styled Vajrahasta III (according to
the genealogy given in his own records) or Vajrahasta V (according
to the fabricated genealogy found in the later records of his suc¬
cessors) and was the real founder of the family’s greatness, will be
discussed in the next volume. But we might consider here the plausi¬
ble suggestion that the rise of the Greater Gangas was a result of the
Chola expedition against Kalinga in the reign of Rajaraja Chola
(A.D. 985-1016). Rajaraja Choja claims to have conquered Kalinga
some time before A.D. 1003, 34 while his son Rajendra is known to
have set up pillars of victory,35 probably during his father’s reign,
on Mount Mahendra in Kalinga. The omission of Kalinga in the
list of countries conquered by Rajendra Chola’s generals shortly be¬
fore A.D. 102336 seems to suggest that the Ganga king was then
regarded as a subordinate ally of the Cholas. The Greater Gangas,
who gained power probably under the patronage of the Chola con¬
querors, are known to have employed Chola officials and contracted
matrimonial alliances with the Cholas. The Vaidumba relative of
Vajrahasta-Aniyankabhlma-Ananta-varman might have been Vishnu-
deva Duraiarasan who was a feudatory of Rajaraja Chola and is
known from an inscription of A.D. 992. 37

3. The Ganga House of Svctaka

Reference has already been made to the rise of the viceregal
Ganga house of Svetaka, no doubt at the expense, and owing to the

THE DECCAN

weakness, of the Ganga kings of Kalinganagara.38 The earliest
known . rulers of the Svetaka house were Jaya-varman (Ganga years
100 and 120 falling in A.D. 596-616) and Samanta-varman (Ganga
year 165 or 185). A group of later rulers of Svetaka were Mahindra-
varman, his son Prithvl-varman, and the latter’s sons Indra-varman
and Danarnava. King Bhupendra-varman, son of Kailasa, seems to
be a later member of the same house which probably continued
its separate existence till the last quarter of the eleventh century.
The last ruler of the Svetaka house appears to have been king
Devendra-varman mentioned as the overlord of Kadamba Udaya-
ditya, son of Dharmakhedi, in the Kambakaya grant probably dated
in &aka 1003 (A.D. 1081).33 He is also known from the Gara inscrip¬
tion40 of an uncertain date, the Draksharama inscription41 of Kulot-
tuhga Chola’s 33rd regnal year (A.D. 1103), and the Kalingattuparcmi.
A recently discovered copper-plate grant was issued in Saka 988
(A.D. 1066) during this king’s reign. The Svetaka house appears
to have been completely extirpated by Anantavarman Chodaganga
about the close of the eleventh century.

4. The Kadambas of Jayantydpura

We have referred to the Mandasa and Santa-Bommali grants
of the Kadamba chief Dharmakhedi issued during the reigns of
Vajrahasta-Aniyankabhlma-Ananta-varman and Devendra-varman
(Kamarnava or Gundama) in the period A.D. 995-1018. Like their
overlords, these Eastern Kadambas appear to have represented a
branch of a western ruling house, viz. the Kadamba family of the
Kanarese country. R&naka Mahdmandalesvara Dharmakhedi, son of
Bhlmakhedi and grandson of Niyarnava, ruled over five districts
from his capital at Jayantyapura. Dharmakhedi’s grandfather
Niyarnava seems to be no other than the Ranaka Niyarnama men¬
tioned as the father of Mahadevi Vijya in a record of Rdnaka Rana-
bhanja (son of Satrubhanja and grandson of Silabhanja) who ruled
Khinjali -mandala from Dhritipura. Reference has already been made
to Udayaditya who was a son of Dharmakhedi and a feudatory
of Ganga Devendra-varman, probably of Svetaka, and issued the
Kambakaya grant in A.D. 1081. A Parlakimedi inscription42 of the
time of Vajrahasta (crowned A.D. 1038) refers to a feudatory named
Ugrakhedi of the Nidusanti clan and the Kadamba family. This
epigraph also contains a later record of Ranyaka Udayakhedi who is
possibly the same as Udayaditya of the Kambakaya grant. A recent¬
ly discovered copper-plate grant of A.D. 1066 mentions Bhlmakhedi,
son of Dharmakhedi, as a feudatory of Ganga Devendra-varman,
probably of Svetaka. Nothing is known about these Eastern
Kadambas after the eleventh century A.D.

145

a.i.k.— io

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

in. THE SOMAVAMSIS

•The early history of the Pan<J uvamsa , also called the family of
the Moon (Somavamsa), which ruled in South Kosala with Sripura
(modern Sirpur in Raipur District) as the capital, has been already
discussed.43 The rulers of this family were called lords of Kosala,
although their records have been mostly found in the western part
of this janapada ,44 Their early charters had the Vaishnavite emblem
of Garu^a on their seal while the later ones bore the Saiva symbol
of the couchant bull. Little is known of this family after king
6ivagupta (Mahaiivagixpta) Balarjuna, who seems to have flourished
at the close of the sixth and the first half of the seventh century
A.D.46 Another group of kings, some of whom bore the names Siva-
gupta and Mahasivagupta and had names ending in the word kesarin
(like some members of the Pan<Juvarhsa) , is also known to have
claimed descent from the Somavamsa (family of the Moon) and suze¬
rainty over Kosala. The records of the early members of this family,
which have been found in the Sambalpur tract in the eastern part
of the ancient South Kosala country, cannot, however, be assigned
to any date earlier than the tenth century. The kings moreover
have the distinctive epithet Trikalingadhipati, and never claim to
have been descended from the Pantjuvam^a. The seal of their early
records bears not the Garuda or the bull emblem but the Gaja-
lakshml symbol (although they were &aivas) like that of the Sara-
bhapunyas and the Kalachuris. The relations of the Somavamsls
und6r discussion with the earlier ruling families of South Kosala
cannot be definitely determined in the present state of insufficient
information.

The founder of this later Somavamsa was king Sivagupta. His
records have not yet been discovered but he has been assigned im¬
perial epithets in the records of his son. That the later members
did not regard him as the founder of the family seems to indicate
that his son and not he was the real founder of the family’s great¬
ness. His reign may be roughly assigned to the first half of the
tenth century (c. A.D. 915-35). It has been suggested that he was
possibly the Kosala king from whom Mugdhatunga, the Kalachuri
king of .Tripurl (in Dahala or the Jubbulpore region), claims to have
conquered a locality called Pall which has been identified with a
village of that name near Ratanpur in the Bilaspur District. If the
early members of the Somavamsa actually held sway over Chhat-
tisgarh, they must have been gradually ousted from that area by the
Kalachuris of Dahala, although permanent occupation of Chhat-
tisgarh by the Kalachuris has to be assigned to the eleventh centurv

«7 *

146

THE DECCAN

Sivagupta was succeeded by his son Janamejaya Mahabhava-
gupta I alias Dharma-kandarpa (c. A.D. 935-70) whose earliest and
latest records (dated in the regnal years 3 and 34) were issued from.
Suvarnapura (modem Sonpur in the old Sonpur State). Some other
charters of the king were issued from such places as Murasima.
(modern Mursinga in the old Patna State) and Arama (supposed to
have been a pleasure garden near Suvarnapura). The king who
was a devout worshipper of Mahesvara (Siva) is sometimes specifi¬
cally mentioned as king of Kosala, and some of the villages granted
by him are said to have been situated in Kosaladesa. According to
the Bhuvaneswar inscription of Uddyotakesarin, Mahabhavagupta I
captured the royal fortune of the king of the Odra country, roughly
corresponding to the lower part of modern Orissa, which was in this
age under the rulers of the Kara dynasty. This king, like other mem¬
bers of the family, called himself “the lord of Trikalinga.”46 As has
been pointed out above, it is not definitely known whether the name
Trikalinga indicated three countries (e.g. Kosala, Kalihga, and Utkala
or Odra) collectively, or a particular tract of land lying probably
between Kalihga - and South Kosala. But, as has been indicated
above, the country of Utkala or Odra was in this age comprised in
the dominions of the Karas with whom the Somavamsi monarch may
have come into conflict. The exact boundaries of the dominions of
Janameyaja Mahabhavagupta I cannot be determined. Kalachuri
Lakshmanaraja, who ruled about the third quarter of the tenth cen¬
tury and claimed to Have defeated the lord of Kosala, possibly came
into conflict with thfs king.

An important official of the king was his minister for war and
peace, named Malladatta, who was the son of Dharadatta and served
the Somavamsi ruler at least from the sixth do the thirty-first year
of his reign. Malladatta was succeeded in the office by a second
Dharadatta who was probably his son. The history of the ministe¬
rial family of the Dattas, which solves a number of problems in the
genealogy of the Somavamsi rulers, illustrates the interesting an¬
cient Indian custom of the hereditary appointment of ministers re¬
ferred to in the Udayagiri inscription of Chandra-gupta II of the
Gupta dynasty.

Janamejaya Mahabhavagupta I was succeeded, some time after
his thirty-fourth regnal year, by his son Yayati Mahasivagupta I,
who assumed the title Paramamahesvara like his father, and seems to
have ruled in the second half of the tenth century (c. A.D. 070-1000).
The earlier records of this king were issued from Vinitapura which
has been identified with modern Binka in the old Sonpur State; but
the charters dated in his twenty-fourth and twenty-eighth regnal

147

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

years are found to have been issued from Yayatinagara on the Maha-
nadl, a city apparently founded by, and named after, the king. Some
writers believe that Yayatinagara was the name given by king
Yayati Mahasivagupta I to Vinitapura. His charters, like those of
his father, often record gifts of land specifically in Kosala or Dak-
shina Kosala, although an inscription47 of his ninth regnal year is
known to record the grant of a village in South Tosala which formed
an integral part of the dominions of the Karas. In one of his char¬
ters, an official of the king is specially mentioned as the Sandhi -
vigrahin of Kosaladesa. Dharadatta II, who served Janamejaya as
minister for war and peace during the later years of his reign, con¬
tinued in office till at least the twenty-fourth regnal year of Yayati,
and was later succeeded as minister for war and peace by another
member of the Datta family, named Simhadatta, who was the son
of Harshadatta and probably a grandson of Dharadatta II.

The latest known record of Yayati Mahasivagupta I is dated in
his twenty-eighth regnal year. The later records of the king des¬
cribe him as having captured 32 big elephants and defeated a certain
ruler named Ajapala of whom nothing is known.

A short supplement, comprising three verses, engraved at the end
of a charter of Yayati Mahasivagupta,48 tells us that a king of Kosala
of the lunar dynasty (soma-kula), named Svabhavatuhga, defeated
the Chaidyas or Kalachuris of Dahala (modern Jubbulpore region).
It seems further to say that certain lieutenants of the Chedi (Kala-
churi) king, headed by Bhatfa-Pedi, were honoured by their master
for invading the Somavamsi kingdom and carrying away a number
of women, but that the Somavamsi monarch, aided by a general
named Lakshmaiia, pursued the Chedi forces into the enemy’s terri¬
tory, killed Bhatfa-Pe<Ji and rescued the captured women. It also des¬
cribes how Svabhavatunga’s son (whose name is not mentioned)
cared little for the Chaidya (Kalachuri king) named Durgaraja and
burnt the land of Dahala (the Chedi country) rendering it depopu¬
lated. v

As the only Somavamsi king mentioned in these supplementary
verses is Svabhavatuhga, it may be regarded as another name of
Yayati Mahasivagupta I himself. If this identity be presumed, we
get valuable information regarding the political relations between
the Somavamsis and the Kalachuris in the latter half of the tenth
century A.D.

The unpublished Baud plates of the Kara queen Prithvlmahadevl
alias Tribhuvanamahadevi II, dated in the year 158 of the Kara era,
state that shejvas the daughter of king Svabhavatuhga of the lunar

148

THE DECCAN

dynasty of Kosala, who fnay be none other than the Somavamil
monarch mentioned above, and therefore identical with Yayati
Mahasivagupta I. We have seen above how this SomavaihsI king
granted in his ninth regnal year a village in . the Kara territory.
Another inscription of the same king records the grant of a village
in the Gandhatapatl (modern Gandharadhi in the old Baud State)
mandala (district), apparently named after 6atrubhahja I Gandhafa
of the Bhahja dynasty of Dhritipura, which owed allegiance to the
Karas. This seems to suggest that it was Yayati Mahasivagupta I
who was responsible for driving the descendants of &atrubhanja’s
son Ranabhanja from Dhritipura in Upper Orissa to Vahjulvaka in
the Ganjam region.43 These two facts, pointing to the success of
Yayati Mahasivagupta I against the Karas, do not appear to be un¬
connected with his daughter’s accession to the Kara throne which,
as noted above, was a disputed one. It is very probable that Ppithvl-
mahadevl succeeded in occupying the Kara kingdom with the active
help of her father Yayati Mahasivagupta I. Possibly in connection
with his successful campaign against his daughter’s rivals for the
Kara throne the SomavamsI monarch granted the village of Chandra-
grama in Dakshina-Tosala, identified with modem Chandgan, about
32 miles from Cuttack.60 It may be, pointed out in this connection
that the year 158 of the Kara era, when Ppithvimahadevl was on the
throne, does not appear to have been far removed from the ninth
regnal year of Yayati Mahasivagupta I.61

1. El, VI. 208.

2. Eastern Chalukyas, 44.

3. El, VI. 242.

4. El, XXII. 105.

5. Some scholars, however, identify it with modern Cunbum in Kurnool District.

6. El IX. 39.

7. El, XVIII. 107.

8. Some scholars interpret rattesa-saihchodita as “ordered by the Rashtrakuta
king’’ whom they identify with Amoghavarsha I. They hold that after the
death of this king, Vijavaditya threw off his allegiance to the Rash^rakutas and
thus war endued with Krishna II.

9. ARSIE, 1913, p. 131.

10. Ibid, 1909, p. 108.

11. Ibid, 1924, pp. 10, 98.

12. Ibid, 1917, p. 117.

13. El, IX. 47.

14. I A, VII. 18.

15. El, VII. 177.

16. EC, VI. 49.

17. This is based on the reconstruction of the history of Ja{a Ghoda-Bhlma by
Dr. N. Venkataramanayya (PIHC, III. 605 ff). See now the same author’s The
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, pp. 200 ff. Cf. also B.V. Krishna Rao, JAHRS, X. 16.

18. See Vol. Ill, pp. 215 ff.

19. El, III. 18.

20. El, XVin. 312.

21. 3h. List, No. 2051.

22. 1A, XIV. 11.

149

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

23 He is said to have been the son of Vajrl (Vajrahasta). See Bh. List, p. 386.

24. JASL, XVIII. 77.

25. JAHRS, XX. 161.

26. Bh. List , No. 1090.

27. Ibid, No. 1091.

28. Ibid, No. 1103. See El, XXVIII. 235 ff; ARS1E, 1935-6, pp. 61-3.

20. There is absolutely no evidence in favour of the conjecture that the Gahgas

were the descendants of the ancient people called Gangaridae by classical writers.

For the Indian name of the Gangaridae, see Sircar, ‘The City of Gahga’,

PIHC, 1947, pp. 91-98.

30. The two kings, who are also mentioned in the earlier account, lost their lives
respectively about A.D. 977 and 980. They probably fought with the Telugu-
Choda king on behalf of the Eastern Chalukyas.

31. JKHRS, I. 219.

32. The expression is usually taken to be a combination of the words sapta (7)
and rasa (6). In that case the date may be Saka 913 (A.D. 991). But I have
no doubt that saptarasa stands for 17. See JKHRS, I. 219-21.

33. Bh. List. No. 2053.

34. EC, X. Mb. 123.

35. El, VI. 347.

36. El, IX. 229.

37. Sewell, HISI, 54.

38. See Vol. Ill, p. 217.

39 JKHRS 1 I 219

40. ARSIE, 1932-3, pp. 56-7. If the inscription is really dated in Saka 1005
(A.D. 1083) and in the 7th regnal year of the king, his name Devendravarman
may be regarded as a mistake for Anantavarman (i.e. Chodagariga, son of Raja-
raja I Devendra-varman, c. A.D. 1070-78).

41. El, XXII. 138 ff.

42. El, III. 223.

43. Vol. Ill, pp. 220 ff.

44. A recently discovered record, dated in the 57th regnal year of Balarjuna, con¬
tains the names of two villages which have been located in the old Kalahandi
State. This probably suggests that the rule of the Panduvarhsis extended over
the eastern part of the janapada as well (JKHRS, I. 265-6). In El, XXVIII.
322-3, the villages have been located in Sambalpur District, Orissa.

45. Vol. Ill, p. 222.

46. The published eye-copy (JRASB, L. XIII. 74) of the Bhuvaneswar Inscription
(1.2) suggests the reading of a word in a damaged section as triling-ddhipa in
connection with this king. It is uncertain whether Janamejaya is himself called
the lord of Trilinga or one who defeated the Trilinga king.

47. El, III. 351; Misra, Dynasties of Medieval Orissa, pp. 63 ff.

48. It was originally published in JPASB, 1905, pp. 14-16. See now JASL, XIX.
117 ff.

49. IHQ, XXVIII. 227; also cf. above, Ch. IV. III. 2.

50. Misra, Dyn. Med. Orissa , p. 68.

51. The Daspalla plates of 6atrubhanja, recently edited in El, offer astronomical
details suggesting the beginning of the era in A.D. 831. Cf. IHQ, XXIX. 148 ff.
[This is not compatible with the view of Kara chronology adopted above on
p. 63. Cf. also p. 79, fn. 33. — Ed.]

150

CHAPTER VII

SOUTH INDIA

I. THE PALLAVAS

1. Danti-varman and Nandi-varman III

Danti-varman, whose inscriptions range from his second to his
fifty-first regnal year and cover a large part of the Pallava dominions,
was the son of Nandi-varman II Pallavamalla by Reva (Rkvaka),
the Rashtrakuta princess. Danti-varman, who was thus the grand¬
son of Dantidurga Rashtrakuta, married a Kadamba princess. About
A.D. 804 Rashtrakuta Govinda III invaded Kanchl which had earlier
been attacked by his predecessor, Dhruva. We do not know how the
relations between the Pallavas and the Rashtrakutas changed for
the worse. An inscription in Tamil of Danti-varman in the Partha-
sarathi temple, Triplicane (Madras), describes him as “the orna¬
ment of the Pallava family,” belonging to the Bharadvaja gotta,
the gotra of the previous Pallava sovereigns as well. This record
proves the antiquity of that temple which was built by an earlier
Pallava ruler. The reign of Danti-varman witnessed a recrudescence
of the Pandya aggression, and Varaguna I occupied the Kaveri !
region. The inscriptions of Danti-varman are significantly ^absent
from that region from his sixteenth regnal year to the end of his
reign, while some records of the Pan<Jya king are found there. The
Banas were feudatory to Danti-varman.

Danti-varman’s son, Nandi-varman III, known by his conspicuous
surname of TeUarrerinda, worshipped &iva, patronised Tamil lite¬
rary savants like Perundevanar, author of the BhcLratavenba,
and married £ankha, the daughter of Amoghavarsha I Rashtrakuta.
Nandi- varman’s other surnames like Avani-naranan, Varatungan and
Ugrakopan are mentioned in a contemporary Tamil work, the
Nandikkalambakam. It throws a flood of light on his. military
activities — his achievements at Tellaru (North Arcot District) and
several other battle-fields. It is clear that Nandi-varman III heroi¬
cally rolled back the swelling tide of Fan<Jya aggression, which had
come to a head during his predecessor’s reign; he inflicted a deci¬
sive defeat on the enemy at Tellaru and pursued him, it is said, to
the banks of the Vaigai. The battle of Tellaru must have been
fought early in the reign of Nandi-varman, seeing that it is described
in his Velurpalaiyam plates issued in his sixth regnal year. The
literary work referred to above mentions him as the ruler of the

151

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Kaveri region, the Kongudesa, etc., and enumerates his chief cities
Kanchl, Mallai (Mahabalipuram) and Mayilai (Mylapore, Madras).
Like Danti-varman, Nandi-varman was the overlord of the Banas.

2. Nripatunga-varman and Apardjita

Nripatunga-varman, the son of Nandi-varman III by the Rash-
trakuta princess, maintained the integrity of his empire and received
the allegiance of the Banas. His inscriptions are found as far south
as Pudukkottai. His warlike policy towards the Pandyas was suc¬
cessful. His Bahtir (Vahur, near Pondicherry) plates record his
victory over them on the banks of the Arichit (Arisil or Arasalar,
a distributary of the^ Kaveri). This battle is regarded by Jouveau
Dubreuil to have taken place at Kudamukku or Kumbhakonam.
The Bahur plates mention the grant of three villages by the minister
of Nrinatunga-varman in the eighth regnal year to a Vidyasthdna
or Vedic college as a Vidvabhoqam i.e., for the promotion of learning,
and as Brahmadeya. According to one interpretation of verses
24 to 26. the college made provision for the study of fourteen divi¬
sions of learning, viz. four Vedas, six Ahgas, Mlmamsa, Nyaya,
Pur ana, and Dharmasastra. Whatever may be the correct inter¬
pretation of the word in question viz. choturddasa-gana , there is no
doubt that the Ghatikd of the earlier period developed into the
Vidvfisfhjnna of the ninth centurv A.D. In the sphere of education, as
in other fWds. the Pallavas anticipated the great achievements of the
Cholas of Taniore and Gahgaikondacholapuram.

Aparajita is the last known prince belonging to the imperial
line of the Pallavas. His name is connected with a great victory
and a decisive defeat. The campaign against the Pandyas culmi¬
nated in their defeat at &rlpurambiyam near Kumbhakonam about
A.D. 880. The victorious Pallavas were aided by their feudatories
Prithvlpati I (Western Gariga) and Aditya I (Chola). “At the head
of the great battle of Sripurambiyam this hero (Prithvlpati I) quickly
defeated Varaguna II, the lord of the Pandyas, and having, at the ex¬
pense of his own life, secured that his friend was Aparajita (uncon¬
quered) in fact as in name, he ascended to heaven.”1 The battle of
Sripurambiyam or Tiruppurambiyam is an epic event in South Indian
history. The imperial position of the Pandyas was completely lost,
but their imperial successors were not the Pallavas, who were soon
after overthrown by the Cholas under Aditya I. At his hands the
victorious Aparajita suffered defeat about A.D. 893 and the victor

became master of Tondamandalam.

• • • •

With Aparajita, the Pallava imperial line came to an end.
There were branches of the dynasty like the Nolamba-Pallavas or.

SOUTH INDIA

IYolambas holding sway over the region called Nolambavadi. But
in Tondamandalam, the main theatre of Pallava glory, we find in the
thirteenth century a great chieftain named Ko-Peruhjihga who defied
the Chola authority in the days of its decline. He claimed Pallava
descent, but we cannot connect him genealogically with the imperial
Pallavas.

II. THE CHOLAS OF TANJORE
1. Vijaydlaya and Adit y a 1

The founder of the Cho}a dynasty of Tan j ore was Vijayalaya,
a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty rose to high eminence
and lasted for more than two centuries. Vijayalaya rose to power
near Uraiyur, the capital of the Cholas of the Sangam Age. ' An
inscription at Tirunedungajam (Tiruchirapalli District) records
a gift of land in accordance with the orders of Parakesari Vija¬
yalaya Choladeva. The titles Parakesari and Rajakesari were alter¬
nately assumed by the Choja sovereigns from the time of Vija¬
yalaya. Though he cannot be connected genealogically with the
Cholas of Uraiyur (Karikala and his successors), his rise in the
Uraiyur region is not without significance. He may be assigned
to the period, c. A.D. 850-871, and his son and successor Aditya I
to c. A.D. 871-907. Vijayalaya captured Tanjore from the Mutta-
raiyar, who had their headquarters at &endalai, near Tanjore.
They were for long feudatories of the imperial P^Jlavas and were
now under the Pandyas. As there was hostility and open conflict
between the Pallavas and the Pandyas, Vijayalaya, a feudatory
of the Pallavas, felt justified in seizing Tanjore from the *Mutta-
raiyar oh behalf of his overlord. It is also probable that he took
advantage of the political confusion in the Kaverl region, the bor¬
derland between the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms, in order to
promote his own interests. After the conquest of Tanjore, Vija¬
yalaya built a temple there for Durga; and his successors also were
staunch £aivas. The territory acquired by him extended between
the North and South Vellar rivers along the lower course of the
Kaverl and the Coleroon.

Aditya I (c. A.D. 871-907), the son and successor of Vijayalaya,
took part in the great battle of Sripurambiyam in which, as men¬
tioned above, the Pandyas were defeated by his Pallava suzerain.
He reaped the fruits of the victory and obtained additions to his
territory near Tanjore from the grateful king Aparajita. But
Aditya’s loyalty did not long endure. Not long afterwards he
fought with his overlord and defeated him. An inscription states
that in a battle Aditya “pounced upon and slew the Pallava king

158

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

who was seated on the back of a tall elephant” and that he earned
the surname of Kodandarama. This event, which may be assigned
to about A.D. 893, gave Aditya mastery over Tondamandalam.
Subsequently he conquered the Kongudesa (the districts of Coim¬
batore and Salem) from the Pandyas and the Western Gangas pro¬
bably with the aid of the Chera king, Sthanu Ravi, with whom he
maintained cordial relations. Aditya is also credited with the sei¬
zure of Talakad the capital of the Western Gangas. Prithvlpati II
recognised the overlordship of Aditya, whose kingdom now stret¬
ched from Kalahasti and Tirukkalukkunram to Pudukkottai and

* •• » • • •

Coimbatore and included Talakad. Aditya married a Pallava
princess and had two sons Parantaka and Kannaradeva. He built
several temples for Siva. Though the nucleus of the Chola king¬
dom was created by Vijayalaya, the real founder of its power was
Aditya I, a prince of striking ability, energy, and wisdom.

2. Pardntaka I

Aditya was succeeded by his son Parantaka who ruled for more
than forty-five years (A.D. 907-953). The date of his accession is
definitely known and may be said to be the bed-rock of Chola chro¬
nology. The reign of Parantaka was an eventful one and he led
numerous military campaigns with the help of his allies, viz. the
Western Gangas, the Kerala ruler and the Kodumbalur chiefs. By
these successful wars he built up the Chola Empire which attained
the pinnacle of fame and glory under his successors.

The most important among the conquests of Parantaka was
Madura, and it was achieved gradually during the first half of his
long reign. Soon after his accession to the throne he raided Madura
and won the title of Madhurantaka or destroyer of Madura. In his
third regnal year he assumed the title of Maduraikonda or captor
of Madura. Consequent on his defeat, the Pandya king, Rajasimha II,
sought and obtained the aid of the Ceylonese ruler. About A.D.
915 a famous battle was fought at Vellur (south-west of Madura)
where the Pandyas and the Sinhalese were beaten. A third cam¬
paign effected the expulsion of Rajasimha about A.D. 920, and three
years later Parantaka described himself as Maduraiyum llamum
Koiida or captor of Madura and Ceylon. But towards the close of
his reign, he failed in his attempt to obtain from the Ceylonese ruler
the insignia of Pandya royalty left with him by Rajasimha, who
had fled to Kerala. The conquest of Madura was, however, by no
means easy, and Parantaka was engaged throughout the latter half
of his reign in reducing tlhe conquered country to order and obedi¬
ence. In subduing Madurai, he received the help of the Kerala ruler
and of the Kodumbalur chiefs.

154

SOUTH INDIA

About A.D. 915 the Banas were ‘uprooted’ by Parantaka with
the aid of Prithvlpati II, the Western Gahga ruler, upon whom
were conferred the titles of Banadhirdja , Hastimalla and Sembiyan
Mdvalivdnardyan. About A.D. 915 Parantaka also defeated the
Vaidumbas of the Renan^u country who were the allies of the
Banas. The coalition was perhaps headed by Rashtrakuta Krishna
II, and the decisive victory was won by Parantaka in a battle
at Vallala (Tiruvallam, N. Arcot District). Parantaka smashed the
remains of the Pallava power and conquered the country as far
north as Nellore. By these successive victories, he enlarged his
empire which extended from the North Pennar to Cape Comorin
and was bounded on the west by the Chera and Western Gahga
kingdoms.

Not long after the Cholas had thus extended their power far
and wide, the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III invaded Tondamandalam
with the support of Butuga II, the Western Gahga chief. A decisive
engagement took place at Takkolam in A.D. 949 in which the Chojas
were completely defeated and the crown-prince Rajaditya lost his
life. It was the death knell of the imperialist ambitions of Paran¬
taka, who lost Tondamandalam as well as his control over the
Pandya country.

Eleven queens of Parantaka are mentioned in his inscriptions,
and one of them was a Kerala princess. He had five sons — Raja¬
ditya, Gandaraditya, Arikulakesari, Uttamaslli and Arihjaya, the
last being the son of the Kerala princess. Parantaka had also two
daughters. He was devoted to Siva and constructed many temples.
He provided the Nataraja shrine at Chidambaram with a gold roof.
Some of his titles have been mentioned; his other titles are Para -
kesari-varman Vlrantimyana, Devendra ChakravarU, Panditavatsala
(one fond of learned men), Kunjaramalla or wrestler with elephants,
and Surasiilamani or the crest- jewel of heroes.

3. The Rashtrakuta Interregnum in Tondamandalam

The Rashtrakuta invasion of Tondamandalam was not a bolt
from the blue. It was the result of many factors such as the rapid
territorial expansion of the Cholas, the aggressive policy of
Parantaka I towards the Banas and the Vaidumbas, the death of
Prithvlpati II in A.D. 940, followed by the accession to the Western
Ganga throne of Butuga II, the husband of Krishna Ill’s sister, and
above all, the growing power of Krishna III, the last great Rashtra¬
kuta ruler who possessed ability and enterprise and aimed at
avenging the defeat of Krishna II at Vallala and rivalling the
achievements in South India of Govinda III, the greatest of the

155

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Rashtrakutas. The Banas and the Vaidumbas also appealed to
Krishna against the rising tide of Chola aggression and imperialism.
Parantaka I was not oblivious of the dangers inherent in his own
policy and concentrated on the defences of Tondamandalam by
entrusting its administration to his eldest son, Rajaditya.

Krishna Ill’s invasion of Tondamandalam took place some time
before A.D. 949, the date of the battle of Takkolam, fixed with
reference to the Atakur inscription of Butuga II. The Atakur
record says that “when Kannaradeva was fighting the Chola,
Butuga made the howdah battle-field, and aimed at, pierced and
killed Rajaditya.” Consequently the Cholas lost the battle, and
Butuga II was lavishly rewarded with grant of territory by his
grateful brother-in-law. We have already detailed the conse¬
quences of the Chola disaster at Takkolam. The Rashtrakuta
occupation of Tondamandalam must have taken a few years and
we have no genuine inscriptions of Krishna III in Tondamandalam
earlier than A.D. 953. The Rashtrakuta interregnum must have
lasted for at least fifteen years, — A.D. 953 to 968. During this
period, ever a dozen inscriptions of Krishna III testify to the activity
of the village assemblies at Uttaramerur, Ukkal, Kavanur, Tiruk-
kalukkunram, Bahur, etc. This seems to indicate that the rule of
the Rashfrakutas was not prejudicial to the progress of the Maha-
sabha in Tondamandalam, the activity of which was characteristic of
the reign of Parantaka I. Several inscriptions of Krishna found in
Tondamandalam describe him as the captor of Kanchi and Tan j ore.
Some records refer to the progress of the Rashtrakutas southwards
through the Chola dominions as far as Ramesvaram, where a pillar
of victory is said to have been erected. It is difficult to estimate
the truth contained in such statements. Probably there were
occasional raids into the southern Chola territory. But there are
no inscriptions of Krishna III or of his feudatories, south of
Pondicherry. Therefore the Rashtrakuta interregnum was most
probably confined to Tondamandalam.

4. Gandciraditya , Parantaka II, and Uttama Chola

The interval between the death of Parantaka I (c. A.D. 953) and
the accession of Rajaraja I in A.D. 985 is a confused period in Chola
history.. The dynastic genealogy and chronology during that period
are largely uncertain and the course of history is not sufficiently
clear. Parantaka I was succeeded by his second son Gandaraditya,
his eldest son having perished at Takkolam. Gandaraditya’s queen,
Semhiyan MahadevI, who died in A.D. 1001, was a pious and chari¬
table lady fond of building temples and esteemed by all the members
of the royal family, including Rajaraja I, who was the brother of

156

SOUTH INDIA

Aditya II and son of Sundara Parantaka II (son of Gandaraditya's
brother, Arihjaya). Uttama Chola was the son of Gandaraditya.
During the short reign of the latter (A.D. 953*957 ) the need for
recovering Tondamandalam was not lost sight of. He is regarded
as the author of a single hymn on the Chidambaram temple.

Gandaraditya was succeeded by Arihjaya and the latter in his
turn by Sundara Chola or Parantaka II (A.D. 957-973). He was active
against the Pandyas, who were independent under Vira Pandya*
and the latter was defeated in spite of the Sinhalese aid he had
secured. The Pandya war led to an expedition to Ceylon. In these
military expeditions, the Kodumbalur chiefs2 played an important
part, and inscriptions portray the active role of prince Aditya II.
In spite of the Chola success, the Pandya campaigns were, on the
whole, indecisive. But Tondamandalam was recovered from the
Rashtrakutas, It is significant that Sundara Chola died at Kahchl,
and Vanavan MabadevI, the mother of Rajaraja I, committed sati.
Another queen of Sundara Cho]a belonged to Kerala. He was a
patron of literature, both Tamil and Sanskrit. A little before his
death, his son Aditya II was murdered at the instigation of Uttama
Chola, who coveted the throne, as he belonged to the senior branch
of the royal family.

Uttama Chola (A.D. 973-985) was the wicked son of his admira¬
ble parents, Gandaraditya and Sembiyan Mahadevl. Tondamandalam
enjoyed peace after its recovery from the Rashfrakutas. The
earliest Chola coin is a gold piece belonging to the reign of Uttama
Chola. Five of his queens are mentioned in his inscriptions. His
son was Madhurantaka Gandaraditya, but Rajaraja had been made
the heir apparent of Uttama Chola.

The reign of Rajaraja, which extended beyond the period under
review, marks the beginning of that ascendancy which made the
Chojas the paramount power over a large part of India. It will
be therefore convenient to treat his history along with that of his
successors in the next volume.

III. THE FIRST PANDYA EMPIRE
1. Nedunjadaiyan

Nedufijadaiyan, the son of Maravarman Rajasimha I, is also
known as Maranjadaiyan, Parantaka, Jafila or Jatilavarman and
Varaguna I. His inscriptions range from his third to his forty-third
regnal year, and it is not unreasonable to assign to him a regnal
period of fifty years, A.D. 765-815. The Vejvikudi grant dated in
his third regnal year possesses a unique importance. It gives an

157

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KAJNAUJ

account of the vicissitudes of the Pandya country from the time
of its invasion and occupation by the Kalabhras. It tells us how
Kaduhgon effected their overthrow and was followed by Avanisula-
mani and Sendan; of Arikesari Maravarrnan and his great victory at
Nelveli; his destruction of the Paravas and the people of Kurunadu
and his triumphs over the Chera king at Puliyur; Kochchadaiyan’s
victories at Marudur and Mangalore; and Maravarrnan Rajasiihha I’s
numerous victories and his pre-eminent position. This account is
followed by a description of the greatness of Neduhjadaiyan, who
is called Panditavatsala and Pardntaka (destroyer of his enemies);
he won a great victory over the Kadava ( Falla va) at Penniagadam
near Tanjore, on the southern bank of the Kaverl and crushed a
rising of petty chieftains headed by Ayo-ve], the ruler of the moun¬
tainous country between Tirunelveli and Travancore. Then follows
an account of the revival of the old grant of the village of Velvikudi,
which had been abrogated by the Kalabhras.

The Madras Museum plates of the seventeenth regnal year of
Jafilavarman (Neduhjadaiyan) mention his further military succes¬
ses. He conquered the A^igamans of Tagadur (Dharmapuri, Salem
District) and brought Kongudesa under his control in spite of the
aid they had obtained from the Chera and Pallava rulers. He also
annexed Venad or southern Travancore after the conquest of Vili-
ham, but the conquered country was a source of trouble for a long
time. He therefore strengthened his position by fortifying Kara-
vandapuram or KaJakka<J (Tirunelveli District). He thus waged
several wars during the first half of his reign. He was the greatest
imperialist of his dynasty, and successfully encountered the opposi¬
tion of the Pallavas and the Cheras. His conquests made him the
master of Tanjore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem and Coimbatore districts
and also of Southern Travancore. He was an enthusiastic builder
of temples for Siva and Vishnu, and some scholars connect his name
with the Saiva saint, Manikkavasagar. The king’s uttaramantri or
chief minister was Madhurakavi, who was succeeded by his bro¬
ther; the other members of his family were also in the service of
Neduhjadaiyan.

2. Srimdra Srwallabha and his Successors

Srlmara Srlvallabha, the son of Neduhjadaiyan, may be assigned
to the period A.D. 815-862. According to the larger Sinnamanur
plates of Rajasiihha II, Srlmara won victories over a number of
enemies. He assumed the titles Ekavira and Parachakrakolahala
and combated a destructive invasion of the Pandya country caused
by the intrigues of Mayapandya or the Pandya pretender. Srlmara is
said to have fought at Vilinam and triumphed over the Kerala ruler.8

158

SOUTH INDIA

Above all, the Pandya king won a great victory at Kudamukku or
Kumbhakonam against a combination of the Gahgas, Pallavas, Cho-
las, Kalirigas, Magadhas and others. He was, however, subsequent¬
ly defeated at Tellaru by Nandi-varman III Pallava and at the
Arichit by his successor Nripaturiga-varman. Srlmara was succeeded
by Varaguna or V araguna- varman II (c. A.D. 862-880)4 wdio as noted
above, sustained a crushing defeat about A.D. 880 at Sripurambiyam
at the hands of Aparajita Pallava, assisted by Frith vlpati I Western
Gahga and Aditya I Chola. It ruined Varaguna and the Pandya
empire.

Varaguna II was followed by Parantaka Viranarayana
(c. A.D. 880-900). He triumphed at Kharagiri, destroyed Peninaga-
dam, and waged war in Korigudesa, according to the larger Sinna-
rrianur plates. His queen was Vanavan Mahadevi, a Kerala prin¬
cess. His son and successor was Mar a varman Rajasirhha II, the
donor of the larger Sinnamanur record, who ruled from c. A.D. 900
to c. A.D. 920. We have narrated above Parantaka I Chola’s con¬
quest of Madura and the defeat of Rajasiihha II followed by his
flight first to Ceylon, where he left his crown and other valuables,
and then to his mother’s home in Kerala. “Encircled by the fire of
his (Parantaka’s) prowess, *he Pandya, as if desirous of cooling the
heat caused by it, quickly entered the sea (embarked for Ceylon),
abandoning his royal state and the kingdom inherited from his
ancestors.”5

The battle of Takkolam in A.D. 949 created unrest in the
Pandya country and led to the overthrow of the newly established
Chola authority. Vira Pandya assumed, the title of ‘one who took
the head of the Chola’ and triumphed for some time. It is suggested
that the Chola king who was beheaded was Gandaraditya or Sun-
dara Chola. But the expression Talaikonda may only mean that the
defeated .king fell at the feet of the victor, and consequently Vira
Pandya’s title may indicate no more than his victory over the Choja.
He succeeded in frustrating Gandaraditya’s attempt to re-establish
Chola authority in the Pandya country. But Sundara Chola defeat¬
ed Vira Pandya in the battle of Chevur arid forced him to seek refuge
in the forests. The Tiruvalarigadu plates say that he was killed by
Aditya II but according to the larger Leiden plates of Rajaraja I,
“that young boy (Aditya) played sportively in battle (at Chevur)
with Vira Pandya just as lion’s cub (does) with a rutting mad ele¬
phant proud of (its) strength.” There are not convincing reasons
for believing that a Chola king’s head was cut off by Vira Pandya
nor for accepting the statement that the latter was killed by
Aditya II. We do not know whether IJttama Chola’s title of

159

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Madhurdntcika was inherited by him, or whether he undertook any
campaign against the Pan$yas. The fact that they were indepen¬
dent and powerful till their reconquest by Rajaraja I is clear from
his Tanjore inscription (twenty-ninth regnal year) which states that
he “deprived the Seliyas (Parujyas) of (their) splendour at the very
moment when (they were) resplendent (to such a degree) that (they
were) worthy to be worshipped everywhere.”

IV. THE WESTERN GANGAS

1. Sivamara II to Prithvipati II

Although the Western Ganga kingdom became most prosperous
under Srlpurusha and deserved the name of Srircijya } he did nothing'
to remove the danger to it from the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the
Deccan. Krishna I invaded Gahgavadi, was encamped at Man ne
in A.D. 768, and effected a military occupation of the country.
Sripurusha had four sons: Sivamara II (A.D. 788-812), Vijayaditya,
Duggamara and Sivagella, the last predeceasing his father. Dugga-
mara disputed Sivamara’s succession but the latter triumphed with
the support of his feudatory, Nolamba Sihgapota. Krishna 1
Rashtrakuta was succeeded by Govinda II, whose vicious life and
neglect of royal duties resulted in hn supersession by his younger
brother, Dhruva (A.D. 780-793). Sivamara had espoused the cause
of Govinda II. Therefore Dhruva invaded Gahgavadi, imprisoned
Sivamara and appointed his own son Stambha as the Viceroy of
Gahgavadi. Govinda III Rashfrakuta (A.D. 793-814) was confront¬
ed at his accession with the hostility of his eider brother Stambha
in league with a number of neighbouring princes. The former
released Sivamara from “the burden of his cruel chains” and sent
him’ back to his country. But he asserted his independence and
supported Stambha. Govinda overcame his brother but treated him
generously by re-appointing him to the Western Ganga Viceroyalty
and thus secured his loyalty permanently. Sivamara again became
a prisoner but was released and reinstated as ruler of Gahgavadi
so that his co-operation might be secured in Govinda’s campaigns
against the Eastern Chalukyas. Sivamara was a very learned man.
He mastered several subjects such as logic, philosophy, drama,
grammar, etc., and composed the Gajasataka in Kannada. The
vicissitudes of his fortunes during the time of Dhruva and Govinda
III resulted in the partition of the Western Ganga kingdom between
the son and the brother of Sivamara, — Marasimha and Vijayaditya.
Thus was founded the collateral line of Marasimha I, whose brother
was Prithvipati T. The latter’s son and grandson were Marasimha II
and Prithvipati II.

160

SOUTH INDIA

Govinda Hi was. succeeded by Amoy/havarsha 1 (A.D. 0X4-878),
a young boy. Consequently the Rashtrakuta feudatories, including
the Western Gahgas, revolted, and t?ne boy-king was dethroned.
From this anarchy the Rashfrakuta Empire was saved, as noted
above, and Ainoghavarsha regained 7nis regal position in A.D. 821.
Though he waged war successfully with the Eastern Chalukyas
about A.D. 860, he practically acquiesced in Western Gahga inde¬
pendence.

Sivamara II was followed by his nephew (his brother Vijaya-
ditya’s son) Rajamalla I (A.D„ 817-853),' 6 who continued the main
branch of the Western Gahgas. He allied himself with the Nolambas
by dynastic marriages and triecl to exploit the difficulties of Amogha-
varsha I, who failed to achie ve his ambitious project of '"uprooting
the lofty forest of fig trees of Gahgavadi difficult to be cut down.”
The Rashtrakuta force invading Gahgavadi was withdrawn, and Raja-
malla succeeded in restoring the integrity- of his kingdom. There¬
fore in his inscriptions he is likened to “Vishnu in the form of a
Boar, rescuing the earth from the infernal regions.”

Rajamalla I was suecceeded by his son Nitimarga 1. (A.D. 853-
870) who continued with success the struggle for Western Gangs
independence. He triumphed over the Banas and the Rashtrakutas.
Amoghavarsha gave Ms daughter, Chandrobelabba, in marriage to
B-utuga I, the younger* son of Nitimarga L His elder son, Raja-
malla -II (A.D. 870-907), was ably assisted by his younger brother,
Butuga I, in the wars, with the Eastern Chalukyas. The two bro¬
thers helped the Pallavsis against the Pandyas. Butuga predeceas¬
ed his brother, who was consequently succeeded by Nitimarga 11
(A.D. 907-935), the son of Butuga I. Nitimarga II consolidated his
position in Gahgavadi, and had three sons, Narasirhha, Rajamalla III,
and Butuga II. After a short reign, Narasirhha was followed by Raja¬
malla III, who was ousted by Butuga II in A.D. 937.

The collateral line of the Western Gahgas was represented by
Prithvipati I (A.D. 853-880), son of Sivamara II, and by the former’s
son Marasimha II (A.D. 880-900), and grandson, Prithvipati II

(A.D. 900-940), ruling over Kolar and the north-eastern portions of
Gahgavadi, A Bana king married Kundavvai, daughter of Prithvl-
pati I. This Gahga ruler acquired fame by co-operating with the
Pallavas against the Pandyas in the battle of ^ripurambiyam and
dying on the battle-field. We have referred to Parantaka Ps cam¬
paign against the Banas and the help rendered to him by Prithvi¬
pati II, who gained the titles of Bdnddhirdja, Hastimalla , and gem-
biyan Mdvaluxinarayan . According to his Udayendiram plates, Pa-
rantaka “uprooted, ttfo Banas.” The death of Prithvipati II in

161

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

A.D. 940 after the passing away of his son, Vikkiyanna or Vikrama-
ditya, led to the enthronement of Butuga 11 in Gahgavadi with the
aid of Krishna III Rashtrakuta,, their alliance resulting in the Chola
catastrophe at Takkolam in A, LX 949.

2. Butuga II io Rakkasa Gahga

The Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha III (A.D. 936-939) was
of a religious turn of mind, and consequently he handed over the
administration to his energetic son, Krishna III (A.D. 939-967).
His sister Revaka was married to Butuga II, who killed his brother
Kajarnalla III, and became king of Gahgavadi. We have mentioned the
part played by Butuga in the battle of Takkolam by killing Raja-
ditya, and this service was rewarded by Krishna with the gift of the
province of Banavasi. Butuga was proficient in Jain philosophy
and is said to have triumphed over a Buddhist in doctrinal disputa¬
tion. In short, Butuga II played an active and successful role in the
annals of Gahgavadi for more than twenty years, though he fully
acknowledged the overlordship of the Rashtrakutas. He had a son
named Maruladeva by Revaka; Manila died soon after his father and
was succeeded by Marasimha III, Butuga’s son by another queen.

Marasimha III (A.D. 960-974) was faithful to the Gahga-Rashtra-
kuta alliance and co-operated with Krishna III in his campaigns in
Gujarat and Malava, but failed in his attempt to restore Indra IV
to the Rashtrakuta throne against the opposition of Taila II, the
Western Chalukya king, Chamunda Raya, the Gahga general,
captured Uchchangi, the chief stronghold of the Nolambas, Mara-
siriiha’s campaign against them secured for him the title of Nolam-
bakulaniaka or destroyer of the Nolamba family. Finally, he com¬
mitted Sallekhand , or suicide by starvation, in the Jain fashion.

Marasimha III was succeeded by his elder son Rachamalla or
Rajamaila IV (A.D. 974-985), Attempts at usurpation of the throne
were foiled by Chamunda Raya, the great minister who was a good
Jain and a famous general with the title of Viramdrtanda or sun
among heroes, and Ranarahga-simha or lion on the battle-field. He
had distinguished himself in the campaign against the Nolambas
during the previous reign. He was a master of Kannada, Sanskrit
and Prakrit. In A.D. 978 he wrote the Kannada work, the Chamunda

* • e,

Raya Pur ana which contains, among others, an account of the
twenty-four Jain Tlrthankaras or prophets. About 982 he erected
a hasti or Jain temple named after himself, at Sravana Belgoia.
Above all, he executed about A.D. 983 a colossal statue of Comma-
tesvara, “larger than any of the statues of Rameses in Egypt,” which

162

SOUTH INDIA

“in daring conception and gigantic dimensions (561 feet in height)
is without a rival in India/’ He truly earned the title of Raya.

Rajamalla IV was followed by his younger brother, Rakkasa
Gahga, during whose reign (A.D. 985-1024) the Cholas captured
Talakad (A.D. 1004). His inscription, dated A.D. 1024, mentions
Rajenclra Chola as his overlord, but gradually the Gahga rule came
to an end. Some later Gahga chiefs are, however, known. A Gahga
Raja was the minister of Vishnu vardhana Hoysala in the twelfth cen¬
tury, and another Gahga Raja of Sivasamudram defied Krishnadeva
Raya of Vijayanagar early in the sixteenth century.

V. THE BANAS

The Banas were feudatory to the Pallavas under the successors
of Nandi-varman Pallavamalla. The Western Gahgas and the Nolam-
bas combined against the Banas, though Kundavvai, the daughter
of the Gahga ruler Prithvipati I, was married to Vikramaditya I
Sana or Banaviayadhara. Pie may be assigned to the period
A.D. 868-890. In the battle at Soremati or Sorernacli (Anantapur
District) about A.D. 878 the Western Gahgas and the Nolambas
were defeated by the Banas and the Vaidumbas. An inscription
of A.D. 892-93 records that the Nolamba chief Mahendra I, called
Mahendradhiraja, destroyed the Banas, but the latter continued to
be active. Their inscriptions of A.D. 898, 905 and 909 during the
period of Vijayaditya II Bana are dated in the Saka era, and men¬
tion no overlord. He and his successor, Vikramaditya II, must have
enjoyed an independent status. But soon the Banas came into con¬
flict with Parantaka I and we have narrated how he dealt with them
and the consequences of his aggressive policy. Vikramaditya III
Bana, described as the friend of Krishna (III), secured the support
of the Rashtrakuta power against the Cholas, and joined the battle
of Takkolam which resulted in the complete discomfiture of the
Cholas in A.D. 949. Therefore Parantakta Ps ‘extirpation5 of the
Banas did not close their story. Their chiefs appear in South Indian
history up to the sixteenth century and their movement from dis¬
trict to district (originally from Andhradesa) took them to the far
south, inz. the Pandya country w7here they were Governors of Madura
under the Rayas of Vijayanagar. The history of the Banas during
more than a thousand years possesses a singular interest in that it
Illustrates the survival of a tribe or dynasty by migration.

VI. THE NOLAMBAS AND THE VAIDUMBAS

The Nolambas or No]amba Pallavas (Nolambas claiming Pallava
descent) ruled mainly over Nolambavadi 32,000 or the Chitaldrug

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

district of Mysore. Their principal cities were Uchchangi, Iienjeru
(Hemavati) and Chitaldrug. The Nolamba chief Singapota was feu¬
datory" to givamara II and the latter’s imprisonment by the Rasht-
rakutas led to their control of the Nolambas. We have noticed

e •

Rajamalla Vs policy of dynastic marriages with them. Polalchora,
the grandson of Singapota, married the daughter of Rajamalla I,
and their son was Mahendra I. With the support of the Western
Gahgas, he sent his general Kaduvetti Muttarasa to invade the Puli-
nadu belonging to the Banas. They and the Vaidumbas were attack¬
ed at Soremati about A.D. 878 but the Nolambas were repulsed.
Mahendra was subsequently killed in battle by Nltimarga II, who
consequently assumed the title of Mahendmntaka or destroyer of
Mahendra. His great-grandson, Nanni Nolamba, came into conflict
with Marasimha III, who conquered and annexed Nojambavadi, and
assumed the title of Nolambakulantaka. The Gahga victory was
followed by a general massacre of the Nolambas, but three princes
escaped and revived the fortunes of their dynasty after the death of
Marasimha III in A.D. 974.

The Vaidumbas were in possession of the Renandu (7000 coun¬
try) in the ninth century. The first known chief was Irigaya. Ganda
Trinetra led the Vaidumba forces to the aid of the Banas against
the Western Gahgas and the Nolambas at Soremati about A.D. 878.
Apparently the Vadumbas were feudatory to the Banas. To the tenth
century belongs Sandayan Tiruvayan I. Probably he Was the Vai¬
dumba chief defeated by Parantaka I Chola after his subjugation of
the Ba-nas. Sandayan Tiruvayan II was known as Srlkantha. Like
the Banas, after their defeat by the Cholas, the Vaidumbas appealed
for help to the Rashtrakutas. Thus the Vaidumbas also had their
share in compassing the ruin of the Chola empire at Takkolam in
A.D. 949. Subsequently they entered the service of the Cholas.
Armjaya Chola married a Vaidumba princess, and their son was
Sundara Chola.

■ t

VII. ALUVAKHEDA, KONGUDE&A AND KERALA

Chitravahana II (c. A.D. 800) and his successors ruled over
Aiuvakheda for several centuries till it was annexed to the Hoysala
kingdom in the fourteenth century. Kongudesa became the bone
of contention between the Western Gahga, Pallava and Pandya
imperialists, and we have noticed the overthrow of the AtRgamans
of Tagadur by Neduhjadaiyan Pandya and the establishment of his
authority in the Salem and Coimbatore Districts. Aditya I Chola
annexed Kongudesa by overcoming the Western Gahgas and the
Pandyas.

164

SOUTH INDIA

The last of the Perumals of Kerala was Cheraman Perumal, and
the end of his rule may be connected with the origin of the Kollam
or Malayalam era in A.D. 824-25, though some scholars would ex¬
plain it as marking the foundation of Kollam or Quiion. The latest
writer on Cheraman Perumal assigns him to A.D. 742-826, rejects
the story of his conversion to Christianity or Islam, and maintains
that his pilgrimage towards the close of his life was not to Myla-
pore or Mecca but to Chidambaram. The Arabs, who. settled in-
Malabar in the ninth century, married the women of the country,
and thus the Moplah population came into existence. Sthanu Ravi
was on very friendly terms with Aditya I Chola, Though the immi¬
gration of the Jews is assigned to the first century A.D. the first
definite proof of their colony near Cranganore on the west coast
is the Tamil charter of Bhaskara Ravivarman (A.D. 978-1036) to
Joseph Rabban giving him and his descendants certain lands and
privileges. Kerala princesses graced the Pairdya and Chola courts
as queens, like the queen of Parantaka I who was the mother of
Arinjaya. Several Chola officers, including a general named Vel-
langumaran, belonged to Kerala, and Chaturanana Pandita was the
guru of Raj aditya.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Arokiaswami, M., The Early History of the Velldr Basin. Madras, 1954.

2. Ayyar, V. Venkatasubba, S1I, XII. Madras, 1943.

3. Gopalan, R., History of the Pallavas of Kanchi. Madras, 1928.

4. Jouveau-Dubreuii, The Pallavas. Pondicherry, 1917.

5. Mahalingam, T. V., The Banas in South Indian History (JIH, XXIX. 153-81,
277-305).

6. Pandarathar, T. V. Sadasiva, Pirkalach-Cholar-Charittiram Part I (in Tamil),
Annamalainagar, 1949.

7. Pandarathar, T, V. Sadasive, Pandiyar Varalaru (in Tamil). Madras, 1950.

8. Rao, M. V. Krishna, The Gangas of Talkad. Madras, 1936.

9. Rice, B. L., Mysore and Coorg. London, 1909.

10. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, The Pxindya Kingdom. London, 1929.

11. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, The Cholas , I. Madras, 1935.

12. Sewell, R. Hist. Ins. Madras, 1932.

13. Venkayya, V., Five Bana Inscriptions from Gudimallam (El, XI. 222-40). Cal¬
cutta, 1911-12.

1. Udayendiram Grant, SII, II. 382.

2. Arokiaswami, M., The Early History of the Velldr Basin (Madras, 1954),
pp. 108-10. For a different view, cf. Pandarathar, T. V. Sadasiva, Pirkdlach-
Cholar-Charittiram (in Tamil) Part I (Annamalainagar, 1949), pp. 76-78.

3. For his victory in Ceylon, cf. Chapter VIII.

4. For an account of his accession, cf. Ch. VIII.

5. Tiruvalanga^u PL of Rajendra Chola I. For the help rendered to the Pandya
king by the Ceylonese ruler, Kasyapa V, cf. Ch. VIII.

6. The last known date of §ivamara II is A.D. 812, and the earliest known date
of Rajamalla is A.D. 817.

1.G5

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

APPENDIX

THE GENEALOGY AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE PALL A V AS
1. The Successors of Nandi- verm an PallavCimalla

Nandi-varman Pallavamalla was succeeded by his son Danti-
varman, whose latest known date is the regnal year 51. As stated
above,1 he ascended the throne some time before April 4, A.D. 804,
when Govinda III was returning from the Pallava country after
having levied, tribute from Dantiga (Danti-varman) king of Kanchi.
Danti-varman’s successor was his son Tellarrerinda Nandi-varman
(i.e. Nandi-varman who defeated his enemies at Tellaru in the Wan-
diwash taluk of North Arcot District), whose latest known date is
the year 22 of his reign. This king married the Rashtrakuta prin¬
cess Sahkha (probably a daughter of Amoghavarsha I Nripatuhga,
son of Govinda III) and was succeeded by his son by her, called
Nripatunga-varman (probably named after his maternal grand-
father). The latest known date of king Nripatunga-varman is his
41st regnal year.2 Thus we find that the four generations of Pallava
kings, viz. Nandi-varman Pallavamalla, Danti-varman, Tellarrerinda
Nandi-varman, and Nripatunga-varman ruled for 179 (65 -}- 51 -j-
22 -[- 41) years,' i.e. nearly 45 years per generation. This is rather
abnormal. It may be that, like many of the Chola rulers, the reigns
of the Pallava kings and their successors often overlapped. If, how¬
ever, the above regnal periods be regarded as successive, and if the
latest known dates of the kings in question be regarded as the
last years of their reigns, Nripatunga-varman probably ceased to
reign in A.D. 910 (731 4- 179). Nripatunga’s inscriptions have
been found all over the region from Gudimallam in the north to
Pudukkottai in the south. The Ban a king Banavidyadhara, i.e,
Vikramaditya I, was a feudatory both of Nandi-varman Tellarrerinda
and of Nripatuhga,3

Inscriptions disclose the names or virudas of several Pallava
rulers such as Apara j ita-varman (regnal years 3 to 18), Kampa-var-
man (regnal years 6 to 25), Va y i r a megh a - v arman (regnal year 2),
Narasimha.-varman (regnal years 3 to 24), Isvara-varman (i.e. Para-
mesvara-varman, regnal years 12 and 17 ), Chandraditya and Kattirai.
Of these Kampa-varman (probably named after Rashtrakuta Stam-
bha or Kamba who may be supposed to have been his maternal
grandfather) was possibly also known as Nandikampa which has
been interpreted as “Kampa-varman son of Nandi-varman (Tellarre-

SOUTH INDIA

rinda)”, although it very probably indicates “Nandi-varman
surnamed Kampa-varman,” The second suggesion (involving
another that Danti-varman Pallava married a daughter of Stambha)
is probably supported by the tendency of cross-cousin marriages
between two royal families in successive generations among South
Indian rulers. Kampa-varman may thus be regarded as identical
with Nandi-varman Tellarrerinda (whose latest known date in that
case would be the regnal year 25 instead of year 22), Vayiramegha-
varman may have been another name of Danti-varman who was
apparently named after the Rashtrakuta king Danti-varman (Danti-
durga) surnamed Vairamegha. Naraisimha-varman and Isvara-
varrnan may be the same respectively as Narasirhha-varman II and
Paramesvara-varman I; but these may also have been secondary
names of two of the later kings. Kattirai and Chandraditya were
probably local Pallava chiefs under Pallava or Chola overlords.

According to Chola records, the Chola king Aditya I overthrew
Pallava Aparajita and killed him towards the end of the ninth
century A.D. From an inscription at Tirumalpuram near Kahchl
we learn that Tondaiman Arrur-tuhjina-udaiyar (Aditya I) granted
a village in the heart of the Pallava empire in the 21st year of his
reign. The date of Aditya’s accession is now usually believed to
have been A.D. 871, which would make his 21st year correspond
to A.D. 892-93. But as there is no evidence regarding the nature
and duration of the Pallava Chola struggle of this period, it is im¬
possible to say that Aparajita was already extirpated by A.D. 892-93.

According to the Udayendiram grant, the Gahga king, Prithvl-
pati I, in order to help his friend (overlord) Aparajita, defeated
Pandya Varaguna II at the battle of Sripurambiyam (near Kumbha-
konam) but lost his life in the engagement. As the same Gahga
king is referred to in the Ambur inscription of the 26th year of
Nripatuhga as one of the Pallava king’s feudatories, Aparajita could
not have ceased to rule before this year. If Nripatuhga-varman
ruled till A.D. 910, as noted above, we cannot regard the two as
identical and can only presume that they ruled over different parts
of the Pallava dominions. It would also then follow that the Pallava
sovereignty was not extinguished with Aparajita’s death, but con¬
tinued till at least A.D. 913. This view is supported by the Karan-
dai Plates of Rajendra I which refer to the success of Parantaka I
against the Pallavas.4

167

THIS AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

2 . Tentative genealogy of the Later Pallavas

Hiranya-varman (great-great-grandson of Bhlma-varman who
was a brother of the Greater Pallava king Simha vishnu)

I*. Nandi- varman Pallavamalla (married Rev-a, probably
the daughter of Bantidurga-Danti-varman-Vairamegha),
c. A,D. 731-96,

2. Dantiga-Banti-varman-Vayiramegha-varman (probably mar¬
ried the daughter of Stambha or Kamba, son of Dhruva,
who was a cousin of Dantidurga-Danti-varman-Vairamegha ) ,
c. A.D. 796-847.

3. Tellarrerinda Nandi- varman-Kampa-varman v married San-
kha, probably^ the daughter of Amoghavarsha I, son of
Govinda III, who was a brother of Stambha or Kamba),
c. A.D. 847-72,

4. Nripatirnga-varman (A.D. 872-913).

It has to be admitted that the reigns of the four kings may have
overlapped to a considerable extent. It is also uncertain whether
the latest known dates of these kings were actually the last years
of their reigns.

1. Vol. Ill, p. 282.

2. Ancient India, No. 5, p. 54.

3. J1H, XXIX, 174.

4. JOR, XIX, 148.

168

CHAPTER VIII

CEYLON

I. POLITICAL HISTORY

Agrabodhi VI was succeeded, after a rule of about 40 years, by
his brother Agrabodhi VII (A.D. 759-65). He was famous for his
sense of justice and knowledge of medical science. After he had
reigned for six years, Mahendra II Silameghavarna (A.D. 765-85),
son of Agrabodhi VI, seized the throne. The new kings’s authority
was, however, challenged by Dappula, who was the son of a sister
of king Agrabodhi VI and became a constant source of trouble
throughout the 20 years’ reign of Mahendra II. Anarchy prevailed
almost throughout the land. The next king Udaya (sometimes sty¬
led Dappula II, A.D. 785-90) was a son of Mahendra II. The new
ruler is said to have helped his son-in-law Mahendra to conquer
Rohana in South Ceylon, and to drive out the latter’s father Dam-
shtrasiva, collector of revenue at Rohana, to take shelter in India.
Udaya died after a reign of about five years and was succeeded by
his son Mahendra III Silameghavarna (A.D. 790-94) who ruled for
about four years. The next king was Agrabodhi VIII (A.D. 794-
805), a brother of Mahendra III. This ruler was exceptionally de¬
voted to his mother whom he allowed to offer his own person as a
gift to the Buddhist church and then freed himself by paying to
the church a sum considered equal to his own value. He died after
a rule of 11 years, and his younger brother Dappula II (or III,
A.D. 805-21) next reigned for 16 years. The successor of Dappula II
(or III), his son Agrabodhi IX (A.D. 821-24), had to fight with Ma¬
hendra (son of king Mahendra III) who was the real heir to the
throne according to the Ceylonese law of inheritance.1 Prince
Mahendra was compelled to flee to South India. After a short rule
of three years, Agrabodhi IX was succeeded by his younger brother
Sena (A.D. 824-44), surnamed &ilamegha. Sena removed a potential
danger by having Prince Mahendra killed by his agents in India.
But he had to face an attack of the Pan<Jya king of Madura in South
India, who had probably given shelter to Mahendra.

The Pandya king, who led an expedition against Ceylon, con¬
quered the northern part of the island, and the defeated king Sena
fled to the mountainous region of Malaya. The victorious Pandyas
took away all the valuables in the Ceylonese king’s treasury and else¬
where in the island, including gold images and plates belonging to

169

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the monasteries. Then king Sena submitted to the Pandya king,
and the latter returned to his own country. The Panclya king was
probably Srlmara Srlvallabha who gained a victory in the island
of Ceylon according to the Sinnamanur grant.2 Sena died after
a reign of about 20 years, and was succeeded by his brother’s son
Sena II (A.D. 844-79). During his reign a rebel son of the Pandya
king took shelter at the Ceylonese court. In retaliation for the
Pandya invasion during the rule of Sena I, Sena II sent a large army
against the Pandya country. Ceylonese forces besieged Madura
and completely defeated the Pandya king who lost his life. The
Pandya capital was plundered and the valuables, including the golden
images brought from Ceylon, were all taken back to the island. The
son of the deceased Pandya king was placed on the throne. It may
be suggested that the reference is probably to the accession of Sri-
mara’s son Varaguna II in A.D. 862. The successful war of Sena II
against the Pandyas is mentioned in a number of inscriptions. The
king died in the 35th year of his reign, and was succeeded by his
youngest brother Udaya II (or I, A.D. 879-90), surnamed Silamegha-
varna. Klrtyagrabodhi, a member of the royal family, rebelled
against the new king and made himself master of Rohana; but the
rebellion was soon quelled. The king died after a rule of about 11
years, and his brother Kasyapa IV Srisanghabodhi (A.D. 890-907)
succeeded him. One of the new king’s ministers was Cholaraja
whose name seems to connect him with the Chola country in the
Tanjore-Tiruchirapalli region in South India. Kasyapa IV is said
to have ruled for 17 years and was succeeded by a son of Sena II
named Kasyapa V (A.D. 907-17), called Abhaya Silameghavarna in
his inscription.

During the rule of Kasyapa V, the Pandya king of the Madura-
Ramnad-Tirunelveli region was vanquished by his neighbour, the
king of the Chclas, and he applied for help to the Ceylonese ruler.
Kasyapa V sent an army to the Pandya king’s help; but the expedi¬
tion was unsuccessful. The Chola king appears to be no other than
Parantaka I, who ascended the throne in A.D. 907 and claimed vic¬
tories over the Pandya king Rajasimha (Maravarman Rajasimha III)
and over an army of the king of Ceylon.3 Kasyapa V died in the
10th year of his reign. His successor Dappula III (or IV, A.D. 917-18),
who ruled for a few months, was probably one of his step-brothers.
The next king was Dappula IV (or V) Silameghavarna (A.D. 918-30),
who was probably a brother of the preceding ruler. During his rule,
the Pandya king, whose country was subjugated by the Cho]as, took
shelter at the Ceylonese court; but having failed to secure any help,
the Pandya ruler left his diadem and other valuables behind and
betook himself to the Kerala country in the Malabar coast of South

170

CEYLON

India, although there is a tradition about the Ceylonese king’s vic¬
torious fight with the Damilas who came from the Chola country.
Dappula IV (or V) died in the 12th year of his rule, and was succeed¬
ed by Udaya III (or II, A.D. 930-33), who was a brother’s son of Sena
II and died in the 3rd year of his reign.

The next king Sena III (A.D. 933-42), probably a brother of the
preceding ruler, died in his ninth regnal year, and was succeeded
by Udaya IV (or III, A.D. 942-50) whose relation to his predecessors
is unknown. During this king’s rule the Chola king, who had con¬
quered the Pandya country, demanded from the Ceylonese monarch
the diadem and other valuables left in the island by the Pandya
ruler in the reign of Dappula IV (or V). The demand not having
been complied with, a mighty Chola army invaded Ceylon and
occupied large tracts of the island. King Udaya IV (or III) fled
with the crown and other valuables to Rohana. The Chola king
can be no other than Parantaka I (A.D. 907-53) who calls himself
“conqueror of Ceylon” in his records.4 It is claimed in the Ceylonese
chronicles that the Ceylonese king’s general now laid waste the
borderland of the Chola monarch and compelled him to restore all
the valuables carried away from the island as booty. But the in¬
vading Chola army appears to have actually left Ceylon owing to
the Rashtrakuta invasion of the Chola country under Krishna III
about A.D. 949, the year of the great battle of Takkolam. Udaya IV
(or III) died in his eighth regnal year, while his successor Sena IV
(A.D. 950-53) ruled for three years. The next king Mahendra IV
Srisanghabodhi (A.D. 953-69), who was probably his predecessor’s
brother, married a princess of the royal house of Kalinga in India.
During his rule, the Vallabha king sent a force to Nagadvipa (identi¬
fied by some writers with north-western Ceylon, but by others with
Jaffna) to subjugate Ceylon; but the war was concluded by a peace
between the two powers. The Vallabha is apparently king Kri¬
shna III (A.D. 939-6 7) of the family of the Rashtrakutas, who were
the successors of the Chalukya Vallabharajas and were known to
the Arabs as the Balharas of Mankir (Vallabharajas of Manyakheta).
There are epigraphic and literary records5 referring to the subjuga¬
tion of Ceylon by Krishna III before A.D. 959. although the Rash¬
trakuta expedition appears to have been merely a raid. Mahendra IV
is also said to have repulsed a Chola invasion under Parantaka II,
who led an attack against the island as its ruler had helped -the
Pandya king in his revolt against the Cholas.

Mahendra IV restored certain monasteries that had been pre¬
viously burnt by the Cholas. After his death in the 16th year of
his reign, his 12-year-old son, Sena V (A.D. 969 79), became king.

171

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

During his rule, there was a rebellion headed by a general, also
named Sena, as a result of which the king had to flee to Rohana.
The country was ravaged by Damila forces whose help was requ¬
isitioned by the rebellious general. Ultimately the king and the
rebel entered into a pact; but the former died in the 10th year of
his reign, still young in years. The next king was his younger
brother Mahendra V (A.D. 979-1027)6 who had to face numerous
difficulties owing to the disturbed condition of the country. He
made his brother’s widow his queen and, on her death which took
place shortly afterwards, raised his brother’s daughter to the rank
of Mahishi. The new king was unable to keep his troops contented
by regular payment. The Kerala (Malayali) mercenaries in the
king’s army once besieged the royal residence at Anuradhapura,
although the king managed to escape by an underground passage
to Rohana. In other parts of the country complete anarchy prevailed,
and Kerala and Karnata (Kanarese) as well as Ceylonese chieftains
carried on the government as they pleased. On hearing of this
anarchical condition of Ceylon from a horse-dealer, the Chola king
sent a strong army to invade the island. The Chola king was
no doubt the mighty Rajaraja, v/ho not only conquered the
northern part of Ceylon but gave it the name Mummudi-Chola-
manclalam (cf. the names Rajarajapuram and Jagannathamahgalam
applied respectively to Mantai or Matota and Polonnaruva) and
even granted Ceylonese villages to the great temple at Tanjore.7
The southern part of the island appears to have been conquered
by the Chola king Rajendra, son and successor of Rajaraja, in or
shortly before A.D. 1017, when, according to Ceylonese chronicles,
the Cholas captured not only the Ceylonese king’s Mahishi, but
also “the jewels, the diadem that he had inherited, the whole of the
royal ornaments, the priceless diamond bracelet which was a gift
of the gods, the unbreakable sword, and the relic of the torn strip
of cloth.”8 The king, who had fled to the jungle, was captured on
“the pretence of concluding a treaty.” Mahendra V was then sent
with all his treasures to the Chola king in India where the Ceylo¬
nese monarch d*ied 12 years later. According to the inscriptions
of the Cholas, Rajendra, after heavy fighting in Ceylon, captured
“the crown of the island” (indicating the capture of the king), “the
beautiful crown of the queen of Ceylon” (indicating the capture of
the queen) and “the crown of Sundara and the pearl necklace of
Indra” which the Pandya king had given to the king of Ceylon.
The Cholas carried away many costly images of gold, destroyed
the Buddhist monasteres, and stripped the island of all valuables.
With Pulatthinagara (modern Polonnaruva) as their base, the
Cholas held complete sway over Rajarashtra or North Ceylon.

172

CEYLON

The people of the island were secretly bringing up the young prince
Kasyapa in the southern country due to fear of the Cholas. When
the Chola king heard that the boy had reached his 12th year, he sent
a force to seize him. An army of 95,000 men now ravaged South
Ceylon.

In the meantime king Mahendra V died at the Chola court in the
48th year after his coronation. Kasyapa, the young son of Mahen¬
dra V, was then made king under the name Vikramabahu (A.D.
1027-39); but he declined to undergo formal consecration so long as
Rajarashtra was in the occupation of the foreigners. He continued
to rule at Rohana and died in the 12th year of his reign. Thereupon
an official named Kirti exercised royal authority for a few days
after which he was murdered by Mahalanaklrti (A.D. 1039-42) who
became ruler of Rohana, He was defeated by the Cholas and lost
his life in his third regnal year. The Damilas took away his
treasures, diadem, and other valuables which were sent to the Chola
country. Mahalanaklrti’s son Vikramapandya (probably connected
with the Pandya royal house of Madura on the mother’s side) carried
on the government in a small tract from his headquarters at modern
Kalutara at the mouth of the river Kaluganga in south-western
Ceylon, for about one year (A.D. 1042) according to the Pali
chronicle, but thiee years, according to the Sinhalese sources on
which Geiger relies. He was slain in battle by Jagatipala, said to
have been a SuryavamsI prince coming from Ayodhya; but Jagatipala
(A.D. 1042-46) was himself killed by the Cholas, probably after a
rule- of four years. His queen and daughter, together with all valu¬
ables, were sent to the Chola country. Parakrama or Parakramapan-
dya (A.D. 1046-48), who is often regarded as the son of a Pandya king
of Madura but may have actually been a son of Vikramapandya,
was also slain by the Cholas, probably after a rule of two years.
The Chola king Rajadhiraja, son of Rajendra, claims in a record of
A.D. 10469 that he nad deprived four Ceylonese kings of their crowns,
namely (1) Vikramabahu, (2) Vikramapandya, (3) Vlrasilamegha
hailing from Kanauj (apparently the same as Jagatipala), and
(4) SrI-vallabhamadanaraja (possibly another name of Parakrama-
pandya or of some other unknown Ceylonese chief) who is said to
have lived for some time at the court of Kannara, i.e. the Rashtra-
kuta king Krishna III. Another ruler killed by Rajadhiraja was
Manabharana, who may have been a Ceylonese chief, although
Hultzsch takes him to be a scion of the Pandya royal family. The
Chola king also claims to have captured the queen-mother of Ceylon
and to have cut off her nose, the reference probably being to the
capture of Jagatlpala’s queen. The Chola records would thus
suggest that the rule of Jagatipala, if not also of Parakramapandya,

173

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ended in or shortly before A.D. 104G. The records of Rajendra,
younger brother and successor of Rajadhiraja, say that some time
before A.D. 1057 the Chola king killed Virasilamegha, “king of the
Kalihgas” (probably a Ceylonese prince connected with Kalinga on
his mother’s side), and captured the two sons of Manabharana, “king
of the people of Lanka.” Virasilamegha and Manabharana, men¬
tioned here should be identified with the princes of these names
referred to in the records of Rajadhiraja, although they are usually
supposed to be different. In an inscription10 of A.D. 1069, Rajendra’s
successor, Virarajeqdra, also claims to have subdued Ceylon.

Towards the middle of the eleventh century, when the whole
island was under Chola occupation, the Ceylonese chronicles place
the rule of two chiefs named Lokesvara (six years, A.D. 1048-54) and
Kesadhatu Kasyapa (six months, A.D. 1054-55), who had their head¬
quarters at Kajaragrama (modern Kataragam on the Menikgahga
not far from Magama, the chief city of Rohana or Southern Ceylon ) .
These chiefs had a rival in the person of a scion of the Ceylonese royal
family named Klrti, later styled Vijayabahu I Srlsanghabodhi
(A.D. 1055-1110 ) C 1 one of the greatest generals of Ceylon, who suc¬
ceeded in extirpating Chola rule from the island in the 15th year
of his reign. Vlrarajendra’s claim of subjugating Ceylon about
A.D. 1069 seems tc refer to the great Chola victory over Vijayabahu’s
forces in a battle near Anuradhapura in the 12th year of the Cey¬
lonese king’s reign which probably corresponds to a date ncrt much
earlier than A.D. 1069. A Siva Devale (temple) at Polonnaruva
contains inscriptions of Rajendra Chola I and of Adhirajendra who
ruled for some time about A.D. 1070. The liberation of Ceylon by
Vijayabahu thus seems to have taken place shortly after A.D. 1070
in the 15th year of his reign.

II. FINE ARTS

Ceylon is an offshoot of India not only geographically but also
culturally. The literary12 and art traditions of the island as well
as its religious, political, social and economic life show how deeply
they were regulated by the conventions of Indian life and thought.

In early times Indian Bhikshus in Ceylon lived in very simple
monasteries, mostly stone caves such as those of Mihintale, Vessagi-
riya, and Isurumuniya in Anuradhapura, and Situlpahuva (Chittala-
parvata) near the Menikgahga, and in groves like the Mahamegha-
vana in Anuradhapura. Although information about the* exact
nature of the buildings used by the early inhabitants and ruling
chiefs is meagre, there is evidence of the gradual growth of a grand
monastic architecture inspired by Indian tradition. The great Stu-

174

CEYLON

parama was built at Anuradhapura in the middle of the third cen¬
tury B.C., ana an offshoot of the Bodhi tree was planted in the island.
Unfortunately remnants of the early structures are usually found
enclosed in later additions. Numerous Vihdras or Buddhist monas¬
teries were built in the early period, some of the most famous of them
being the Tishyamaharama (dating from the second or third cen¬
tury B.C. according to some scholars) at Magama or Mahagrama, capi¬
tal of Rohana (South-West Ceylon), and the Stuparama, Mahavihara,
Abhayagirivihara (built by VattagamanI Abhaya or Valagamba in
the first century B,C.), and the Jetavanarama (built by Mahasena in
the fourth century A.D.). The monasteries usually covered wide
areas, and were meant for accommodating a large number of Bhi-
kshus. The Jetavanarama is 251 feet high and stands on a stone
platform nearly 8 acres in extent, while the space within the walled
enclosure measures nearly 14 acres. Generally the monasteries had
stone foundations, the upper structures being always of wood, clay
or brick. There wrere residential quarters, a refectory, and an
Uposatha house where the Sangha assembled on the fortnightly fast
day of the new moon and the full moon. The Viharas had a Chaitya
or Stupa, called Ddgaba in Ceylon. In the first century B.C. the
great builder DutthagamanI built the Lohaprasada (Lohamahaseya)
or Brazen Palace (so called from the gilt bronze dome that once
crowned it) and the Ruvanavaliseya in the Mahavihara at Anuradha¬
pura, the former being the Uposatha house and the latter the Ddgaba.
The Ceylonese Dagabas were usually built essentially on the pattern
of the Indian Stupas like those of Sanchi, although they differed a
good deal in details. They had the shape of a heap of paddy or a
hemisphere, and were erected on three circular terraces, standing on
a round or square basement, approached by one or four stairways.
Above the hemispherical dome there was a square called Hataras
kotuva , on which stood the round Devata kotuva (“citadel of the
gods” corresponding to the Indian Harmikd), forming the base of
the pointed ringed spire. The spire represented an earlier chhatra-
vall (umbrellas).

The early extant examples of Ceylonese sculptures are usually
made of limestone and belong to the style of Amaravati and Nagar-
junikonda. The specimens representing the great miracle of Sra-
vasti and Maya’s dream in the Colombo Museum may be actually the
work of South Indian artists. But other specimens representing
Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and Nagas were apparently works of local
artists inspired by Indian tradition. Many of the Ceylonese images
were originally plastered and coloured, and “the rough, weatherworn
blocks, now visible, do not produce the effect designed by the artists.”

175

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

In the following period Ceylonese shrines of simpler structures,
consisting of two sections (one forming the real shrine and the other
used for the beating of drums) standing on two platforms connected
by a huge slab, were giving way to great vaulted building's with
massive brick walls and door-posts of stone. These “huge masses
of masonry'5 had usually a Mandapa or porch, a nave, a communi¬
cation passage, and a Dagaba. The Dagabas were sometimes small
in size and stood on square platforms. The celebrated temple, call¬
ed the Gedige, at Nalanda (an old military post between Malaya and
Anuradhapura) is built entirely of stone in South Indian style. Some
writers believe that it was built for the use of the Pallava troops who
accompanied Mana-varman to Ceylon in the sixth century, but others
ascribe its construction to the age of Chola occupation in the first half
of the eleventh century.

A number of Hindu temples, called Devales and Kovils, were
built at Polonnaruva and other places (e.g. Kotaragama, Kandy and
Ratnapura) in the time of Chola occupation and in Chola style. One
of them, a Siva temple originally known as Vanuvanmadevi Isvara-
mudaiyar and made of granuiiite and limestone, consists of a Gar -
bhcigriha , Antardla, Ardhamandapa) and Mandapa with a four-storied
Vimdna.

King Kasyapa* I built, in the fifth century, the great rock for¬
tress of Sigiriya or Sirhhagiri, so called from its fagade in the form
of a huge seated lion. This rock fortress, on the top of which the
king erected a large number of buildings, its galleries and the wall
round them covered with white plaster, and the celebrated frescoes
done in the Ajanta style, have immortalised the name of Kasyapa I
in the cultural history of Ceylon.

Some of the sculptures of this period are made in gneiss. The
influence of the Gupta style is clearly marked in the bas-relief of
“the man and woman” and in the meditating Buddha images at
Isurumuniya (Anuradhapura), as well as in the Moon-stone (a semi¬
circular slab carved elaborately in low relief and placed at the foot
of a staircase in Ceylonese art) at the entrance of the queen’s palace
at Anuradhapura. The carving of the elephant figures on the rock
of Isurumuniya and the sage Kapila with horse’s head (representing
Sagara’s sacrificial horse) show great influence of the Pallava style,
especially of the famous bas-reliefs at Mamallapuram.

A number of bronze and copper images dating from the fifth
century A.D. have been found. The Badulla Buddha (fifth or sixth
century) in the Colombo Museum exhibits pure Gupta style. The
fine small figures of Avalokitesvara and Jambhala (Kuvera), now in
the Boston Museum, have been assigned to the eighth century.
Numerous bronze or copper images of various Hindu deities and

176

CEYLON

South Indian saints in pure Dra vidian style have been recovered from
the Devales and Kovils. These include images of Siva, especially
of the Nataraja type, Parvatl, Ganesa, Karttikeya, Vishnu, Lakshmi,
Balakrishna, Hanuman and Surya, as well as of Sundaramurtisvami,
Manikka Vasagar, Tirujnana Sambandhasvami and Apparasvaml.
There is no doubt that these were works of South Indian artists; but
whether most of thtm were cast in South India or at Polonnaruva,
the Chola headquarters in Ceylon, cannot be determined with cer¬
tainty. Some of the specimens are very fine. An excellent bronze
image is that of the goddess PattinI Devi which is now in the British
Museum. PattinI is the guardian of female chastity, but has power
also over epidemics. Her cult went to the island from South India.

The frescoes of Sigiriya closely resemble in style those in the
Ajanta caves. They portray, either singly or in couples, twenty-one
figures and probably represent celestial damsels (all covered by
clouds below the waist), though some writers would take them to
be queens and princesses with their ladies in waiting. Colours used
by the artists are red, yellow, green, and black. The figures are
graceful and sensual, and the brush work exhibits sound knowledge
of modelling and technique. But their standard compares rather
unfavourably with that of the best frescoes in the Aianta caves.
The painting in the Pulligoda Galkomde near Polonnaruva, repre¬
senting five nimbate seated male figures, may date from the seventh
century; but the rock-paintings at Hindagale, representing Buddha
in the thirty-third heaven, appears to be of a later date.

1. The rule of succession was that the next younger brother of the king succeeded
him on the throne. Only when there was no brother did the crown pass to
the next generation, and in that case also the eldest son of the eldest brother
of the preceding generation became king. The sister’s son of the king enjoyed
a certain preference This remnant of an earlier matriarchy was at times a
disturbing factor in the right of succession. A conflict between matriarchy
and patriarchy is noticeable in the rivalry of Mahendra II and Dappula for
the throne.

2. SII, III. 461.

3. JRAS, 1913, p. 526.

4. Sastri, Colas , I. 148.

5. Altekar, Rdshtrakutas , 118-9.

6. The accession of Mahendra V is assigned by Geiger to AD. 981 but by Hultzsch
to A.D. 978. Considering the fact that his 36th regnal year corresponded to
a date in A.D. 1016 or 1017, it seems that he ascended the throne in AD. 979
or more probably in A.D. 980.

7. SII, II. 241, 424 if. Rajaraja’s inscription at Padariya in Ceylon is dated in his
27th year corresponding to A.D. 1011-12 (SII, II. p. v.).

8. Sewell, HISI. 62.

9. SII, HI. 51 ff.

10. Ibid. 20-2-3.

11. The accession of Vijayabahu is assigned by Hultzsch to A.D. 1054, and Geiger
to A.D. 1059. But the fact that he was defeated by the Cholas in his 12th regnal
year, probably falling shortly before A.D. 1069, and that he recovered the island
from the Cholas in his. 15th regnal year or shortly after AD. 1070 would suggest
that he ascended the throne in AD. 1055-56.

12. For an account of the Pali literature of Ceylon, cf. Vol. HI, pp. 394 ff.

177

A.I.K — 12

CHAPTER IX

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

A. SANSKRIT
I. BELLES-LETTRES

The famous poets of the sixth and the seventh centuries A.D.,
such as Bharavi and Magha, presented a queer combination of real
poetic merit with pedantry or artificiality. Of the two sides thus
displayed the latter was not only the easier to imitate but was also
the more attractive owing to the external show that it could pre¬
sent. The lesser p^ets that followed these masters, therefore, natu¬
rally fell a prey to the temptation and produced works which are
noted more for their artificiality than for any intrinsic merit. This
love of pedantry v/as increased to no small extent by the fact that
Sanskrit literature was mainly composed not only by the Pavditas but
also for them. It is, therefore, no wonder if we find pedantry and
artificiality to be the general characteristics of the great bulk of
literature produced during this and the following ages. It would,
however, be wrong to suppose that this age had nothing of real value
to contribute to Sanskrit literature. It saw the rise of a special form
of prose composition — the Champu. It is this age, again, that gives
us our earliest anthology, a class of works of no mean importance to
the student of Sanskrit literature. But by far the most important
contribution of this age to Sanskrit literature is in the field of poetics
which reached its high watermark of development during this period.

1. Drama

Great importance attaches to the politico-historical play, the
Mudrarakshasa, of Visakhadatta, son of the Maharaja Bhaskaradatta
or minister Prithu, and grandson of Vatesvaradatta, a feudatory, of
what prince we are not expressly told. The attempt to place Visakha¬
datta in the fifth century A.D. on the hypothesis that Vatesvaradatta
was a Samanta of Chandra-gupta II is not well founded. Nor is
there any solid ground to assume that he belonged to Bengal. On
the strengh of the variant “Avantivarman” occurring in the Bha -
ratavdkya of the play, some place him in the seventh century at the
court of the Maukhari Avantivarman, while others would place him
under the Kashmirian Avantivarman in the middle of the ninth cen¬
tury A.D. But both these theories are considerably weakened by

178

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

the fact revealed in Hillebrandt’s critical edition of the play that
the variant is in all probability spurious.1 Nor is there any definite
proof for Jacobi’s identification of the eclipse referred to in the play
as that of December 2, A.D. 860 when, according to him, the play
was enacted.2 Visakhadatta is certainly earlier than the tenth cen¬
tury A.D. as he is referred to by Dhananjaya in his Dasarupaka and
also by Abhinavagupta3 in his commentary on Bharata’s Ndtyasdstra.
Viiakhadatta is, therefore, to be assigned very probably to the seventh
or the eighth century A.D.

The MudrarukthascL 4 is a play in seven acts, unique in Sanskrit
literature as being wholly based on some political or historical theme,
and avoiding not only the erotic feeling but also the erotic atmos¬
phere. It is a drama without a heroine. Its author must rank very
high indeed owing to the great success he has achieved in creating
a highly captivating play out of the dry historical material; and
that, too, without the aid of the most inspiring of sentiments — the
sringura. The pla}’ deals with the astute manoeuvres of Chanakya
to win over Rakshasa, the faithful, clever and honest minister of the
exterminated Nandas, to the side of Chandragupta.

There are two other plays ascribed to Visakhadeva who is very
probably the same as Visakhadatta. One of these, the Devichandra-
gupta, dealing with the story how DhruvadevI was saved by Chan-
dra-gupta from the ignominy of being surrendered to a &aka ruler,5
is known to us only from citations in the Ndtyadarpana by Rama-
chandra and Gunachandra. Abhinava and Bhoja similarly quote
from another play, the Abhisarihavafichitaka (or bandhitaka) based
on a love legend or Udayana, which tells us how Padmavati regained
the lost love of her husband by playing the role of an abhisarikd in
the guise of a Tabari.

On apparently the same theme as that of the Mudrdrdkshasa is
based the Praiibhdchdnakya of Bhima, or Bhimata. This is only
one of the five dramas composed by Bhima of which the Svapna -
das&nana won him chief fame. As the Pratibhachdnakya is’modelled
after the Mudrdrdkshasa, Bhima may be placed somewhere in the
ninth century A.D There is positive ground for connecting him
with the Chandella king Harsha.6

To the end of the eighth or the beginning of the ninth century
belongs Murari, son of Vardhamana of the Maudgalya Gotra and
Tantumati. Some scholars place Murari between A.D. 1050 and
1135 on the strength of the fact that no rhetorician earlier tthan
Mankha refers to him.7 But Ratnakara (middle of the ninth cen¬
tury ) makes a clear reference to him in his Haravijaya, and the author

179

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of the Prasannaraghava also seems to have imitated him.8 The
attempt to make him a contemporary of Ramachandra, a pupil of
Hemachandra, is, therefore, futile.9 From the reference to Mahish-
mati as “cgra-mahishi” in act VII of his play, Konow10 infers that
Murari was a protege of a Kalachuri prince at Mahishmati. This
suggestion, if accepted, would place his date prior to the middle of
the eighth century A.D. when Mahishmati ceased to be the capital
of the Kalachuris. 1 1 His work, the Anargha-raghava, is a play in
seven acts depicting the early life of Rama up to his return from
the forest, and bears ample testimony to the linguistic abilities of
its author, though as a drama its defects are too obvious.12

Saktibhadra. the author of a play called the Chuddmani (or
Ascharya-Chuddmani ), also probably belongs to the end of the eighth
or the beginning of the ninth century A.D. To the ninth century
belongs the Jain author Hastimalla,13 son of Govinda of Srivatsa
Gotra, who was a remote disciple of Gunabhadra. He seems to be
a voluminous writer; besides several poems he has given us no less
than eight plays including the Vikrdnta-kaurava (also called the
Sulochand Ndtaka ), the Subhadrdharana , and the Maithilikalytina.

Slightly later is the polymath Rajasekhara, who certainly is a
great master of wTords but lacks originality and polish, and cannot,
therefore, rank high as a playwright.14 He has, among other works,
composed four dramas. The Bdlardmdyana is a Rama play (a
mahandtaka) in ten acts with an embryo act ( Garbhanka ) in the
third. The Bdlabharata, his next, is only fragmentary. Then comes
the Ndtika — the Viddhasalabhanjika — in four acts, which is follow¬
ed by the Karpuramanjari ,15 a sattaka wholly in Prakrit (the only
play of its type that has come down to us), composed and staged at
the request of Avantisundari. These works were followed by the
Bhuvanakosa f purporting to be a detailed geography of the then
known universe, which is known to us only from a reference made to
it by the author in his Kdvyarriimdmsd, an elaborately planned work
on poetics. Besides these, Rajasekhara is known to have composed
one more work, the Harivildsa which, as we know from Hemachan¬
dra, is a Svandmdnlca Kdvya (an epic bearing the name of its author).
This, from citations by Hemachandra and Ujjvaladatta, seems to be
a Mahdprabandha and may, as such, be taken to be a product of
Rajasekhara^ mature age.

Rajasekhara was the “son of the minister Darduka and gllavatl,
grandson of Akala-jalada, and descendant of Surananda, Tarala, and
Kaviraja, all poets of name”. He belonged to the Yayavara family
of Maharashtra, and was a moderate Saiva by faith. His wife,
Avantisundari, was an accomplished princess of the Chahamana

180

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

family and Rajasekhara’s great regard for her is evinced by his refe¬
rences to her views in his Kdvyarnimdrhsd, Rajasekhara was the guru
of king Nirbhaya alias Mahendrapala; while his B&labharata 16 was
composed for his successor, Mahipala.17 Again, on the one hand he
quotes from Vakpatiraja, Udbhata, and Anandavardhana, and praises
Bhavabhuti; while he himself is referred to by Somadeva and Dha-
nanjaya and eulogised by Sod^hala. He must, therefore, be placed
at about A.D. 900.

Kshemlsvara18 composed his Chandakausika for Mahipala19
whom H. P. Shastri identifies with the Pala prince of that name, and
Pischel with the Pratlhara Mahipala of Kanyakubja, the patron of
Rajasekhara. According to the former identification Kshemlsvara
would belong to the eleventh century, while the latter would take
him back to the tenth. His grandfather Vijayakoshtha or Vijaya-
prakoshtha also was a man of learning. The Chandakausika in five
acts deals with the Harischandra legend of the Mdrkandeya Purdna
without displaying any distinct dramatic merit or even high poetical
ability. His other work is the Naishadhdnanda 20 in seven acts based
on the story of Nala.

To the tenth century belongs also the Mahdndtaka which holds
a unique position in Sanskrit literature in more respects than one.
It is found in two recensions differing very widely from each other.
The Bengali version has fourteen acts and gives the name as Mahd¬
ndtaka; while the Devanagari, which gives the name as Hanuman-
ndtaka, has only ten. The latter ascribes the work to the monkey
of the Ramiayana fame. Several and varied indeed are the legends2 1
current about this play; and though differing in details they are
agreed that what is now extant of this unique work is only a recast
or reconstruction of the original which is lost. According to one
legend it was revised by Madhusudana at the command of Vikra-
maditya, while another makes one Damodara revise it at the com¬
mand of Bhoja. The chronology of these versions is hard to fix
with any definiteness. It is clear, however, that in its present form
the work contains verses not only from the Ramdyana and the
Hitopadesa, but also from the Bdlardmayana and the Anctrgha -
rdghava; and is in its turn drawn upon by Subhata of the thirteenth
century. But it must be noted that a great portion of this work must
be much older, as is suggested by the legends, and also by the fact
that three verses from this play have been quoted by Anandavar¬
dhana in his Dhvanydloka ,22

The Mahdndtaka is not a Nataka in the exact sense of the term.
It is something between an epic and a dramatic composition com¬
parable to Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda, which can be enjoyed simply as

181

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

such, and is at the same time capable of a quasi-dramatic present¬
ment. It is often described as a Chhdyd-ndpaka (shadow-play) on
the ground that it resembles in many respects the Dutmigada, a
Chhaya-ndtaka , which was acted on the stage on March 7, 1243, at
the command of the Chaulukya king Tribhuvanapala.23 It is, how¬
ever, doubtful whether the play can be called a shadow-play at all.
In fact the exact meaning of the term Chhaya-ndtaka is unhappily
uncertain; and while Pischel and Konow take it to mean shadow-
play, it may also denote a “drama in the state of a shadow.”24
According to Subandhu,25 this is a Samagra type of dramatic com¬
position which, he says, combines in itself all the different charac¬
teristics of all the types of Nataka . But for want of any further
elucidation on this point, the view of Subandhu must remain vague
and uncertain. The only statement, therefore, that we may safely
make about this play for the present, is that it is a literary drama,
a play never intended to be acted, as seems to be shown by the
several peculiar features such as the prevalence of verse over prose,
absence of Prakrit, the large number of characters, the omission of
the Vidushaka, and its plagiarisms from earlier Rama dramas.26

In conclusion, a brief reference may be made to Bhdna or mono¬
logue play. Four Bhanas viz . Ubhaydbhisarikd, Padmaprdbhritaka,
Dhtirtavitasamvdda and Padataditaka , ascribed on the strength of a
traditional verse respectively to Vararuchi, Sudraka, Isvaradatta
and &yamilaka, have been published under the title Chaturbhani.
Contrary to Keith27 who holds none of these plays to be older than
A.D. 1000, De fixes the lower limit for Padataditaka (and the rest),
by references of Abhinavagupta, Kuntala, and Kshemendra before"
the end of the tenth century, and takes these plays to be much earlier
than Dhananjaya.28 Thomas29 takes the Padataditaka to be consi¬
derably older than Abhinavagupta, and places it “in the time of
Harsha of Kanauj or even that of the latter Guptas,” i.e., sixth or
seventh century. These Bhanas are different from the later Bhanas.

2. Kdvya

In the field of Kdvya notable contributions have been made dur¬
ing this period by both Buddhist and Jain authors. The Buddhist
■Sivasvamin has given us epic, the Kapphandbhyudaya in twenty
cantos, describing the conversion of king Kapphana who had march¬
ed against king Prasenajit of SravastT. He wrote under Avantivar-
man of Kashmir and is highly influenced by Bharavi and Magha.

The Digambara Jain, Jinasena, a disciple of Virasena of the
Senasangha, is referred to in Harivamsa , composed in A. D. 783 by
another Jinasena, disciple of Kirtisena, and may thus be referred
to the eighth century A.D.30 He has given us the Pdrsvabhyudaya-

182

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

kavya which embodies within it the whole text of Kalidasa’s Megha-
dutaf and has also composed the first forty-two chapters of Adi -
purtina . To this chulikd, comprising five chapters, has been added
by the author’s own pupil Gunabhadra, who has also composed the
Uttarapurdna , a continuation of the AdiptCrdrna giving the lives of
the Tirthankaras after Rishabha. Lokasena added a further conti¬
nuation in A.D. 898. Ravishena’s Padmapurana was composed in
A. D. 678.31 Asaga is another Jain author who has given us a long
epic in eighteen cantos called the V ardhamdnacharita or the Maha-
viracharita or the Sanmitracharita. According to the Prasasti32
occurring at the end of a MS. of this work, Asaga composed eight
works, including the present one, at Dharala in Choladesa, in Sam-
vat. 910 (c. A.D. 853). Mention may also be made of another Jain
author Kanakasena Vadiraja, whose Yasodharacharita was compos¬
ed prior to A.D. 950.33

The Haravijaya, a long epic in fifty cantos, narrating the story
of Siva killing the demon Andhaka, shows a strong influence of
Magha. It is composed by Rajanaka Ratnakara, son of Amritabhanu,
who flourished under Jayapida and Avantivarman of Kashmir. In
spite of the presence of some good stanzas the work betrays a de¬
plorable lack of proportion and excessive fondness for Yamakas.
The last four cantos of this work are held to be spurious on the
ground that Alaka, the author’s pupil, has commented only up to
the middle of the forty-sixth canto. The Vakroktipanchasika is
another small poem of the same author.

Another Kashmirian poet of this period is Abhinanda, son of
Jayanta, whose fifth ancestor Saktisvamin was a minister of Lalita-
ditya Muktaplda. He refers to Rajasekhara as a contemporary34
and is quoted in his Lochana by Abhinavagupta. His father Jayanta-
bhatta in his Nydyamanjari refers to Sankara varman as the ruling
prince of Kashmir.315 Abhinanda must, therefore, belong to the
close of the ninth century A.D. His Radambari-Kathasdra is an
epitome of Bana’s Rddambari in an epic form. In the introduction
to this work he tells us that his ancestors hailed from Gaudadesa.
This suggests his identification with another poet of whom we know
only from anthologies where he is styled Gauda Abhinanda. Al¬
though there is no chronological difficulty in the way of this identifi¬
cation it cannot be regarded as certain.36

Quite different, however, is the author of the Rdmacharita, a
long epic in thirty-six cantos, also named Abhinanda, son of Sata-
nanda. The date of this author is sought to be fixed on the strength
of the reference he makes in his epic to Haravarsha Yuvaraja, son
of Vikramaslla, probably identical with Dharmapala of Bengal.37

183

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

There is one more Abhinanda, also styled Gauda, who has given us
an epitome of the Yogavdsishtha in forty-eight cantos divided into
six prakaranas. His identity with the author of the epitome of the
Kadambari is also not yet definitely proved.38

One more name that must be mentioned here is that of Vasu-
deva, son of Ravi and pupil of Bharataguru, who has given us three
long epics. The Yudhishthiravijaya, narrating the story of Yudhish-
thira up to his coronation in eight dsvasas, was composed during the
reign of Kulasekhara; while the Saurikathodaya and the Tripura -
dahana mention Rama as the ruling prince. All these poems very
well display their author’s fondness for Yamakas which has led
scholars to ascribe to him even the Nalodaya ,39 It is difficult to fix
the date of Vasudeva, for we have no definite clue regarding the
identity of his patron Kulasekhara. Pisharoti and Ayyar would
place him in the ninth century A.D, but Keith declares this date to
be improbable.40

Dhananjaya, the Jain author of Dvisandhana (or Rdghava-
pdndaviya), has wrongly been identified by Keith and Winternitz
with Dhananjaya Srutakirti, the author of Namamdld (A. D. 1123-
1140); for Dhananjaya Srutakirti, the author of Dvisandhana , is
quoted by Vardhamana .and eulogised by Somadeva and Jalhaija.41

The historical kavya is very meagrely represented in Sanskrit
literature as a whole, and causes of this phenomenon are per¬
haps to be found in the peculiarities of the Indian mind. The in¬
scriptions, which form an important source of our knowledge of the
history of the ancient days, and particularly the Prasastis or encomia,
are often metrical in form and sometimes contain no little poetical
merit. But the value of these compositions as poetry varies enor¬
mously. It must, however, be said that they represent a first step
towards Prasastis of the eighth century A. D. composed by Rama-
chandra who styles himself Kavisvara. He displays his mastery
over language in a poem of fourteen stanzas applying equally well
to Siva and Parvati. A similar phenomenon is observed in the in¬
scription of Lalitasuradeva of the ninth century A. D.42

The only important historical kdvya belonging to this period
is the Navasdhasdnkacharita of Padmagupta alias Parimala, son of
Mrigankagupta. This wrork in eighteen cantos narrates a purely
imaginary story of the winning of the princess Sasiprabha with a
covert reference to the history of king Sindhuraja Navasahasanka of
Malava. Padmagupta is mentioned by Bhoja, Kshemendra and
Vardhamana. He must, therefore, be placed about A.D. 1000.43

In the field of lyrical poetry very little has been preserved for
us between Kalidasa and Govardhana, a contemporary of Jayadeva.

184

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

In fact the only source of our knowledge of this branch of literature
during this age is the anthologies which naturally enough have pre¬
served for us only fragments of the works of poets of whom again
nothing more than mere name has been told. There are also cases
where even the names have been lost. Thus from anthologies we
knowv of one Panini whose skill as a poet of love is evident from the
poems ascribed to him. The grammatical inaccuracies noticeable in
these, however, clearly show that he is not to be identified with the
great grammarian. To Vakkuta and Ladahachandra are ascribed
elegant stanzas voicing forth the condition of the lover at various
situations. Silabhattarika is yet another poetess having pretty
stanzas ascribed to her, and having the unique honour of being rank¬
ed with Bana in point of style.

We are, however, more fortunate in the case of hymns ( stotras ).
After the Mayurasataka and the Chcindisataka of Mayura and Bana
respectively, and after several very pithy hymns ascribed (in some
cases rightly) to Sankara the philosopher, we have the Devlsataka
of Anandavardhana. In these hundred stanzas addressed to goddess
Bhavani, the author, even against his own theories so ably expressed
in his Dhvanydloka, pays more attention to the embellishments than
to suggestion, in keeping with his own admission again that the lat¬
ter is only of secondary importance in hymns. To the first quarter
of the tenth century belongs Utpaladeva’s Stotravall consisting of
twenty short hymns addressed to &iva. About the same period was
composed the Mukundamdla which is a hymn in honour of Vishnu
by Kulasekhara,44 who very probably is dfferent from the patron
of Vasudeva, the author of the Yudhishthiravijaya. The date of the
§yamaladandaka as well as its authorship is now fortunately settled
on the strength of the evidence supplied by a MS. which leaves no
doubt that the v/ork was composed, not by Kalidasa to whom it is
traditionally ascribed, but by one Purantaka, son of Mahadeva, a
worshipper in the temple of Mahakali. From the same source we
learn that king Bhoja of Dhara showed his appreciation of the work
by granting a hundred agrahtiras in A.D. 1Q01.45 This work is in a
peculiar variety of prose called Dandaka which has a fixed melody.
Mention may here be made of two Jain authors, ,§obhana and Mana-
tunga. The former, also known as &iromani, was a staunch Jain of
the court of Dhara in the tenth century, and has given us a hymn
in honour of Tirthankaras variously called Chaturvvmsati-Jinastuti,
or Tirthesastuti or Sohhanastuti. This has been commented upon
by his brother Dhanapala.46 Manatunga, the famous author of the
Bhaktamarastotra, was, according to a Pattavali of the Brihad-Gach-
chha, a minister of Vairisimha of the Paramara dynasty of Malava.
In the Prabhdvakacharita his life is given after that of Bappabhatti

185

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

who died in Sam vat 895; but at the same time we are told that he
was a contemporary of Mayura and Bana at the court of king
Harsha.47 It is thus difficult to foe the date of this author* though
we may be sure that he was earlier than A.D. 1000. 48

Of the didactic poems we may note only three. The earliest is
the Ku\tan%mata of Damodaragupta, a minister of king Jayaplda of
Kashmir. This is a very highly interesting small poem and may be
said to be a sort of manual for the guidance of the hetaerae. To the
ninth century belongs the Bhallatasataka of Bhallafa who wrote
under king Sankara va rma n of Kashmir. This is a collection of a
hundred stanzas in different metres carefully elaborated. Curiously
enough it contains one stanza of Anandavardhana. The Jain Soma-
deva, author of the Yasasiilaka champu (tenth century), composed
the NUivakyamrita which, though definitely more moral in its tone,
is yet almost entirely based on Kautilya’s Arthastistra to which it
may well serve as a sort of commentary. It advises kings to behave
well and prudently rather than with cunning.

The Kichakavadha ,49 narrating in five cantos the story of
Bhima killing Klchaka and his followers, is one of the earliest speci¬
mens of Alaska and Yamaha and similiar devices pressed into the
service of poetry. It has been quoted, as is but natural, by gram¬
marians, rhetoricians, and also lexicographers, the earliest being
Namisadhu who composed his commentary on Eudrata’s Kdvydlam -
kdra in A.D. 1069. But beyond his name, Nitivarman, we know
nothing about the author of this work. Similar, though of poor
workmanship, is the Rakshasakavya (or K&vyamkshasa) which is
variously ascribed to Kalidasa, Ravideva, and Vararuchi, though
Keith50 is inclined to accept Ravideva as its author. Wintemitz61
sees stylistic and other similarities of this poem with the Nalodaya ,
and ascribes both to Ravideva, son of Narayana. The Nalodaya,
narrating in three cantos the story of Nala, is again a highly ela¬
borate poem ascribed to Kalidasa. There can, however, be no doubt
that it is not from the pen of the author of Raghuvamsa , who
never indulges in elaborate metres or rhymes. Keith52 ascribes this
work to Vasudeva, the author of the Yudhishthiravijaya. Whoever
be tfye author of the Rjdkshasakdvya , its date can tolerably be fixed
on the strength of the fact that a manuscript of some anonymous
commentary thereon was copied in Sam vat 1215 (c. A.D. 1159).
It may, therefore, be presumed that the poem itself was composed
much earlier than the twelfth century.63

The anthologies, as a class of literary works, first make their
appearance in the tenth century. These, of course, are collections
of stanzas composed by poets of old, arranged according to various

186

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

principles. It is, therefore, futile to seek any originality in these
and yet they are important since they preserve, at least in parts,
the work of many early poets that would otherwise have been totally
lost to us. The only work of this class that we have to note here is
the Kavindravachana-samuchchayap 4 the earliest anthology as yet
known to us. It differs from some other anthologies only in having
one section devoted to Buddha and another to Avalokitesvara. It is
noteworthy that none of the poets, whose stanzas have been preserv¬
ed in this collection of 525 stanzas, flourished later than about
A.D. 1000. Among the royal poets55 revealed by these anthologies
may be mentioned Yasovarman of Kanauj, Jayapida and Avanti-
varman of Kashmir, and Vakpatiraja II of Dhara.

B udhas vamin ’s Slokasamgraha 56 (an abridgement in verse of
Guniadhya’s Brihat-katha ) is an important poem. For it is more
faithful to Gunadhya’s work than the well-known collections of tales
in Kathdsaritsagara and Brihatkathdmanjari which can now be re¬
garded as representing only the Kashmirian recension of the ori¬
ginal. Unfortunately, however, we have only a fragment of this
works so that it is difficult to form an exact estimate of Budhasva-
min’s workmanship. It is, however, apparent that he has shown
considerable art in his work and deserves praise. He is definitely
earlier than Kshemendra and Somadeva. Nor can the gulf of time
removing him from Gunadhya be very wide. There is, hbwever, no
strong ground on which to fix the date of this author; and Lacote’s
view that he belongs to the eighth or the ninth century is only a
conjecture based on the manuscript tradition.

3. Romance

In the field of romance, we have to note two works, the Mddhavd -
nala~Kamakandald~Katha and the Tilakamanjan. The former
is the well-known love story of the Brahman a Madhavanala and the
dancer Kamakandala who, after a long and painful separation, were
at last married to each other through king Vikramaditya, The story
is narrated in simple artless prose in Sanskrit interspersed with
numerous verses in Sanskrit as well as Prakrit, many of which appear
in the V etalapanchavimwtika and also in anthologies.67 It is com¬
posed by An and a, a pupil of Bhatta Vidyadhara about whose date,
however, we know nothing definitely. The Tilakamanjan is a
romance composed admittedly in imitation of Bana’s Ktidambafi by
Dhanapala,68 son of Sarvadeva, brother of &obhana who converted
him to Jainism. He was a contemporary of Halayudha, Padmagupta,
Dhananjaya and Devabhadra and enjoyed the patronage of kings
Slyaka and Vakpati of Dhara. Before his conversion he composed
the Prakrit Lexicon Pdtyalachchhi 69 in A.D. 972-3, and it was after

187

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

becoming a Jain that he composed the Risha b hapanc haisihal6 0 in
fifty Prakrit stanzas. Merutuhga, in his Prabandhachintdmani ,
has narrated the incident which induced Dhanapala to name his
romance after his daughter.

4. Champu

Whatever may be said to be the origin of the Champu, it
is certain that it is the most elaborate and artificial form in Sanskrit
literature, calculated to afford to the poet the amplest opportunities
to display not only his erudition but also his command over prose
as well as verse in one and the same composition. Up to the tenth
century, compositions were either in prose or in verse almost
exclusively; and even when they were in prose and verse inter¬
mingled, the latter was used only occasionally and for some definite
purposes. But the yearning of poets to display their mastery over
both simultaneously seems to be responsible for the rise of this
altogether new form in Sanskrit literature. Though the earliest
traces61 of this form can be found in the Jatakamalu and the
inscription of Harishena, yet the earliest work of this class, written
in full Kavya style, belongs to the tenth century A.D., so that the
Champu may be said to be one of the contributions of this age to
Sanskrit literature.

The word Champu itself is of obscure origin. Nor has the form
any very definite technique. Visvanatha defines it merely as a Kavya
in, prose and verse.62 which shows that its technique was apparently
the same as that of Kavya, but for the intermingling of prose and
verse. Nor is there any fixity as regards the purposes which are
to be served by prose and verse respectively.

The earliest work of this class that has come down to us is the
NalachampH, also called Damayantikatha , of Trivikramabhatta. It
is only a torso in seven chapters narrating the famous epic story of
Nala. Trivikrama does not seem to be a very good poet in spite of
his own boasts, though his erudition and linguistic art must be
admitted as being pretty high. The Maddlasd champu is another
work of this class composed by this very Trivikrama, son of Nema-
ditya63 and grandson of 6ridhara of Sandilya Gotra. He belonged
to the beginning of the tenth century and was a poet at the court
of the Rashtrakuta king Indra HI, for whom he composed the text
of the Navsari inscription in A.D. 915.

To the middle of the tenth century belongs the Digambara
Jain Somadeva, the author of the Yasastilakachampu composed in
Saka 881 (c. A.D. 959) during the reign of the Rashtrakfita king
Krishna III. Though Somadeva is known from his work as belong-

188

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ing to Devasarhgha, Yasodeva of the Gaudasamgha is mentioned in
the Lemulavada grant as his grand-preceptor. Again in the Champu ,
Somadeva twice addresses the king as Dharmavaloka which title
was borne by Tuhga of the Bodh-Gaya branch of the Rashtrakutas.
It would, therefore, appear that Somadeva was originally a pupil
of the Gaudasamgha in the Gau^adesa and was probably patronised
by the Bodh-Gaya Hashfrakutas, from whom he went to Lemulavada
under the Rashtrakuta feudatories Arikesarin and his successors.
And as the Rashfrakutas had intimate contact with the Chedis
and the Gurjara Pratlharas of Kanauj, it is not unlikely that
Somadeva came into contact with Mahendrapala (probably II) of
Kanauj, and at his instance composed the Nxtivdky&mrita as is
declared in some anonymous commentary.64 Before this, however,
Somadeva had composed the Shamxavatipraktirana, the Yuktichintd-
mani and the Mahendramdtalisanjalpa as we know from the colo¬
phon of his Nitivdkyamrita . All these, however, are to us no more
than mere names as yet.

The Y (isastilakachampu narrates the story of the legendary
king Yasodhara of IJjjain in seven chapters in full Kavya style, and
shows the great erudition and linguistic attainments of its author.
From it again we learn that Somadeva, from his childhood, had
made a deep study of Tarkastistra ,66 which, however, did not banish
all poetic abilities from him. But our main interest in this work
centres round the fact that its last three chapters are devoted to a
discussion of the Jain dogmas, so much so that this part is often
taken to be a manual of Jainism for laymen.

Lastly, mention may be made of Udayasundarlkathd, which is
sometimes regarded as a Champu . It was composed by Soddhala
who describes himself as a Vallabha Rayastha of Lata. He flourish¬
ed about A.D. 1000 and lived in the court of king Mummuniraja of
Konkan.66

II. SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
1. Lexicography

The Dhanvontari Nighantu , the earliest extant medical lexicon,
in its present form belongs to this period, though in its original forjn
it may be much older. Of the ordinary dictionaries ( kosa ) only one
can with some accuracy be assigned to this period, and that is the
A b hidhana-ratnamdla of Halayudha who has followed the authority
of Amaradatta, Vararuchi, Bhaguri and Vopalita.67 The arrange¬
ment of the work is almost like that of the Amarakosa. The
synonymous portion extends over four handas called Svarga, Bhumi.

189

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Pat aia and Sdmdnya y and is followed by the Anekarthakanda, the
fifth and the last, which forms the homonymous portion including
the indeclinables. The earliest author to quote from this Kosa is
Mahkha who lived in the first half of the twelfth century A.D. It
may also be noted that though Kshirasvamin, in his commentary
on the Amarakosa, quotes a very large number of works and
authors, he has not quoted Halayudha or his Kosa . This Halayudha
has been identified68 with the author of the Kavirahasya and the
commentary called the Mritasanjlvini on Pihgala's Chhandahsutra.
The latter was composed in honour of king Muhja Vakpati of Dhara
between A.D. 974 and 995; while the former is an elaborate poem,
meant to illustrate the modes of the formation of the present tense
in Sanskrit literature, and is at the same time a eulogy of king
Krishnaraja III of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, who ruled over the
Deccan between A.D. 939 and 967.

2. Grammar

In grammar we come across the name of Maitreyarakshita, a
Buddhist, who wrote a commentary on the Nydsa of Jinendrabuddhi
under the title of Tantrapradipa , and has also to his credit the
Dhatupradipa , based on the Diidtup&tha of Panini. It is difficult to
fix the date of this author; for the only thing we know about him is
that Sarvananda (A.D. 1159), the commentator of the Amarakosa ,
is the earliest writer to quote him by name. His Dhatupradipa
refers to, and is therefore later than, the Tantrapradipa . Another
rival commentary on Jinendrabuddhi’s Nydsa is the Anunydsa com¬
posed by Indu or Indumitra who may have flourished earlier than
Maitreyarakshita. One more vmter, of the ninth century, is Yimala-
mati who is known to have composed the Bhdgavritti ,69

^akatayana,70 the founder of a new school, belongs to the ninth
century. There can be no doubt regarding the historicity of the
writer; and his date also has been fixed beyond all dispute on the
strength of a reference made by him in Ms Amoghavritti to an his¬
torical event of the reign of king Amoghavarsha, the great Rashtra¬
kuta king who ruled between A.D. 814 and 878. His main work is the
Sabdanusdsana, which, however, has little originality though at one
time it seems to have attained very high popularity, not only among
tpe &vetambara Jains for whom it was intended, but also among
other non-Jain authors.

Durgasirhha, who probably flourished about A.D. 800, is the
oldest known commentator on Katantra grammar or Kalapa, as it
is otherwise known. In addition to his Vritti, on wMch he himself
wrote a Tiled, we have also another commentary, viz. &ishya -
hitany&sa by Ugrabhuti (c. A.D. 1000). Though Katantra may

190

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

have been very old in its origin, we have at present no work of this
school earlier than that of Durgasimha. This school spread over
Bengal and Kashmir, Among the Kashmirian writers may be
mentioned Bhatta Jagaddhara and Chhichhubhat|a who composed
the Bdlabodhini and the Laghuvritti respectively about A.D. 1000. 71

3. Poetics72

Greater and more fruitful activity was evinced during this age
in the field of poetics,73 To this age belonged great rhetoricians
like Udbhata, Vamana, Rudrata, Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta,
and Kuntaka (or Kuntala), It is this age again that saw the rise
and growth of the various theories of poetics laying stress re-
spectively on factors like Alamkdra (ornament or poetic figures),
RUi (style), Dhvani (tone, suggestion), and Vakrokti (crooked
speech) as the essence of poetry. This age may, therefore, be said
to be the golden age of Sanskrit poetics.

The mightiest champion and. representative of the Alamkdra
school is Udbhata whose name is associated with several doctrines
in Alamkdramstra, Thus the theory of drthabheddt sabdahhedah
or the twofold division of &lesha (double meaning), its inclusion
among figures of sense, and regarding it as stronger than other
.figures are often referred to as peculiar to Udbhata, who also seems
to have elaborated for the first time the divisions of U pamd (simile)
on the basis of grammar. He often differs from Bhamaha, the
earliest exponent of the Alamkdra school, on some important mat¬
ters. He exercised such great influence on Sanskrit poetics, and
attained such high celebrity, that he easily eclipsed his predecessor
Bhamaha and threw him into oblivion for a long period. His
magnum opus is the A lamkdrasdrasamgraha, defining forty-one
figures in about seventy-nine verses, and illustrating them in about
a hundred illustrative stanzas, taken mostly, as we know it from
the commentator, from his own Kumdrasam b hava which, to judge
from the verses we have before us, very much resembled Kalidasa's
poem of that name. The work is divided into six chapters (varga)
and was commented upon by Pratiharendura j a about the middle
of the tenth century A.D. Udbhata is often quoted in the Dhvanyd -
lok a, and Kai liana tells us that he was Sabhdpati of king Jayapida of
Kashmir.74 Udbhata must, therefore, have flourished in the second
half of the eighth century A.D.

Next to Udbhata comes Kudrata, the author of the K&vydlarh-
kdra which, in seven hundred and thirty-four verses, divided into
sixteen chapters, "deals with all the important topics of the Sdhitya -
sdstra, and reviews the whole field of that science. He declares

191

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KA.NAUJ

that Kavya must have Rasa (sentiment), and thus indicates his ac¬
quaintance with the Rasa theory. But this does not prove that he
belongs to the Rasa school. The Rltis (styles) he refers to only
casually, and neglects Gunas (qualities) altogether. But to
Alamkaras he attaches great importance which may justify the
view that he was a writer of the Alamkdra school. His partiality
to figures appears not only from the fact that he defines a greater
number of them, than, is done by Bhamaha, Dandin, and Udbhata,
but also from his exposition of the figures which is more systematic
and scientific than theirs. No predecessor has been mentioned by
name by Rudrata, though he seems to refer to Bharata and to
Mayura, the author of the Mayurasataka, This shows that he must
be later than these two writers. He must again be much earlier than
A.D. 1068-69 when a commentary on his work was composed by
Namisadhu, a Svetambara Jain and pupil of Salibhadra. Again he
is quoted by numerous writers from the tenth century onwards. Thus
he is quoted or referred to by Rajasekhara, Pratlharenduraja,
Dhanika, Abhinavagupta, and Mammata. Thus Rudrata cannot be
later than A.D. 900, and his acquaintance with the Dhvani theory
coupled with his great affinity with Bhamaha and Udbhata shows
that he must have flourished between A.D. 800 and 850. It appears
from Namisadhu’s commentary on Kdvydlamkdra 75 that Rudrata
was also known by the name Satananda, and that his father's name
was Vamuka.

Mention may be made of another work which is based on
Rudrata’s Kdvydlamkdra. It is the Sringdratilaka which, in three
chapters called Parichchhedas, deals with the Rasas , the Bhdvas
(emotions), the kinds of Ndyaka (hero) and Ndyikd (heroine), the
Vipralambha Sringdra in its various stages, the six updyas (means)
of winning one’s offended beloved, the other Rasas, and the four
vrittis. Very often the author of this work, whose name is Rudra¬
bhatta, is confounded with the author of the Kdvydlamkdra. But
there seems to be very little solid ground for the identification of
these two authors. Thus, for example, while Rudrata has not one
word to say in favour of the courtesans, Rudrabhatta, even after
admitting all strictures against them, has yet to offer some defence
on their behalf. But on the whole there is a remarkable similarity
between the two, not only of thought but even of phraseology, which
can be accounted for only on the assumption of one of the twro being
the borrower. Rudrabhatta must, therefore, be placed after Rudrata
and as such may be said to have lived between A.D. 900 and 1000
the lower limit being roughly determined on the strength of the fact
that the earliest writer to quote from the Sringdratilaka is Hema-
chandra.

192

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

A marked advance over the Alamkdra school is made by the Riti
school, the foremost champion of which is Vamana, the author of
the Kdvydlamkdrasutravrtti . The representatives of the former
looked upon the Alamkdms as the soul of poetry, and were thus yet
far away from the real essence of poetry. Vamana, however, for the
first time emphatically asserted that the soul of poetry was Riti,
which consists in such a peculiar arrangement of words that they
would exhibit Gunas. The real essence of poetry had not yet been
discovered, for the Riti school was not yet aware of what the Guna
belong to. But credit is due to Vamana for having made a very
close approach to the soul of poetry which it was left for his succes¬
sors to realise in full. Vamana ’s work comprises three hundred and
nineteen Sutras, divided into five parts (pa richchheda), whicii are
subdivided into twelve adhydyas , with a vritti thereon composed by
the author himself and illustrations derived from various sources.
Besides the main theory of Riti being the soul of poetry, there are
other doctrines which are recognised as being peculiar to Vamana.
Such, for example, are the distinction between Gunas and Alam-
kdras, the inclusion of Vakrokti among figures of sense, and the
peculiar definition of Viseshokti and Akshepa . Vamana quotes from
Magha and Bhavabhuti among others, and is himself quoted by Raj a-
sekhara and Pratiharenduraja. Kalhana mentions Vamana as one of
the minister^ of king Jayaplcla of Kashmir. Vamana would thus
appear to be a contemporary and perhaps even a rival of Udbhata
who wTas a Sabhdpati of the same king.

But by far the most important school of poetics that arose in
this age is the Dhvani school championed emphatically by Ananda-
vardhana, the author of the famous Dhvanydloka. Like many other
works on poetics this also comprises three parts, the Kdrikd , the
Vritti and the Uddharana. The last is derived from the vast field
of Sanskrit literature; but there is a keen controversy regarding the
authorship of the other two. According to Winternitz, Keith, Be,
and others, the author of the Kdrikd is to be distinguished from that
of the Vritti . The former is, according to them, in all probability
Sahridaya, while the latter is Anandavardhana or simply Ananda.
Dr. Satkari Mookerjee,76 on the other hand, has argued in favour
of the identity of authorship of the Kdrikd and the Vritti with no
fresh material to adduce in support of his view. The problem there¬
fore remains unsolved. According to Kalhana, Anandavardhana
lived at the time of Avantivarman of Kashmir. He may, therefore,
be said to have flourished about the middle of the ninth century
A, D. Besides the epoch-making Dhvanydloka, Anandavardhana
has also composed the Devtsataka, before which, however, he had
already composed the Tridasdnanda and the Anandakathd, which

193

A.I.K. — 18

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

are only other names of the Arjunacharita and the Vishamabcuiialild
respectively.77 From Abhinavagupta again we learn that Ananda-
vardhana had also written the Dharmottamd which is a commentary
on the Prammavinischaya of Dharmakirti. The Tattvdloka is yet
another work in which he has discussed the relation between
S&stranaya and Kdvyanaya. About Anandavardhana himself, how¬
ever, we know hardly anything beyond tne fact that he was the son,
of Nona, and that the author of the Kdrikds in the Dhvanyaloka, if
at all he was different from Anandavardhana, was in all probability
his guru.

In the Dhvanyaloka, comprising one hundred and twenty-nine
Kdrikds divided into four chapters ( Uddyota ), Anandavardhana has
stated several views regarding Dhvani (tone or suggestion), including
his own, given its classification on the basis of Vyangya and also on
that of Vyahjaka , tried to fix the place of Gunas and Alamkdras in
poetry, and ultimately stated his view regarding Pratibha and the
province of poetry. It was in this work that the theory of Dhvani
in rhetorics found its first expression in clear and definite terms,
though it might have been in the air for some time before it.

It must, however, be noted that even this admirable work, pro¬
pounding an equally admirable theory, had to pass through the ordeal
of very severe criticism before it found general acceptance. In due
course, however, it established itself to such an extent, that even a
fastidious author like Jagannatha declared that Anandavardhana had
settled all the important problems of poetics. Before dealing with
the critics, however, we must note its commentator Abhinavagupta,
who refers to and criticises an older commentary called Chandrikd
composed by someone belonging to Abhinava’s own family. Abhina¬
vagupta was the son of Chukhala and grandson of Varahagupta and
elder brother of Manoratha, as he himself tells us in his Pardtrimsik 5-
vivarana. He has several works to his credit, and appears to have
at least three gurus . In his Lochana he refers to Bhattenduraja and
Utpala as his guru and paramaguru respectively. Bhatta Tauta, the
author of the Rdvyakautuka , is also referred to in the same work as
his guru; while Lakshmanagupta seems to have been his teacher in
§aiva philosophy. His literary activity may be said to have extended
from A.D. 990 to 1020, since we know that he composed his Bhaira -
vastotra in A.D. 993, and his PratyabhijndvimcCrsini in A.D. 1015.

Pratlharenduraja, Kuntaka, Bhattanayaka and Mahimabhatta
made very severe criticisms against the views of the Dhvani school.
Pratlharenduraja is the commentator of Udbhata, and is one of the
oldest commentators in the field of poetics. He has taken up all the
examples of Dhvani given by Anandavardhana, and has shown that

194

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

they are one and all merely examples of Alarhkaras. Bhattanayaka,
the author of the Hridayadarpana . flourished between A.D. 900
and 1000; while Mahimabhatta came shortly after A.D. 1000.
Kuntaka is perhaps the mightiest of the critics of the Dhvani school,
and is the founder of a new theory called Vakrokti (figurative
speech). This theory he has explained in his V akroktijivita in four
parts ( unmeshci ). Like many other works on poetics it contains
Kdrikds , Vritti } and Udaharanas, the two former being his own work
and the last being borrowed from various authors. In this work he
defines Vakrokti as a speech that charms by the skill of the poet, and
then goes on to give the several varieties of Vakrokti together with t
illustrative examples. His contention is that Dhvani cannot have an
independent existence as the soul of poetry. It comes only under
Vakrokii which, therefore, must be admitted as the soul of poetry.
Kuntaka quotes Anandavardhana, Rudrata, and Rajasekhara, and
is himself quoted by Mahimabhatta in his Vyaktiviveka , and his
views are summarised in the Alamkarasarvasva. He would thus
belong to the latter half of the tenth century A.D., slightly later than
Abhinavagupta who makes no reference to V akroktijlvita.

The Kdvyamimdmsd of Rajasekhara, whose works have been
already noticed above, is important and interesting not so much for
the theory it preaches, but from various other points of view. In¬
stead of dealing with the Rasas , Gunas and Alamkdras directly, it
treats of various topics which are very useful to the poet. This work
may be said to be a practical handbook of a poet. From the introduc¬
tory chapter it would appear that the extant work is only the first
part of what was originally planned by Rajasekhara. Two more
authors whose names may be mentioned are Mukulabhafta and
Bhatta Tauta. The former, the son of Kallata and a contemporary of
Rajasekhara, flourished in the reign of king Avantivarman of Kash¬
mir. In his Abhidhavrittimatrikd , the only work that has come down
to us, he discusses in fifteen Karikas, with Vritti thereon, the two
powers of words, viz. abhidhd and lakshand. Bhatta Tauta is known
to us as Abhinavagupta’s guru and the author of the K&vyakautuka,
known only from citations. Abhinavagupta in his Lochana tells us
that he had written a Vivarana on his work. Kshemendra, Hema-
chandra, and Somesvara refer to and quote from him. He is credit¬
ed with the famous definition of Pratibhd as ‘Prajna navanavonme -
shasdlini pratibhd mata * He held the Santa as the most important
of the Rasas , and one more peculiar doctrine of his that may be
mentioned is that Kavi, the Nay aka and the reader (Srota) pass
through the same experience so far as Rasa is concerned. Evidently
again, he was against the view of Sankuka, viz . ‘anukaranarupo-

195

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL &ANAUJ

rasah * He must have flourished about A.D, 960-990 and had greatly
influenced Abhinavagupta.

On dramaturgy there are, indeed, very few works that have
come down to us; and almost all that we know at present, with the
exception of Bharata’s Na$yastistra, is later than about A.D. 1000.
Only two works that are slightly earlier than A.D. 1000 are the
Dasarupaka and Nat a ha ratnakosa (or Nataka-iakshanaratnakosa) .
The former belongs to the latter half of the tenth century A.D.
approximately, since we are told that the Kdrikds were composed
by Dhananjaya at the time of king Muhja (A.D. 974-994). Dhanika,
very probably his younger brother, commented on this work slightly
later. The Nd$akaratnakosa7Q is a similar work composed by Sagara-
nandin. From the views expressed in his work, Sagaranandin would
seem to be earlier than Dhananjaya. Besides this work he seems
to have written another work, a play named Janakiharana.

In conclusion, even at the risk of some repetition, we may make
a general survey of the development of the theory of poetics and
shew how rhetoricians began by emphasizing the purely external
constituent of poetry, viz. the figures of speech, and ultimately suc¬
ceeded in discovering the real soul of poetry in suggestion or Dhvani.
The Rasa theory was evolved by Bharata mainly with reference to
dramatic works and could be applied to complete poetical composi¬
tions alone. But nobody ever knew then how it could be applied to
single verses also. It was only after a lapse of some centuries that
the Dhvani school arose and extended the Rasa theory to even stray
verses. The earliest rhetoricians, however, looked upon the Alam-
k&rds as the most important constituent of poetiy. Thus Bhamaha,
Udbhafa, Dandin, Kudrata, and Pratlharenduraj a not only devoted
a major portion of their works to Alamk&ras, but also gave a very
systematic and detailed treatment thereof. They were not quite un¬
aware of the Rasa theory or even of the suggested sense or Dhvani.
But they could not apply that theory to poetry and naturally sub¬
ordinated Rasa to Alarnkaras , thus giving figures like 'rasavat, preyas ,
and urjasvi, . Another important result of the Alamkdra theory was
the exuberant growth of figures of speech in general and the
sahddlamkdras in particular. The importance gained by the
sabddlamkdras naturally gave a sort of impetus to what is known
as the Chiira kavya. Alamkdra , however, is only an external matter
and has little to do with the soul of poetry as is suggested by the
name itself. Varna na, therefore, set aside the Alarhkdras and hit
upon something more internal — more essential — , viz. Riti and
declared it to be the soul of poetry. That the Riti school wielded
great influence is evident from the fact that Riti forms an important

196

LANGUAGE AND UTEHATURE

topic in almost every work on rhetorics after Yamana, It must, how¬
ever, be observed that the importance already gained by the Alam-
k&rcis was never on the wane. This is evident from the fact that
every rhetorician of note has devoted a major portion of his work to
them. \ amana has certainly made a real advance over his prede¬
cessors, but yet even he could not reach the goal and was only grop¬
ing in the dark. He could see that the Alamkdras were too extrane¬
ous to deserve the title of the soul of poetry. But he could not dis¬
cover the real soul thereof, which it was left for Anandayardhana
to do. The Dhvani school founded by Anandavardhana is, in fact,
an extension of Rasa theory. Taking his cue from the tenet that
Rasa is only vyangya, he propounded the theory that vyangya artha ,
Dhvani f is the soul of poetry; and further based his classification
of poetry on the relative prominence enjoyed by the vdchya and the
vyangya arthas therein. Thus though, while classifying poetry
Anandavardhana admits Chitra as the third variety, he holds that
poetry in the real sense of the term can be only of one type, and
that is Dhvani kdvya. He runs down Chitra kdvya in very strong
terms v/ith the natural result that the prominence enjoyed by it
along with Alamkdras , both of sound as well as sense, dwindled into
insignificance. And had no later rhetorician like Kuntaka said
something calculated to revive it, Chitra kdvya in all probability
would not have waxed so strong at all in Sanskrit literature. The
views of Anandavardhana had, however, to pass through the fiery
ordeal of penchant criticism at the hands of Pratiharenduraja and
others before they found general acceptance. The influence and
importance of the Dhvanydloka is evident from the fact that it has
been looked upon as almost the last word on poetics by no less a
rhetorician than Jagannatha Pandita. About a century later Kuntaka
with all his critical acumen tried to criticise the Dhvani theory and
founded a separate school of his own declaring vakrokti as the soul
of poetry. From Kuntaka’s definition of vakrata and its classifica¬
tion it is evident that Kuntaka wanted to make his vakrata as com¬
prehensive as possible so as to include all classes of kdvya within its
purview. According to Anandavardhana Chitra kdvya is kdvya
onfy by courtesy; but Kuntaka would admit it as kdvya without any
grudge. For according to him any composition that is possessed of
vakrata- in any of its six varieties deserves the name of kdvya. Kun¬
taka thus, it would appear, tried to effect a comnromise among all
the three different schools before him; and in this he seems to have
succeeded very well as can be seen from the fact that in the later
centuries we find the Chitra aspect of the kdvya also receiving great
attention. From this point of view, however, one cannot help think¬
ing that Kuntaka did more harm than good to Sanskrit kdvya when

197

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

one finds that once Chitra kdvya and the sabddlaihkdras got a sort
of sanction at the hands of Kuntaka, they cropped up in such exu¬
berance as to stifle real poetry or Dhvani kdvya. It is true that
Kuntaka had very few followers among the rhetoricians; and yet
it cannot be denied that poets of the later centuries finding Dhvani
kdvya perhaps much beyond their capacities, for want of the most
important requisite, pratibhd 9 turned their attention more to the
other type of kdvya which afforded better opportunities for a dis¬
play of learning and scholarship and which it was easier to compose
even in the absence of pratibhd . In fact even writers possessed of
pratibhd did not remain satisfied by composing simple suggestive
poetry without any display of the various feats with the help of
words and their sounds. This is evident from works like the Gita -
govinda. Later rhetoricians right from Mammata down to Jagan-
natha Pandita championed the Dhvani theory, no doubt; but even
they could not deny a place to Chitra kdvya in their classification of
poetry, with the result that its growth could not be retarded. There
was, indeed, little in the field of poetics after Anandavardhana (or
perhaps after Kuntaka) which can be said to be new; and the rea¬
sons for such a state of things are perhaps to be sought in the social,
religious and even political condition of India during these centu¬
ries.

4. Metrics

As regards metrics, the only important writer on Sanskrit
Metres is Utpala who lived in the latter half of the tenth century
A.D. In his commentary to chapter 103 of Varahamihira’s Bpihat-
samhitd, he has given us about sixty definitions of the Sanskrit
Akshara-Gana Vrittas. About forty of these definitions have been
bodily reproduced from Jayadeva’s work.79 Utpala also quotes two
illustrations from Prakrit which contain the name of the metre as
well as its illustration. This would show that Prakrit metrics too
had well developed by that time, so much so that the Prakrit metri¬
cians had begun to compose their own illustrations like the Sanskrit
metricians, instead of quoting stanzas from already, existing Prakrit
poems. This naturally indicates a late stage in the development of
Prakrit metrics.

Svaydmbhuchhandas is a very important80 work so far as the
history of Prakrit poetry is concerned. The author Svayambhu is
an early Jain writer and is known to have composed two long poems
in the Apabhramsa language. He is later than Mayura and gxiharsha
and probably lived in the tenth century A.D. He is respectfully
mentioned by Hemachandra in his ChhandonuS&sana, and by Pushpa-
danta in his Mahdpuvana in A.D. 905.

198

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

5. Medicine

Though the principal Samhitds of medicine had already been
composed, it was left to this age to bring to perfection the branch of
pathology in the masterly work called Rugvinischaya , known also as
Madhazm-niddna after its author, or simply Niddna. This work of
Madhavakara, son of Indukara, for the first time in the history of
Indian medicine, treats of all diseases together and has often been laid
under contribution by later writers on this subject such as Chakra-
panidatta and Vahgasena. The numerous commentaries on this work
show that it enjoyed high popularity. It is not clear whether
Madhavakara is earlier than Dridhabala, son of Kapilabala, who is
said to have revised and enlarged the Charaka-samhitd of Agnivesa
in the eighth or the ninth century A.D. He is generally assigned to
the ninth century A.D.81

The Siddhiyoga (also called V rindamadhava) is another curious
work belonging to the same period which closely follows the order
of diseases and treatment as found in the Madhava-niddnsa . Its
author Vrinda himself admits his indebtedness to the work of
Madhavakara with whom he need not be identified;82 and since he
is drawn upon by Chakrapanidatta in the eleventh century he may
be placed about A.D. 1000.

Interesting again is the Nighantu of Dhanvantari, the oldest
medico-botanical dictionary that we have at present. Older works
of this class, if there were any, have all been lost to us. The Dhan-
vantarxya Nighantu itself is found in two recensions comprising
seven and nine chapters respectively. Amara is said to have used
this work in his Ko§a. But what was used by Amara must be some
older version of the extant work which cannot be older than about
the eighth century A.D. since it refers to quicksilver. The idea of
the earlier and the later editions of this Nighantu , thus suggested,
finds some corroboration in a stanza found in a manuscript of the
work stating that the original work of Dhanvantari was revised 'by
Kasyapa.83

Another important branch that was just cropping up in the
medical science is the one dealing with the preparations of quick¬
silver and other metals. The importance of quicksilver grew to a
large extent, because its preparations were deemed to give perpe¬
tual youth, life for thousand years, invisibility, invulnerability, and
other goods things. The earliest work on this topic that can be dated
fairly accurately is the Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna, who is placed
in the seventh or the eighth century by Ray, and in the tenth cen¬
tury by Wintemitz,84

199

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

6. Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology

In mathematics85 we read of Sridhara who had written a work
similar to the Lildvati of B ha ska rac hary a . He is perhaps the same
as the author of the Ganitasdra who is referred to by Mahavlra in his
Sdrasa7hgraha . The date of this latter can be fixed at about A.D. 850,
since he tells us that he enjoyed the patronage of the Rashtrakuta
king Amoghavarsha I. To the last quarter of the ninth century
belongs the Brihanmdnasa of Manu on which, according to Al-Birum,
is based the Laghumdnasa which Munjala composed about A.D. 932.
From AI-Blrunl again we know of Balabhadra, a resident of Kanauj,
as the author of several independent works on all the branches of
Jyotihsdstra , and also commentaries on several works including the
Yogasutra of Patahjali. Another writer of the same period is
Vatesvara (Vittesvara of AI-Blrunl) probably belonging to Kash¬
mir. But the most important author of this age is Aryabhata II, the
author of the Aryasiddhdnta, who is certainly later than Brahma¬
gupta, but earlier than Bhaskaracharya, who mentions him. As
Bhattotpala does not cite any passage from this Aryasiddhdnta,
Aryabhata II cannot be much earlier than A.D. 966. Among other
writers of the tenth century may be mentioned Prithusvami (a mere
name to us), Bhattotpala, and Vijayanandi, the author of the Karana-
tilaka, all of whom are noted by A1 Blrunl. Of these Bhattotpala
made a deep and accurate study of his predecessors in the held.
He has commented upon several works and possibly also composed
an independent work on the Ganitaskandha. His commentaries are
all learned and prove the accuracy of their author. But more inter¬
esting and important than the rest is, perhaps, that on the Brihat-
samhitd, a study of which is calculated to give its reader a good idea
of the history of this science in India in the earliest stages. This
commentary was composed in Aaka 888 (c. A.D. 966). The only other
work that remains to be noted is the Sdrdvali of Kalyanavarman.
This work is perhaps the same as that referred to by Bhattotpala,
so that Kalyanavarman must be earlier than the tenth century A.D.
On the strength of the fact that he calls himself Vatesvara86 he is
said to have lived in the last quarter of the ninth century A.D. But
from internal evidence of the Sdrdvali itself it appears that in
A.D. 966 Bhattotpala revised the original work of Kalyanavarman
which at that time was about three hundred years old. It would,
therefore, seem to belong to the seventh century A.D.87

7. General Review of Secular Literature

We may now close this survey by a few critical observations
on the mass of literature produced during this age. The first thing
that we have to notice is that Sanskrit was steadily losing its posi-

200

LANGUAGE and literature

tion as a spoken language, pari passu with the growth of the canoni¬
cal languages of the Buddhists and the Jains and of the various other
DesabhasMs . It is true that Sanskrit continued to be used as the
chief language for exchange of thought among the learned down to
a very late date. But this very fact, it may be observed, led to its
estrangement from the generality of the people, so much so that the
literature that came to be composed in Sanskrit had its appeal more
or less to the Panditas rather than to the common people of India.
It is this gulf that arose between the language of the people and
that of literature that seems to be responsible for* the several fea¬
tures noticeable in Sanskrit literature of this age. Thus in Kdvya
we notice the sameness of theme in several works. More often than
not the theme is drawn from the epics or the Puranas, so that by
itself the theme being too well known has but little interest for the
poet or the erudite reader. What interests the poet now is a display
of his erudition, of his mastery over sound and sense, his infinite
vocabulary, and his power to execute some wonderful and intricate
devices. The readers of these works, naturally Panditas , also do not
care for the theme so much as for these extraneous factors. This
explains how there arose a tendency in Sanskrit literature to be
pedantic and artificial, — a tendency which, as is natural, grew
stronger and stronger as the gulf between the language of the people
and that of the learned gradually widened. The natural effect of
this is that Sanskrit literature and the Sanskrit speaking Panditas
were as a class torn away from the masses and remained for long
an object of awe and admiration, but hardly of love and sympathy.
As a natural result, therefore, the poet always sought to appeal to
the Panditas by rigidly following the poetical canons and, within
the limits set by them, to exercise his talents. This rigidity in its
turn practically eliminated the personal element of the poet, so much
so that in Sanskrit literature we miss the revelation of the poet’s
personality in their poems. This impersonal character of the Kdvya
is further enhanced by the theory of the rationality of the world
order which was recognised in India from very early ages. To
balance these defects, however, there are qualities such as mastery
over emotions and sentiments in all their shades, intimate and real
love of nature, a sympathetic outlook, power of description,, and
capacity to produce fine word pictures in a short space beautified by
appropriate metre. This is why we find many poets producing ex¬
quisite lyrics though they may be no good at epic poetry or even
dramas. For dramas were composed, later, not for the stage, but
merely as linguistic and poetical exercises.

All this weakness in belles lettres was, however, more than
compensated by the theory of poetics which saw its fullest develop-

201

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ment in this age at the hands of these very Panditas, This shows
that the age as such was the age of critics and not of poets, and ex¬
plains the marked difference in quality between artistic and scien¬
tific literature during the period as a whole. We have already
seen how medicine, philosophy, and even astronomical science were
steadily growing and producing some special branches in their fields.
The Panditas naturally took greater and keener interest in the sci¬
ences, and directed their attention to expounding fresh theories and
exploring new avenues of thought.

It may thus be seen that belles lettres had little living interest
for the masses. Nor had it any such interest for the learned spe¬
cialists or original thinkers who worked upon it as merely a means
to an end. Literature to them was merely a hand-maid to poetics.
The scientific literature, however, had a living interest for the spe¬
cialists, though the masses in general were certainly averse to it.
Hence we observe that in the mass of literature surveyed here the
scientific side is more living and dynamic than the other which was
slowly and gradually freezing to a static condition.

HI. RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE

The two great epics had now practically reached their final
form, though interpolations of -isolated verses, passages, and even
entire chapters possibly continued till quite a late date. The Dhar-
masastras and the Puranas had no doubt attained a sanctity which
should have normally made its rank closed to new accessions. But
as these texts served as sources of civil law as well as religious
beliefs and practices, there was always the vital need of keeping
them abreast with changing times. This led to the composition of
pseudo-Smritis and Upa-Puranas passing under the names of re¬
nowned sages or rather their namesakes who were even older or
greater than they, such as Greater or Older Manu, Narada, etc. But
there were other ways of attaining the same object, viz. extensive
additions to the existing Puranas, and commentaries on the Dharma-
sastras. If we add to these the compilations and digests of the latter
we shall practically complete the picture of these two branches of
literature.

1. Puranas

It is now agreed on all hands that large additions were made to
the Puranas during the period under review. To the texts of the
original Puranas, which may be pretty old, were added several
topics, at different times by different hands, i.e . whenever need for
these was felt. Thanks to the patient researches of Dr. Hazra,88

202

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

we are now in a position to assign approximate dates to several sec¬
tions of these works. Thus sections on the consecration of Lingo, ,
the Pdsupata-vrata , the Panchakshari mantra , Dikshd , Purascharana.
Y atidharma , great gifts, and mystical rites and practices were added
to the Lingo Purdna between A.D. 800 and 1000. During the same
centuries again the Vardha Purdna got into its text sections on holy
places, Dikshd } penances, and funeral sacrifices, while those on
hells, Karmavipdka , gifts, and Stridharma (duties of women) were
interpolated into it in the tenth century. Sections on Yugadharma ,
vows, worship, tithis, and funeral rites, however, seem to be as old
as A . D . 800. Similar sections were introduced in the Brihanndradiya
between A.D. 850 and 950; while the Ndradiya got them between
A.D. 875 and 1000. It was again during the ninth century that sec¬
tions on holy places, Varndsramadharma , marriage, Achdra , Graha-
makha, Grahasdnti, Rdjadharma and similar other topics were added
to the Agni Purdna; while sections on Dikshd , Nydsa, Mawnjiban -
dhana , Pratishthd, funeral sacrifices, Yugadharma , etc., got into the
Garuda Purdna during the tenth; and the Vdmana Purdna took in
sections on Karmavipdka, V dr iidsram a d h arma , vows, Vishnupujd
etc. during the ninth and the tenth centuries. Similar sections were
again added to the Karma Purdna during the eighth century; while
sections on Janmdshtamivrata and Ekddasivrata were added to the
Brahmavaivarta during the eigth century, and were again recast by
Bengali authors between A.D. 1000 and 1500. On the whole it may
be observed that the sections thus added to the Puranas: have hardly
any counterpart in the older Smritis like those of Manu and Yajha-
valkya. This explains why these sections were interpolated into
several Puranas almost simultaneously. The topics dealt with in
these may be designated Puranic rites and ritual which seem to
have dominated the society in India during this period.

2. Dharmasdstras or Smritis

The two compilations Chaturvimsatimata and Shattrimsanmata
probably belong to this age since they have been quoted by Vijnan-
esvara in his Mitdkshard and also by Apararka, but not by Visvarupa
and Medhatithi.89 The first contains a summary of the teachings
of 24 sages. The second, known only from quotations, was also pro¬
bably a work of the same type. It is interesting to note that both
are decidely anti-Buddhist, and the latter even prescribes a bath
for touching Bauddhas, Pasupatas, Jains, atheists, and followers of
Kapila. On the whole, however, it has to be observed that the age
of original literature in Dharmasdstra is now over and that com¬
mentators and writers of digests have taken up the field. Visvarupa
wrote his Bdlakrldd on the Ydjhavalkya-smriti before Vijnanesvara

203

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

who thrice refers to it in his Mitdkshard. Visvarupa quotes, among
others, the Slokavdrttika , and is very probably to be identified with
Bhavabhuti.90 Ho is generally sought to be identified with his
namesake, the disciple of Sankara. But that does not appear to be
a correct view.

The next great name of this period is that of Medhatithi who
is the oldest commentator of the Manu-smriti whose commentary has
come down to us. A northerner, probably a Kashmirian, he was
erudite and was throughly conversant not only with Dharmasdstra
but also with Mimdmsd . He quotes Asahaya and Kumarila by name,
and most probably cites the view of Sankaracharya. Vijnanesvara
looks upon him as an authority on Dharmasdstra . His activity must,
therefore, fall somewhere between A.D. 825 and 900. Among other
writers on Dharmasdstra may be mentioned Bharuchi, Srikara, and
Yogloka who are known only from quotations. The last named is
often criticised and taunted by JifAutavahana who appears to be
much junior to him. Bharuchi’s date probably falls between A.D.
950 and 1050. Slightly older than Bharuchi is Srlkara who probably
lived in the ninth century.

3. Philosophy

The greatest name of this age in philosophy is that of Vachas-
patimisra, the versatile and erudite genius that shows himself an
adept in every branch of the orthodox systems of Indian Philosophy.
Richly, therefore, does he deserve the epithet Sarvatantrasvatantra
or Sarvadarsanavallabha that is generally applied to him. Before
composing his commentary on the Nyayavdrttikatdtparya he compos¬
ed an index to the Nydyasutras which he himself has dated A.D.
84X.91 This date is confirmed by other considerations. Besides com¬
menting on several works, he has also written some independent
treatises on some of the darsanas. The Tattvakaumudi and the TatU
vasdradir <? are the names of his commentaries on Isvarakrishtna’s
Sdihkhyokdrikd and Vyasabhdshya on Patanjali’s Yogasutra respec¬
tively. His Nydyavdrttikatdtparyafikd contains a brilliant defence of
the orthodox logicians against Buddhistic onslaughts. The Nydya-
suchini-bandha and the Ny ayasutroddhdra are two more Nydya works
from the same pen. The Nydyakanilcd is his commentary on the Vidhi-
viveka of Mandanamisra, while the Tattvabindu is an independent
work on the Bhatta Mimdmsd in which, it may be noted, Vachaspati
distinguishes between two schools of the Prabhakaras as old and new
Bhamati on Sankara’s Bhdshya on the Brahmasutras , of course, is
too well known. One more Vedanta work of Vachaspati is the
Tattvasamikshd which is a commentary on the Brahmasiddhi, a
Vedantic work of Mandanamisra alias Suresvara. From Vachas-

204

I/ANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

pati’s own statement93 in the BMmatl it appears that before it he
had already composed several of these works. Vachaspati wrote
under the patronage of king Nriga whose munificence was unsurpass¬
ed. It has not yet been possible to identify this king, though it is
certain that Vachaspati flourished in the first half of the ninth cen¬
tury A.D.

In Yoga there are only three works belonging to this age, viz.
the Rajamartanda t the Yogavarttika f and the Y ogasdrasamgraha.
The first is an excellent commentary on Patanjali’s Yogasutra com¬
posed by Bhoja, who probably is to be placed in the tenth century
A.D. The other two are works of Vijnanabhikshu who probably
belongs to the same period. The former is a running commentary
on the Yogabhashya of Vyasa while the latter is an independent tract
aiming at a brief exposition of the Yoga system. It may be noted
that in both these Vijnanabhikshu has criticised some views of
Vachaspati.

Next to Vachaspati stands Udayana who composed the Tattva -
suddhi (Tatparyaparisuddhi), a commentary on the Nydyavdrttika-
tdtparyatika, in A.D. 984. Like his illustrious predecessor, Udayana
also has defended the orthodox views in his Atmatattvaviveka, which
is a 'defence of the doctrine of the eternity of soul; while in his
Bauddhadhikkdra he has assumed even the offensive and taken cud¬
gels against Buddhistic views. The Nydyaparisishta, which is a sort
of commentary on the Nydyasutra, is also ascribed to the same
author. Two more authors of the Nyaya school deserve to be men¬
tioned here. Jayanta, the author of the Nydyamanjari, which is an
independent commentary on the Nydyasutras, stands between Va¬
chaspati whom he quotes and Ratnaprabha and Devasuri who quote
him. He also refers to Sankara varman as the ruling prince of Kash¬
mir. He must, therefore, belong to the last quarter of the ninth cen¬
tury A.D. The other writer is Bhasarvajha whose Nydyasdra is a
survey of the Nyaya philosophy. He belongs to the tenth century
A.D.

The literary activity of the Vaiseshikas in this period is restrict¬
ed mainly to the commentaries of which the earliest is Lakshanavali
composed by Udayana in A.D. 984.94 His Kiranavall, found in two
sections, viz. Dravyakiranavall and Gunakiranavall, is a sort of run¬
ning commentary on Prasastapada’s Bhashya on the Vaiseshikasutra.
On the same text was composed in A.D. 991 a commentary under
the title Nyayakandoli by Srldhara Bhafta, son of Baladeva and Ab-
boka and grandson of Brihaspati, who lived at Bhurisreshthi in Dakshi-
naradha (West Bengal) and enjoyed the patronage of one Pandudasa.
The other works that gridhara refers to in this commentary as his

205

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

own are no more than mere names to us for the present. The
Nyayakandali 9 however, is highly important, since Sridhara has
therein, for the first time in the history of the system, given us a
theistic interpretation of the Nydyavaiseshika ,95 The Vyomavail is
another commentary on the same text composed by Vyomasekhara;
while the fourth commentary on the same text again is the LildvaU
of &rivatsa who probably belongs to the eleventh century A.D. One
important work of Udayana that must be mentioned here is the
Kusumdnjali or the Nyayakusumanjali t comprising seventy-two
Karikds together with the author’s own commentary thereon, in
which the existence of soul is established from the Nyaya point of
view. In this work Udayana criticizes not only the aesthetic doctrine
of the Mimamsakas, but also the theories of causation propounded
by the Samkhyas, the Vedantins, and the Buddhists.90

Vachaspati’s works in the field of Mimamsa have been already
noticed. In Vedanta, besides Vachaspati we have Sarvajnatmamuni,
the pupil of Suresvara and the author of the Samkshepasdnraka
which is only an epitome of Sankara’s Bhashya on the Brdhmasutra.
Among writers of other schools of Vedanta may be mentioned two
of the predecessors of Ramanuja. One is Nathamuni, the author of
the Nydyatattva and the Yogardhasya; while the other, Yamuna-
charya, the uncle of Ramanuja, has given us the Agamaprdrwdnya ,
Mahdpurusha-Nirnaya, Siddhitraya , Gita-Safagraha, and several
other works. The Yogavasishthas&ra of Gauda Abhinanda also be¬
longs to the same period. It is, of course, like the original text,
partly philosophical and partly theological. Saivism was also deve¬
loping systematic schools, along the lines of Vaishnavism, in great
affinity with the Vedanta. Thus in Kashmir we get two schools of
Saivism, the Spandasdstra and the Praiyabhijndsdstra . The former
was founded about the ninth century by Vasugupta to whom god
Siva revealed the Sivasutra , the main sutra work of the school.
Another equally important work of this school is the Spandakarikd,
comprising fifty-one verses, composed by Kallata on the basis of
the instructions imparted by his preceptor Vasugupta. Kallata
lived in the reign of Avantivarman (A,D. 854). The important works
of the Pratyabhijna, school, are the Sivadrishti and the Pratyabhijna -
sutra , composed by Somananda and his pupil Utpala respectively
in the beginning of the tenth century A.D. The latter of these is
more important and has been commented upon by the famous rheto¬
rician Abhlnavagupta, the commentary being called the Pratyabhi-
jndvimarsint (composed between A.D. 991 and 1015). Abhinava-
gupta has also given us two more works of this school; the T antra-
loka and the Paramdrthasdra. In the latter, it may be noted, Abhi-
navagupta has combined the monistic teaching of Advaita with the

206

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

practices of the Yoga and the Bhakti of Saivism and Vaishnavism in
such a manner that it can be said to strike a new path altogether.
In this work of a hundred Karikas he has laid under contribution
what he calls the Adharakarikas ascribed to Adisesha (Patanjali), a
work which has not come down to us.97

B. PRAKRIT

During this period, the Prakrits had already passed beyond the
stage of a spoken language on the one hand, and were being sup-
planted by Sanskrit on the other, both in the field of exegesis and
•enlightenment, among the learned of all classes and sects. The result
was their comparative negligence even among the Jains. The Jains
respected the Prakrits as their holy language, since their Agamas
were composed in them. Yet they could not wholly keep them¬
selves aloof from Sanskrit, which had still retained its influence on
the minds of the learned and was respected as the cultural language
of the nation as a whole. Any new religious worships, philosophical
dogmas or spiritual experiments had to be submitted through the
medium of this language to the circles of the free-thinking leaders
of the society for their judgment and approbation. Without their
sanction no system had any hope or chance of being respected or
continued in the higher strata of the community. Indians in ancient
and middle ages were a highly free-thinking people by their nature,
education and equipment. They would not accept anything on the
mere recommendation of this or that person, howsoever great he
may be. Everything had to be proved by means of reasoning on
the generally accepted lines of argumentation which had been deve¬
loped through a long period. So that when the wise men of Jainism
clearly saw that the learned circles would not care even to look at
their precious theories unless and until they were presented through
this cultural language of the nation, they gradually took to writing
in Sanskrit for establishing their claim to a place in the midst of
the respectable philosophers of the land. They not merely explain¬
ed their Prakrit Agamas in Sanskrit, but also wrote independent
treatises in that language, either for conversion of intelligent men
to their faith or at least for their thoughtful consideration. Siddha-
sena Divakara was probably the first among the Jain Panditas who
thus turned to Sanskrit for the propagation of his faith and philo¬
sophy. Haribhadra, pupil of Jinabhata and known also as Vira-
hanka, was the next great writer of this school. He describes him¬
self as the son of Mahattara Yakini, who, an ordinary nun, had be¬
come instrumental in his conversion to Jainism according to tradi¬
tion. He lived in the latter half of the eighth century A.D. and
wrote many commentaries in Sanskrit on the Agamas, which before

207

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

him were generally explained by means of Prakrit commentaries
like Niryukti, Churni.and Bhashya. Haribhadra’s example was fol¬
lowed by others and the tendency found its culmination in the great
Hemachandra of Gujarat, who lived at the court of king Kumara-
pala in the twelfth century A.D.

In spite of this growing tendency to neglect the Prakrits and
to adopt Sanskrit for their literary works among the Jain Panaitas,
the inherent beauty of the Prakrit languages and a sense of sanctity
attached to them by the Jains prevented them from falling into obli¬
vion. Naturally the simplicity and homeliness which characterized
the early Prakrits gradually disappeared from them and artificiality
and ornamentation took their place. Haribhadra was the first great
Prakrit writer of this period. His principal Prakrit works are
Samai'dditya-Katha (Samar aichcha-kaha) and Dhurtdkhy&wa. But.
his Sanskrit commentaries on the Agamas often contain illustrative
stories narrated in simple Prakrit and probably reproduced from the
floating mass of the Prakrit story literature orally transmitted among
the followers of Jainism.

Sam,araditya-katha is a religious, tale, (Dbarmakathd) , divisible
into nine parts, which describe the cycle of nine'lives through which
the hero Samaraditya and his antagonist have to pass in succession
as a result of their actions. In addition to this main story many
popular legends find their place in the work by way of illustration
or corroboration. Samar aditya-kaiha is written in a simple and fluent
narrative prose rarely interspersed with long descriptive passages
in the ornate style of the Sanskrit writers. Here and there it con¬
tains short and long metrical passages usually in the Gatha metre,
but written in a slightly more artificial style than that of the prose.
Dhurtakhyana , on the other hand, is composed entirely in verse,
containing 485 Gathas in a simple style. It is a collection of absurd¬
looking tales narrated with a good deal of wit and ironical humour
with the obvious intention of disparaging the religious legends of
the Brahmanas found in their Epics and Puranas. It is divided into
five chapters called the Akhyanas where five professional cheats
( Dhurta ), a woman being one of them, narrate their imaginary ex¬
periences about some strange events which they may have seen.
Before they began, they made a condition that any one who did not
believe what was being narrated, saying merely ‘It is a lie’, must
admit defeat and supply food to all who had gathered there. But
any one who supported it by quoting parallel stories from Epics and
Puranas shall be deemed to have won and shall not give any thing
to any one. Ultimately, -the woman-cheat is represented to have
outwitted the rest by telling them in the course of her story that

208

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

they all were her slaves who had run away from her, two days back,
with tjie clothes which they wore but which were her property
According to the condition the other rogues could either corroborate
it and actually be her slaves, or admit defeat by saying ‘it is a lie’,
and supply food to all. They were naturally silenced by this dilemma
and accepted her as their undisputed leader, openly confessing that
woman was wiser than man by her very nature. The tales of the
cheats are fantastic and extremely amusing owing to their imagi¬
nativeness. But their cutting sarcasm becomes quite apparent when
similar tales from the Epics and Puranas, suspposed to contain the
truths of the Brahmanical religion, are placed side by side with
them. Both this and the other work of Haribhadra amply prove
his close acquaintance with folk-tales and legends of all kinds. But
in addition they also show his creative genius which admirably fills
up the gaps left by the existing story literature.

The next important work of this period is Kuvalayamdld, which
is a religious tale ( Dharmakatha ) narrated in Prakrit prose and
verse on the pattern of the Sanskrit Champu-hdvya. Its author is
Uddyotanasuri, also called Dakshinyachihna, pupil of Tattvacharya.
He was very well versed in all Prakrits and pretty well acquaint¬
ed with the important provincial languages current in his times. He
mentions 18 such provincial tongues, quoting some 2 or 3 charac¬
teristic words from each, in the course of the story of his hero when
he visits a busy market of a great commercial town. The principal
Prakrit employed in the work is the Maharashtri, but short and long
passages, usually of a descriptive nature, are also found in the Apa-
bhramsa and even in Paisachl language. For the metrical parts
of the work Gatha, DvipadI, Doha and Dandaka metres are employ¬
ed, the first being the most predominant one. Uddyotana describes
Haribhadra as one of his Vidyagurus and mentions Padalipta, Sata-
vahana, Jatacharya and Ravishena as his predecessors in the art of
story-telling. The work takes its name from the heroine like Rana’s
Kddambari. It was composed in the £aka year 700, i.e. A.D. 778.
An abridged version of this story in Sanskrit was made in the four¬
teenth century by one Ratnaprabhasuri.

Upadesamala of Dharmadasagani consists of over 500 stanzas
in the Gatha metre. It is a work of a very early origin, but a Prakrit
commentary on it was composed in Sam. 913 (about A.D. 857) by
Jayasimhasuri, pupil of Rrishnarshi. Mah esva r astir i, pupil of Saj-
jana Upadhyaya, composed a religious tale called the Jndnapancharrvi-
kathd in the latter half of the tenth century A.D. It is a poem in
Prakrit containing about 2000 Gathas and illustrates the religious
importance of the JnanapanchamI, which is a name given to the fifth

209

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

day in the first half of the month of Karttika. Sllacharya, pupil of
Manadeva of the Nivritti Kula, composed another religious poem on
the life of 54 important men of Jainism (Mahapurushas or &alaka-
purushas as they are generally called) in Sam. 925 (A.D. 869-70).
Similarly, Vijayasinha, pupil of Samudrasuri of the Nagila Kula
composed a Bhuvanasundrikatha in A.D. 975. It is composed in
the Gatha metre and contains a total of about 9000 stanzas. To this
period also belongs Nandishena, the author of Ajita-Santi-stava, a
Prakrit poem in various rare and artificial metres. The work glorifies
Ajita, the second, and Santi, the 16th Tirthankara together, because
both are said to have spent the rainy season in the caves of the
&atruhjaya mountain. This hymn is recited by special singers at the
confession festivals. In all these Prakrit works, whether written in
prose or in verse, a great change in style is noticeable when com¬
pared with the earlier works written in Prakrit. The old simple
conversational style is abandoned in favour of a flowery one charac¬
terized by Alamkdras like Alesha, and other literary devices of an
artificial nature in partial imitation of the Sanskrit writers of that
period.

There are many stray Prakrit stanzas attributed to different
authors numbering more than fifty, and quoted by Svayambhu in
his metrical work, called Svayambhuchchandas composed before
A.D. 1000, for illustrating the various metres defined by him. Most
of these authors are non-Jain and otherwise unknown, two being
women among them.

C. NON-CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE

The period dealt with in this volume is one of decadence, so far
as Pali literature is concerned, both in India and Ceylon. There
is hardly any work from continental India, and the political condi¬
tions in Ceylon adversely affected literary productions in Pali in the
island. The advent of Mahinda IV (A.D. 953-69), who encouraged
the study of Dhamma by patronising monks well versed in the
Vinaya , kept the torch of learning from being extinguished and
brought about some revival in the study of Pali literature. A few
of the authors who flourished during this period are noted below.98

(i) Chulla Dhammapala

Though assigned to Ananda in the Saddhamma-Samgaha the
Sachchasankhepa (Elements of Truth) has been ascribed to Chulla
Dhammapala, a pupil of Ananda, in the Gandhavamsa 100 and the
colophon supports this ascription. The Sachchasankhepa is a short
treatise of 387 stanzas dealing in five chapters with the Abhidhamma

210

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

topics riipa (form), vedand (feeling), chitta (thought), khandha
(miscellanea), and nibbana (nirvana). Chulla Dhammapala appears
to have been earlier than Anuruddha (twelfth century) as the lat¬
ter’s work is said to have superseded the Sachchasankhepa as a vade
mecum. 1 0 1

(ii) Mahanama

Mahanama is said to be the author of Saddhammappakdsml, a
commentary on the Patisambhidamagga. In the epilogue the author
states that he finished the work in the third year after the death of
king Moggalana, while residing in the Uttaramanthiparivena of the
Mahavihara. Though some scholars identify this Moggalana with Mog¬
galana I in the first half of the seventh century, B.C. Law prefers to
identify him with Moggalana III, father and predecessor of Vijaya-
bahu I (A.D. 1055-1110). 102 Malalasekera believes this Mahanama

to be the second Mahanama appearing in Bodh-Gaya inscription
after Upasena II and to have been later than the earlier Mahanama
by a couple of centuries.103

(iii) Khema

Khemappakaraiia (also called Paramattha-dlpa ) by Elder Khema
contains short descriptions of the chitta , and definitions of kusala
and akusald dhamma, a list of twenty-eight mnemonic verses briefly
giving the meaning of some abhidhamma terms. It is more appro¬
priately called N&ma-rupa-samtisa in Ceylon. With its short dis¬
quisitions on various subjects concisely written in simple, easy style,
the work serves as a little handbook for the study of medieval Abhi¬
dhamma. References to the author in the Nikayasamgraha and the
Saddhamma-ratndkara , the latter calling him Tipitaka-pariyatti-
dhara (versed in the text of Tipitaka), indicate that the book was
held in high esteem in Ceylon. Vachissara Mahasami of Ceylon
wrote a commentary on it in the twelfth century.

(iv) Upatissa

Though the book itself says nothing regarding its authorship,
the Bodhivamsa (or Mahdbodhivamsa} History of Bodhi tree) has
been ascribed to Upatissa of Ceylon by several authors. It is a prose
work, there being gathas only at the ends of chapters and towards
the end of the whole book. Beginning with a history of Buddha
Dlparhkara, it gives a brief account of the life of Bodhisattva under
previous Buddhas, life of Gotama, his enlightenment, planting of
Bodhi tree at Jetavana by Ananda, parinibbdna , three councils, land¬
ing of Mahinda in Ceylon and establishment of Buddhism there,
planting of the tree, and starting of ceremonies connected with its
worship.

211

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The Mahabodhivamsci has largely drawn on the Nidanakathd
for its first chapter, and its account is usually shorter. The Samanta-
pdsadikd and Mahdvamsa serve as sources for the later chapters,
there being identity in the concluding verses of some chapters of the
Mahabodhivamsa and the closing chapters of the Mahdvamsa.
Though thus borrowing from other works, the Mahabodhivamsa has
a style different from them, more artificial and affected. The author
is fond of long periods and ornamental epithets. The work shows
distinct traces of the influence of Sanskrit on Pali and may be
regarded as inaugurating the -era of Sanskritised Pali.

Identifying Dathanaga at whose instance the Mahabodhivamsa
was written, with Dattha who is said to have induced Buddhaghosha
to write Sumahgala-vildsini , Strong assigns the author to the period
of Buddhaghosha. But Dathanaga and Dattha are not identical.
Dathanaga has been identified with his namesake who was appointed
by Mahinda IV (A.D. 953-69) to discourse on Abhidhamma, and
Geiger and Wickremasinghe place the work in the tenth century.104

(v) Telakatahagdthd

Reference may be made in conclusion to T e lakatdhagdthd
(stanzas of the oil cauldron), a short poem in 89 stanzas, purporting
tc be religious exhortations of Kalyanlya Thera, condemned to be
cast into a cauldron of boiling oil on suspicion of complicity in the
intrigue with the queen-consort of Kalani Tissa (third century B.C.).
It appears that a Vihara was built later on the spot where the Thera
was put to death.

The Mahdvamsa relates the story in brief, but instead of
the boiling cauldron, speaks of the Thera as being slain with his
attendant and thrown into the sea. The Rasavdhini by Vedeha
(c. fourteenth century) gives greater details of the story.

There is no reference to the name of the author or his date in
the work. The language and style most definitely disclaim the pre¬
tensions of the work to be the stanzas uttered by the Thera (c. third
century B . C . ) in the boiling cauldron, and point to a much later date.
Fervently exhorting men to lead a good life, the work incorporates
fundamental tenets of Buddhism and shows a great depth of religious
and metaphysical learning. Though well acquainted with Sanskrit,
the author does not overburden his Pali with Sanskritisms. Mala-
lasekera assigns the work to the tenth or the earlier part of the
eleventh century, while Winternitz regards it hardly earlier than
the twelfth century.106

212

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

D. APABHRAMSA LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
1. Origin of Apabhraihsa

The last stage of the Prakrit languages is represented by the
Apabhramsa, which has considerable importance on account of the
fact that the modern Aryan languages like Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi
and Bengali have all evolved from it. The earliest mention of
Apabhramsa in relation to language is found in the Mahdbhashya of
Patahjali when he says: “Each pure word has several corrupt
forms — ‘Apabhramsas’ such as Gam , Goryt} Gota} Gopotalikd and
others for a single word ‘Go’” It is obvious from this that Apa¬
bhramsa was not yet the name of any particular language or dialect,
but was used to denote all deviations from the normal Sanskrit. As
such, even Pali and Prakrit were probably known as Apabhramsa
about 150 B.C.

In the Natyasastra of Bharata we find a lot of information
about the languages of the time. It tells us that language is of two
kinds, namely, Sanskrit and Prakrit, the latter being only the cor¬
rupted or unrefined form of the former. Prakrit, again, has
expressions of three kinds, namely, Similar, Corrupt, and Local
( Samaria , Vibhrashta and Desi ). We have then a scheme of the
distribution of Sanskrit and various Prakrits or Desi Bhash&s
amongst the actors of play. The Desi Bhashas mentioned are seven
in number, namely, Mdgadhi, Avanti, Prachyd , Sauraseni, Ardha-
magadhi , Balhika. and Ddkshinatya. In addition to these, we are
told, there are the languages used by the Sabaras, Abhiras, Chanddlas
Secharas , Dravidas , Odras, and Vanacharas which are of an inferior
type and are known as Vibh&shd. The distribution of these lan¬
guages in a drama according to professions and regions is interesting.
Pulkasas, charcoal-makers, hunters, and wood- or grass-sellers use
Panchali with the sibilants. Those who trade in elephants, horses,
goats, camels and the like, and those who dwell in pastoral settle¬
ments use the Sahara language. The countries between the Vindhya
and the sea have a language abounding in the nasal sound. Abhiras
speak Sabari and Dravidas the Dravidi. The countries between the
Ganga and the sea have a language abounding in e. Surashtra,
Avanti and the regions situated on the Vetravati have a language
abounding in ch. People belonging to Himavat, Sindhu, Sauvlra,
and others use a language abounding in u.

The comprehensive view of the languages presented by Bharata
is very useful and important for linguistic studies. What, however,
interests us particularly in connection with our study of the Apa-
bhramsas is that the Himalaya-Sindhu region is said to possess a

213

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

language in which the u sound was predominant. It is well
known that amongst all the Prakrits it is the Apabhramsas alone
that have their nominative and accusative termination u, and in
several positions o is reduced to u; therefore they abound in this sound.
North-Western India appears, therefore, to be the original home of
the Apabhramsas.

But the Apabhramsa known to tne author of Ndtyas&stra as
Vibhrashta or Vibhasha was only a dialect: it had not yet developed
a literary standard. The exact date of the Naty&sdstra is not known,
but there is no doubt that it belongs to the early centuries of the
Christian era. By the sixth century the Apabhramsa had developed
to such an extent that rhetoricians like Bhamaha and Dandin had
to recognise it as a vehicle of poetic literature almost as exalted as
Sanskrit and Prakrit, in which both prose and verse compositions
were produced. Dandin throws some welcome light upon the posi¬
tion of Apabhramsa in his time. According to him, theorists con¬
tinued to call all linguistic vehicles other than Sanskrit by the name
of Apabhramsa, while, in the realm of poetry, the languages of the
Abhlras and others were known as Apabhramsa. There is no doubt
that Dandin had in his mind the view of Patahjali when he called
all non-Sanskrit forms Apabhramsa. The view of Bharata about
the language of the Abhiras has been noticed above. It is this
language, according to Dandin, which, amongst others, came to be
utilised for poetic compositions. The history of Abhlras is important,
but it is not yet fully and properly explored. From the scattered
notices of the Abhiras referred to above106 it is clear that they spread
from the North-West and Punjab to Central India and further
south between the first and the fourth centuries A.D. The
language of the Abhiras must have grown in importance along with
their political power and influence. Besides the testimony of
Bhamaha and Dandin, we find a copper-plate inscription praising the
proficiency of king Guhasena of Yalabhl (A.D. 559-567) in Sanskrit,
Prakrit and Apabhramsa poetry.

Rudrata in his Kavyalamkara (ninth century) not only includes
Apabhramsa among his six languages of poetry, but also says that
Apabhramsa has several varieties according to countries.

2. Nature of Apabhramsa

The Apabhramsa language that prevailed in the early centuries
of the Christian era in the Himalaya-Sindhu region possessed the
followi ng characteristics ■

(1) Retention of ri.

(2) Retention of r as second member of a conjunct.

214

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

(3) Retention of the intervocalic consonants in their original
or softened form.

(4) Nominative singular termination u, and possessive ssa.

(5) Use of rhymed metre.

This language might be called ancient Thakki. As the language
spread towards south to Sindh with the expansion of the people who
spoke it. the Abhlras, it developed the tendency of ch and j being
indistinctly pronounced with y sound preceding them (as laid down
by the grammarians for Vrtichada).

Apabhramsa had attained the literary form before the time of
Hemachandra, as is proved by the illustrations in his Prakrit
Grammar, and by the literature available so far and known to be
of an earlier date. It is probably for this reason that Hemachandra
has not noticed the varieties which have been enumerated by the
grammarians who followed him and who went by the conventional
dialect distinctions rather than by the actual literary form that held
the field.

The word Apabhramsa literally means corrupt, and the gram¬
marians regarded the language as such. But the poets themselves
never admitted this and they have called their language, not Apa¬
bhramsa but Desl} i.e. of the land.

3. Apabhramsa in Sanskrit Dramas

We know that the sixth case-ending ‘ho’ is a peculiarity of
Apabhramsa. In the Sariputraprakarana of Asvaghosha (second
century A.D.) we come across a form makkadaho (Sk. markatasya) .
In the Pahchardtra of Bhasa (c. fourth century), the MagadhI put
into the mouth of the cowherds contains the nominative and accu¬
sative suffix u which is known to be the characteristic of Apa¬
bhramsa, e.g. Sadamandalu suyyo (Sk. gatamandalah suryah),
& aw am ghoshum viddavanti chold (Sk. Sarvam ghosham vidra-
vanti chaumh). If scholars doubt the genuineness of these readings,
it is only because they hesitate to accept such an ancient date for
Apabhramsa. But the history of the language, as traced above,
shows, beyond doubt, that the occurrence of Apabhramsa forms in
dramas during that period is not at all surprising. The language
used by Mathura in the second act of Mnchchhakatika abounds in u
and so it may be called the MagadhI Apabhramsa. The Mathura is
presumably a person hailing from Mathura, the centre of the
western part of the country, and he has obviously imported the
tendency of his homeland into the eastern language. The commen¬
tators have called the language dhakki which is probably a mistake

215

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

for thakkl. Markandeya calls it Takki and remarks that Haris-
chandra likes to call this language Apabhrariisa which the learned
use in their dramas and other compositions.107 There are sixteen
verses in Apabhrariisa in Kalidasa’s Vikramorvasiya which can
now safely be accepted as early examples of Apabhrariisa lyric.

4. Apabhrariisa Dohas

The earliest poetry in pure Apabhrariisa appears to have been
produced in the Doha metre, i.e. couplets of varying measure. In
the available Apabhrariisa poetry the Doha verses are more uni¬
versal and less grammatically regulated than the other forms of
poetic compositions. This metre has been adopted by almost all the
modern languages of North India, where the medieval saints used
it as their favourite vehicle of expression. The Doha compositions
fall into two classes according to their subject-matter, the romantic ,
and the dscetic. The former class is represented by single verses
depicting 'the sentiment of love, pathos, or heroism. They appear
to be mostly the compositions of bards. Examples of these occur
in the grammar of Hemachandra.

The latter class is represented by a large number of works com¬
posed by Jain and Buddhist saints. Paramappayasu and Jogasdru
of Joindu (sixth century), Pdhuda-Doha of Ramasiriiha Muni, S&vaya-
dhamma-Dohd of Devasena (tenth century), and Vairdgyasdra of
Suprabhacharya are some of the best examples of Doha works in
Jain literature. The theme is the spiritual unity of the universe
which discountenances all differences of caste and creed. In Deva-
sena’s Nayachakra, a Prakrit work on logic, we are told that the
work was originally composed in the Doha metre; but it was subse¬
quently transformd into Gathas by Mailla-dhavala because a critic,
remarked that Doha metre was not suitable for a serious subject
like logic. The date of Devasena, as recorded in one of his works,
is V. S. 990 (=A.D. 933). It appears that up to his time the learned
Panditas had not reconciled themselves to the use of the Doha form
of composition.

The Buddhist saints who wrote Doha verses are Tillopada,
Sarahapada, Kanhapada and others. Their works are found collect¬
ed in the Dohdkosa, first compiled by Haraprasad Sastri and later
re-edited by Dr. Shahidullah and by Dr. P. C. Bagchi. Many more
examples have been brought to light by Rahula Samkrityayana.
Their subject-matter may be termed mysticism, showing the same
traits as the Jain Dohas mentioned above, as well as the composi¬
tions of the later saints like Kablr, Dadu, and Nanak. The tradi¬
tional name for the language of these works is {Sandhyd Bhdshd,’ i.e.
Twilight Tongue, which is very significant when we remember that

216

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Apabhraihsa forms a link between the older classical languages
Sanskrit and Prakrit on the one hand, and the modem languages
on the other. i07a The period of these Doha compositions may be
fixed from the sixth to the twelfth centuries A.D.

5. Epic Poems

Epics form a very important, well-developed and voluminous
part of ancient Indian literature. The same is true of Apabhraihsa
literature as well. In form and style epic poems in Apabhraihsa
are as highly polished and conventionalised as the Sanskrit and
Prakrit Mahakavyas. But they possess some very characteristic
features. The Kadavaka , consisting of about 8 rhymes in Alillaha
or Pajjhatika metre followed by a Ghatta or Duval verse, is the
normal unit of this poetry. This style could easily be recognised
as the forerunner of the Chaupai-Dohd style of Hindi poems like the
Padmavata of Jayasi and the Rdmacharita-Mdnasa of Tulasidasa. A
number of Kadavakas , normally ten to fifteen, constitute a Sandhi
or canto which sometimes opens with a Dhruvaka verse, and the
metre and the style frequently change in consonance with the move¬
ment of the narrative, so as to harmonise with the sentiment to be
expressed. The rhetorical qualities of Sanskrit and Prakrit poetry
are fully reproduced in Apabhraihsa as well.

The subject-matter of the epic poems so far discovered is mostly
the lives of the 63 super-men called Said kd-Purushas (i.e. remark¬
ably great men) in Jainism, the purpose being entertainment as
well as social and religious instruction.

The earliest epics available in Apabhraihsa are the Paiima-
chariu and Harivamsa Pur ana of Svayambhudeva, which are the
Jain versions of the Rdmdyana and the Mahdbhdrata , respectively.
The former contains 90 Sandhis arranged in five Kdndas, the total
number of Kadavakas being about 1300, calculated to be equal to
12000 slokas. The latter contains 112 Sandhis and about 2000
Kadavakas, being equal to 18000 slokas. In the introductory part
of the Harivamsa Parana, the poet admits his indebtedness to Indra,
Bharata, Vyasa, Pingala, Bhamaha, Dandin, Bana, Harsha and
Chaumuha for the diverse requisites of excellent poetry. His debt
to Chaumuha is of particular interest, since it was from him that the
poet derived his style of Paddhadid metre with Duval and
Dhruvaka . Obviously Chaumuha was either the originator of this
Apabhraihsa style or he was the first to make extensive use of it.
In a few old verses found prefixed to the Paiima-chariu, Chaumuha
is praised for his excellent diction, DantI for his charming meaning,
and Svayambhu as excelling in both. We also find Chaumuha
extolled for his Goggahakahd} and Bhadda for his Goggahana and

217

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Machchhaveha. It appears that the three were the precursors of
Svayambhu and they probably wrote the Mahdhhdrata story
partly or fully in Apabhramsa poetry. Unfortunately, their works
have not yet been discovered. Svayambhu is also credited
with works on Apabhramsa prosody, rhetoric and grammar.108
Svayambhu left Paiima-chariu and Hariv&msa Pur ana incomplete,
but they were ably completed by his worthy son Tribhuvana-
Svayambhu, and a few chapters at the end of Harlvamsa
Purdna were added by Yasahkirti about A.D. 1500. Perhaps the
greatest Apabhramsa poet so far come to light is Pushpadanta who
wrote his Mahapu'rdnd , Jasahara-chariu and Ndyakumdra-chariu at
Manyakheta under the patronage of the ministers of the Rashtra-
kuta Krishna III and his successor. Pushpadanta carries to perfec¬
tion the possibilities of Apabhramsa as a vehicle of poetry. His
charming style, striking figures of speech and occasional double
entendres recall the best traditions of classical Sanskrit poetry. In
his Mahdpurdna he has beautifully delineated the lives of the 63
great men, while in the other two works he has narrated the lives
of two other religious heroes. The poet himself tells us that his
parents were originally Brahmanas and belonged to the Saiva faith,
but later on they ‘got converted to Jainism. The poet lived at the
court of some prince; but some calamity befell him there which
compelled him to undertake the long journey to Manyakheta where
his poetic genius was rekindled by Bharata, the minister of king
Krishna. In one of the verses prefixed to various sandhis of his
Mahdpurdna, the poet makes mention of the ravages of Manyakheta
by the king of Dhara. Obviously, this event is no other than the
invasion by Slyaka II of Dhara during the reign of the Rashtrakuta
king Khoftigadeva, the successor of Krishna III. This event, accord¬
ing to the author of Pdiyulachchhi-nama-mdld, took place in
V.S. 1029 (=A.D. 972), and the mention of it by Pushpadanta
proves that his literary activity continued fox at least seven years
after the completicn of his Mahdpurdna in &aka 887 (=A.D. 965).

The Karakanda-chariu of Kanakamara, admittedly inspired by
the poetry of Pushpadanta, is noteworthy for its subject-matter and
historical references. In ten sandhis it narrates, in comparatively
easy and lucid style, the life of Karakanda who is recognised as a
Pratyeka^uddha by the Jains and the Buddhists alike. The hero’s
compaign in the south gives occasion to the description of the Jain
caves at Terapur which are identifiable with the existing caves at
Dharasiva in the vicinity of Osmanabad, which, according to the de¬
tails furnished by the poet, may belong to the time of the early
&ilahara princes. The author gives a short account of himself
according to which he was a Brahmin of the Chandra-rishi gotra. but

218

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

adopted the Digambara Jain faith on account of a feeling of renuncia¬
tion. The work may be assigned to the tenth century A.D.

The Bhavisayattakaha of Dhanapala is a poem in twenty-two
sandhis , and narrates the life of a merchant who suffered immensely
on account of the jealousy of his step-brother. Though there is no
evidence to determine the age of the composition, Dr. Hermann
Jacobi assigns the work to the tenth century A.D.

N emin&ha-chariu of Haribhadra is an Apabhramsa poem of
high merit. The prominent metre here is Raddd as distinguished
from the normal Paddhadid . Only a portion of this work called
Sanakumara-chariu has been edited and published. It contains
343 Raddd verses which constitute verses 443 to 785 of the original.
The whole book contains more than 8000 slokas. The hero of the
poem is one of the twelve Chakravartins, and the poet names his
teacher as Chandra and mentions the date of his work as V.S. 1216.

Paiimasiri-chariu of Dhahila is a poem in four sandhis, and
narrates the life of a female devotee to illustrate the evil results of
deceitful conduct. Though the editor assigns the work to the twelfth
century, the evidence on which he has relied is rather weak.

Kir til at a of Vidyapati (fourteenth century) narrates the life
of Kirtisimha who was a contemporary of Nawab Ibrahim Shah
of Jaunpur. Thus, it is of much historical importance as well.
Linguistically, it illustrates the Magadhi tendencies of Apabhramsa,
makes use of Raddd and other metres, divides itself into pallavas
instead of sandhis , and thus indicates the advent of modern linguis¬
tic tendencies. The epics described above, except the Harivamsa
Purdna, have all been critically edited and published.

Pdsandha-chariu or Pdsapuranu of Padmaklrti, which still
remains in manuscript and for the most part critically unexamined,
deals with the life of the twenty-third Tlrthankara in eighteen san¬
dhis, equal to more than 3300 slokas. The spiritual precursors of the
poet were Chandrasena, Madhavasdha, Jinasena and Padmaklrti of
the Sena Samgha . He completed the poem, according to his own
statement, on the new moon day of Karttika in V.S. 999 (=A.D. 942).

6. Short Stories

Another important and interesting branch of Apabhramsa
literature is short stories meant for entertainment as well as moral
and religious instruction. We know that the Pali literature is domi¬
nated by tales and legends, such as the Jatakas and Avadanas
intended to point a moral. The Jain literature from the earliest
time is replete writh parables and anecdotes exemplifying religious
principles. Ethical works, in particular, make frequent mention of

219

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

persons who observed the rules in spite of much suffering and thus
reaped the reward in this life or the next. The ethical principle
laid down for the monks is that they should observe non-violence
and perfect equanimity of body and mind even at the risk of their
lives. The laity are recommended to observe the same in a less
rigorous form, and to discipline and train themselves gradually for
higher spiritual life. Religious instruction was imparted in two
ways. Those professing a different faith were sought to be con¬
verted by stories revealing the absurdities and incongruities of the
other creeds; while those who belonged to the true faith had to be
strengthened in the same and persuaded to observe the religious
vows and practices by inspiring examples from the past.

The earliest literature of the first kind in Apabhramsa is the
Dhamma-Parikkha of Harishena, who acknowledges his debt to
the work of his predecessor Jayarama in Gdthd metre. Evidently,
Jayarama’s Dharma-Parikshd was written in Prakrit verses and it
became the source of similar works in Apabhramsa and Sanskrit.
Harishena’s work is satirical and is of the same kind as the Dhurt-
tikhyana of Haribhadra Suri written in Maharashtn Prakrit during
the eighth century. But until Jayarama’s work in Gdthcis is brought
to light and its date is determined, it is difficult to say who was the
originator and who the imitator of this style. The Dhamma-
Parikkha of Harishena is composed in eleven sandhis comprising
in all 234 Kadavakas, equal to more than 2000 slokas. The poet
admits that he was originally a resident of Chitor in Mewad and
belonged to the Dhakkada family. He migrated to Achalapura
(probably modern Ellichpur in Amraoti District), where he studied
metrics and rhetoric, and wrote his magnum opus in A.D. 98?. As
his predecessors in the field of Apabhramsa poetry, he mentions
Chaturmukha, Svayambhu, and Pushpadanta. The subject-matter
of the poem is didactic, with a number of stories and fables inter¬
vening, and is similar to that of the Dharma-Patikshd of Ami to gat i
in Sanskrit composed in A.D. 1014. This latter work is known to
bear in its language marked traces of Prakritism, which cannot all
be traced to the present work. It may, however, be presumed that
Amitagati, when writing his work, had before him the present poem
composed a quarter of a century earlier.

E. DRA VIDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

I. Kannada Literature

With the exception of Tamil, Kannada is the most ancient of
the Dravidian languages. The word “Canarese,” the Europeanized
corrupt form of “Kannada,” owes its origin to the early Portuguese

220

LANGUAGE AND LITERATUBE

settlers on the West Coast. The word “Kannada” itself is apparent¬
ly derived from “Karnataka,” a popular name for the great Empire
of Vijayanagar, or from the more ancient name “Karunadu”. There
are a couple of references to “Karunatar” in the second century
Tamil classic, the Silappadik&ram , and this fact may be taken as a
proof that Karnataka started on its independent existence, with its
own local variation of the parent Dravidian tongue, nearly two
thousand years ago. The word “Kannada” is construed in various
ways — the country of the black soil, the big or the high country,
the sweet or fragrant country, etc.109

Next to the Telugu and Tamil speaking peoples, the Kannada
speaking people are the largest unit among the Dravidians. The
vast bulk of the Kannada population is comprised within the
geographical boundaries of Mysore, Western Hyderabad, Kanara,
the Dharwar, Belgaum, and Bijapur districts of the Bombay State,
and a few outlying regions as well. We owe to Nripatunga, a ninth
century rhetorician and poet, the following account of the Kannada
country and its people:

‘Twixt sacred rivers twain it lies —

From famed Godavari,

To where the pilgrim rests his eyes
on holy Kaverl. . .

The people of that land are skilled
To speak in rhythmic tone;

And quick to grasp a poet’s thought,

So kindred to their own.

Not students only, but the folk
Untutored in the schools,

By instinct use and understand
The strict poetic rules.110

The Jains, Vlrasaivas, and Vaishnavas have all enriched
Kannada literature, and hence it is often divided into three periods,
called the Jain, Vlrasaiva, and Vaishnava periods respectively. But
this is misleading, for the so-called periods overlap considerably and
hence this classification is chronologically not of much value. If
we take the Kavirdjam&rga of Nripatunga as our starting-point, for
about three centuries (A.D. 850 to A.D. 1150) Jain predominance
seems to be clear enough; for the next three centuries, Jain and
Vlrasaiva writers flourish together; and from A.D. 1450 onwards,
Vaishnava authors also are increasingly in evidence, and Kannada
literature accordingly gains in length, breadth and depth. Muslim
and Christian influences are by no means imperceptible in the lite¬
rature of recent times, while it is likely that the early Jain period

221

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

was itself preceded by a Buddhist period, although no works of that
period have come down to us. Buddhism, Saivism, Vaishnavism,
Islam, Christianity — the major world religions, in fact — have all
thus played a part in shaping Kannada literature, just as they have
played a part in shaping Tamil literature.

A characteristic member of the Dravidian group, Kannada
nevertheless owes a good deal to Sanskrit. Its script is not dis¬
similar to the Tamil-Grantha script, and both ultimately derive
from the Asokan Brahml script. The Tamil alphabet and the
Kannada alphabet differ in certain particulars, e.g. Tamil has no
aspirated letters, it has two different letters for the “n” sound and
it uses the same symbol for surds and sonants (the two ‘p’s and two
‘b’s for instance). Sanskrit seems to have influenced even the pro¬
nunciation of the Kannada language, and certain old Dravidian
sounds like “1” (as in “Alvar”) and strong “r” are no longer current
in Kannada. “The chief reason for the differences between the
Tamil and Kannada alphabets”, says K. Narasimhacharya, “is to be
found in the fact that the grammar of the Tamil language was, to a
great extent, systematized independently of Sanskrit influence, and
that Sanskrit modes of pronunciation being almost unknown to the
Tamilians, their alphabet, though originally derived from the same
source, was greatly altered so as to suit their peculiar phonetic
system. The same independence of Sanskrit influence cannot be
claimed for the alphabet of the Kannada language, which has mostly
adhered to the alphabetical system of Sanskrit. The same is the
case with grammar. . . Nevertheless, the grammatical structure of
the two languages (Tamil and Kannada) will be found to be essen¬
tially similar.” 1 1 1 From this it is natural to conclude, not only that
Kannada and Tamil are sister languages, but also that “Kannada
was less developed than Tamil when it received the impact of
Sanskrit.”1 12 Generally speaking, Kannada writers are apt to incline
more towards Sanskrit, though not quite as much as Telugu or
Malayalam writers. Many of the Kannada men of letters were good
Sanskritists also, and in some respects Kannada can lay claim to be
a bridge between Aryan and Dravidian, between the North and the
South.

A prose work, Vodda-avadhana, recently discovered, is pro¬
bably the earliest of all extant Kannada works. Its author, Siva-
kotyacharya, was a Jain, and its prose style has been much praised.
Like many Jain works, Vodda-aradhana, too, has a professedly
didactic aim. It seems, however, not to be clearly established that
Vodda-aradhana belongs to a period earlier than A.D. 850, the
probable date of Kavirdjarmrga. In any case, these two early

222

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Kannada works must have clearly been preceded by some centuries
of literary activity. Kannada, as a distinct literary entity, must
have taken shape at least from the time of the earliest inscriptions
in that language. The Chikmagalur inscription takes us back to
the fifth century, and the Sravana Belgola inscription perhaps belongs
to an earlier period still. It is thus reasonable to conclude that
there was an early period of Kannada literature extending from at
least the fourth or fifth century to the eighth or ninth, when many
writers flourished and laid the foundations of the future develop¬
ment of the language and literature; but their works are now totalty
lost, and it seems unlikely that we shall recover them.

From the very beginning, Kannada literature seems to have
enjoyed the patronage of many kings and minor ruling chiefs. Some
of these were themselves good scholars and writers. For instance,
the author of the Kavirajamarga was the famous Rashtrakuta king,
Amoghavarsha, also known by the name Nripatuhga. Among the
royal families that patronized Kannada literature, special mention
may be made of the Hoysalas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, and
the kings of Vijayanagar and Mysore. Gold, elephants and other
costly presents were given to distinguished poets, and titles like
“kavi-chakravarti” were bestowed upon them. Each royal court
had generally its own poet, an Astana Vidvan. The Dra vidian lite¬
ratures could hardly have achieved what they have, but for liberal
royaj. patronage all along. Many of the kings who encouraged
Kannada poets also likewise encouraged Telugu poets. In fact, the
relation between these two literatures has been so intimate that
some writers have distinguished themselves equally in both.

The early period of Kannada literature, extending from the
fifth to the ninth century, is well reflected in the Kavirajamarga
and in other early works. Nripatuhga mentions several of these
early writers. Of these, Samanta Bhadra seems to have belonged
to the sixth century, and to have been a capable Jain controversia¬
list and a widely-travelled man. Another Jain writer, Pujyapada,
probably belonged to the seventh century, and he seems to have
been proficient alike in Kannada and Sanskrit. The third, Kavi-
parameshthi, of whom even less is known than of the others, was
perhaps the earliest of them all. Nripatuhga also mentions such
early writers as Udaya, Vimala, Jayabandhu, Durvinlta, and 6ri-
vijaya; but these are but mere names to us, since their works are
lost and are apparently irrecoverable.

Notwithstanding the references to these writers of an early
age and the traditions concerning them, the starting point for the
Kannada literary historian is Nripatunga’s work on Poetics, Kavi-

223

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

rdjamdrga, which has been mentioned more than once already.
Nripatunga was a royal poet, a scholar with a mastery of both
Sanskrit and Kannada, and a purist who vehemently deprecated
the reckless borrowings from other languages. Kavimjamdrga
contains sentiments as beautiful as they are original. It lays down
that a poem, if it is to stand the test of greatness, must deal with
nature, and describe the sea and the mountains, the sunrise and
the moonrise, the waxing and the waning of the seasons. Other
themes of poetry are heroic life, romance, adventure, games and
festivities; and, of course, it is the poetic fire that in the final
analysis turns the mere themes into imperishable poetry. Nripa¬
tunga throughout illustrates his principles by .frequent citations, and
it is plausible to assume that he was generally guided in his work
by Dandin’s Sanskrit classic, K&vy&darsa.

Another early writer, Gunavarma I, was the author of Sudraka
and Neminxtha Pur ana (also called Harivarhsa), and was almost cer¬
tainly a later contemporary of Nripatunga.

The tenth century brings us to one of the great periods of
Kannada literature. It wTas in this century that the three “gems”
— Pampa, Ponna, and Hanna — flourished, and it was in this century
that Nagavarma I wrote the first Kannada treatise on Prosody
entitled Chhandombudhi or the “Ocean of Prosody,” which is even
now reckoned as one of the classics on the subject.

Pampa I, or Adi Pampa, is usually regarded as the greatest
Kannada poet. His father, a Brahmin, was converted to the Jain
faith; and the son remained a staunch Jain. Pampa appears to
have been the court-poet of a minor prince earned Arikesari. In
A.D. 941, when Pampa was thirty-nine years old, he composed the
two great poems, Adi Purdna and Vikramdrjuna Vi jay a (also call¬
ed, more popularly, Pampa Bharata). The former of these is a his¬
tory of the first Tirthakara,1 13 in other words, the first of the brave
heroic souls who have crossed the disturbed and muddy sea of
human frailty and misery, and reached the shores of unending
indefinable peace. Jain chronicles name twenty-four of these
Tlrthakaras, the last of them being the great Mahavlra himself.
The life-histories of the various Tlrthakaras are held in high esteem
and reverence by the Jains, much as the story of the various
avatdras of Vishnu is held sacred by the Hindus. No doubt, in
these Jain Puranas as indeed in all Puranas, fact and fancy, myth
and legend, mingle in curious proportions. The first Tirthakara,
for instance, is described as the father of Bharata, the king who
gave his name to Bharata-varsha, i.e. India. Pampa’s Adi Purdna
tells in beautiful language the story of Rishabha, the first Tirthakara,

224

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

and to the Jains it constitutes a n Aeneid and Book of Genesis com¬
bined.

Ponna, who was Pampa’s contemporary, was also a Jain con¬
vert. ITis chief claim to fame is Santi Purdna , the life-history of
the sixteenth Tlrthakara, who is said to have ruled over Hastinapura
and held suzerainty all over India. The third, Ranna, a bangle-
seller by caste, commemorated the traditional history of the second
Tlrthakara in his Ajita Purdna. This poem was composed in
A.D. 993, and thus brings us almost to the close of the tenth century.
A contemporary of Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna, and the patron of
the last, was Chavunda Raya. He wrote the Chdvundaraya Purdna ,
a comprehensive history of the twenty-four Tirthakaras. It is
important both as hagiology and as the first — or almost the first —
extant considerable work of prose in the Kannada language.
Chavunda Raya is also known to fame as the man of vision res¬
ponsible for the Colossus at Sravana Belgola called Gommatesvara.

Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna were preoccupied with Jain tenets,
traditions, and interpretations. But they also wrote on other
themes. Pampa’s Vikramdrjuna Vi jay a and Ranna’s Sdhasa Bhima
Vijaya (also called Gada-Yuddha) are both secular poems based on
Vyasa’s immortal epic, the Mahdbhdrata . These are no mere trans¬
lations or adaptations, but independent poems by virtue of their
conception and execution. While the theme is no doubt Vyasa’s,
there is in Pampa s Vikramdrjuna Vijaya a greater effort towards
simplicity and concentration. This is achieved principally by iden¬
tifying in the person of Arjuna the fortunes of the Pandava House.
Besides Arjuna, Karna and Duryodhana also are very powerfully
delineated in Pampa Bhdrata. According to Pampa, Arjuna alone
marries DraupadI; he is the de facto hero of the epic; and he and
his wife Subhadra are crowned at the conclusion of the Great War
at Hastinapura. While all this makes for greater simplicity in
design and clarity in presentation, Pampa’s persistent identification
of Arjuna with his own prince, Arikesari, produces a jarring note
that somewhat detracts from the glory of this poetic symphony. It
is worthy of note also that Pampa’s love of his country is revealed
in a passage like this: “When the breeze from the south touches
me, when I hear good words from some one, when sweet music
delights my ear, when I see the jasmine flower in full bloom, when
I sea lovers unite as if they were one soul, and whenever the spring
festival is held — O! what shall I say — my mind remembers the
Banavasi land even if I am pierced with goad.”114

Ranna too worked on the principle of deliberate limitation.
The Gadd-Yuddha is plso the Mahdbhdrata in brief, but a Mahd-

225

A-I.K. —

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

bMrata seen from a single angle, the hostility between Bhima and
Duryodhana. Draupadi is humiliated in Duryodhana’s court; she
unbraids her tresses and takes the oath that she will not gather
them up again till the evil-doers are adequately punished; and
Bhima too declares that he will avenge the immitigable insult to
Draupadi. The story rushes precipitately on till Bhima and Duryo¬
dhana meet in the fatal fight with clubs.

With anger-driven blood-shot eyes, and ghastly frowns,

Fearful, immense in their aspect,

Fronting each other with their beginningless hate,

They engaged in the battle of petrifying stares.

To the four goddesses of East, West, North and South,

Bhima and Duryodhana offered due sacrifice;

Streaming blood and glowing surging eyes
Made the crimson hibiscus of the sacrifice;

As if the sun-flushed eastern hill and the western,

flushed with the setting sun —

Two vastnesses of pent-up rage —

Dashed one against the other in mad consuming hate,

So with their giant maces Bhima and Duryodhana charged.

“This for the pride of your erstwhile victories;

This for the killing of all my brothers;

And this especially for Duhsasana, the drinking of his blood”:
Taunting Bhima thus, Duryodhana dealt three successive blows.
“This for the lac-house trap, this for the poisoned food,

This for the deceitful game of dice, this for the outrage on

Draupadi,

And this for your ridiculous plight in the Hall of Mirrors:”

With these taunts, Bhima drove at Duryodhana’s feet, hands,

chest, cheeks and forehead.
When at last Bhima struck at Duryodhana’s vulnerable thigh,
He fell aslant and bit the earth, as if even then his anger had not

abated:

Like a colossal mountain torn out of the base,

Fell the Lord of the Kauravas and breathed his last.

Bh’ma has fulfilled his vow, and Draupadi braids her tresses
up once again. Ranna’s Gada-Yuddha is one of the few Indian epics
that fulfils the Aristotelian canons of form and concord of parts.
Ranna is an adept at exploiting the resources of onomatopoeia, and
the mere recitation of his verses often suggests the full amplitude

226

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

and roar and thunder of the action. As in the Pampa Bkdrata, so in
the Gadd-Yuddha, the hero is again and again embarrassingly identi¬
fied with the poet’s own patron, Ahavamalla. But, then, patronage
would demand its “pound of flesh” — and we have no right to com¬
plain ! 1 1 5

II. Tamil Literature

The Saiva and Vaishnavite revival culminated, as we saw in an
earlier chapter,116 in the celebrated Tevaram and Tiruvdchakam
hymns of the Saiva Samayacharyas on the one hand, and the no
less celebrated Naldyira Prabandham of the Vaishnava Alvars on
the other. The four Nayanars flourished in the period between
A.D. 600 and A.D. 750, while the twelve Alvars flourished in the
period indicated by the extreme limits of A.D. 500 to A.D. 850.
After three centuries of such inveterate mystical striving, punctuat¬
ed by those thousands of rhapsodies of the spirit, Buddhist and
Jain influence in the Tamil country declined to almost vanishing
point. A period of comparative inactivity set in, and the literary
development presented a bleak prospect for a time. No doubt, the
Saiva and Vaishnava hymns were still tremendously potent influen¬
ces, and there were not wanting bhaktas who boldly struck the lyre
of devotional or mystical poetry. Some of the Saiva hymns com¬
posed during this period were later included in Tiru-isaippa, the
ninth of the Tirumurais collected together by Nambi-Andar-Nambi.
Tiru-isaippa consists of twenty-nine sacred poems, dedicated to vari¬
ous South Indian Saiva temples, and comprises about 300 stanzas.
The contributors to Tiru-isaippa are Tirumalikai Tevar, Senthanar,
Kariir Tevar, the tenth century prince Kandar-athithan, Purushotha-
ma Nambi, and some others.

One of the poems of Tirumalikai Tevar is a fulsome eulogy of
Siva’s divine personality, limb by limb, a form of praise dear to
devotees, and somewhat akin to Tiruppanalvar’s famous Amala -
ndthippiran. Beginning with Siva’s “lovely feet adorned with the
crowns of the worshipping Deva kings”, Tirumalikai Tevar proceeds
to describe the legs and the navel, and ends with the lotus face and
the plaited red hair mattressing the head. Senthanar likewise sings
of Siva in picturesque terms:

The lump white crescent, the spreading plait,

The three-fold dagger, the blue neck,

The sparkling eye adorning the beautiful forehead;

and the words of homage continue in strains of melting devotion.

227

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Kandar-athithan’s intensity of devotion is no less striking, for the
cry is wrung from his heart:

I cry like the separated calf from its mother !

Pattinathar, author of Koil-ndnmanimdlai, also belonged to this
period — probably to the latter half of the ninth century. His out¬
pourings on the occasion of the death of his mother, coming from a
yogi like him, are touchingly human:

When shall I see again the mother

Who bore my burden in her aching limbs for ten tedious months,

Nursed me as a child with ambrosial milk

Holding me close with both her affectionate arms?

Pattinathar’s fulminations against the tribe of Eve, whose spoilt
child he had once been, may sound misogynous to /modern ears; but
there is a metallic ring in his clear-cut ethical asseverations in
Tiruv e kampa-md lai :

Man is a stringed puppet that dances as long as the string is

intact.

Nothing is good but the friendship of the good and devotion to
God. The rest — wife, relations, children, and all life’s

vanities — is illusion,

Whjr were these people born, O Ekambara of Kanchipiji.ra? —

The cantankerous, the evil-minded, the lecherous!

Pattinathar’s pupil, Pathira Giriar, exchanged in a mood of
renunciation the sceptre for the begging-bowl, and moved from
place to place singing divinely intoxicated verses d la Smart’s Song
to David or Piers Plowman. This rather lean period in Tamil letters
was but the inevitable interregnum dividing the Age of the Naya-
nars and the Alvars from the great age of Kamban that was to follow
not long afterwards.

1. De, “Visakhadatta B.C. Law Volume, I, pp. 50-57.

2. Keith, SD, p. 204.

3. He refers to Visakhadeva who is very probably to be identified with
Visakhadatta — cf. De, Op. Cit, p. 57 n.

4. For an appreciation of this play read Devasthali, Introduction to the study of
Visakhadatta and his Mudru-Rakshasa.

228

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

5. Vol. Ill, p. 17.

G. Konow, ID, p. 86; Keith, SD, p. 239.

7. Bhattanathaswami, I A, XLI, p. 141.

8. Keith, SD, pp. 225-6; Konow, ID, p. 83.

9. Hultzsch’s view noticed by Keith, SD, p. 225.

10. ID, p. 83.

11. Durgaprasada places him in the middle of the ninth century. Cf. Winternitz,
GIL, III, p. 241 n. 4.

12. For these, see Keith, SD, p. 229.

13. Krishnamachariar, HCSL , p. 641 f.

14. Pischel quoted by Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 241.

15. This is probably the first play of Rajasekhara according to Keith, SD, p. 232;
but Winternitz (GIL, III, p. 240) holds just the opposite view, viz. that
Rajasekhara must have composed this play after he had made a name by
composing his Sanskrit plays. For the chronology of Rajasekhara’s works in
general, see Mirashi, Pathak Comm. Vol., pp. 359-366.

16. Also known as Prachandapdndava.

17. See above, pp. 33, 89.

18. He is also known as Kshemendra, but not to be identified with the Kashmirian
poet of that name.

19. For several views about his identity, see Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 249, n. 4;
also De, NIA, II, pp. 267-8 ( Ross Comm. Vol., pp. 83-4).

20. Peterson, Third Report, pp. 340-2.

21. For these, see Konow, ID, p. 89.

22. Konow, ID, p. 89; Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 242; Keith, SD, p. 271.

23. Winternitz, GIL, III, pp. 244-5.

24. For a full discussion, see Keith, SD, pp. 53-74; also De, IHQ, VII, pp. 537-8.

25. Cf. De, Jha Comm. Vol. pp. 139-44.

26. Keith, SD, p. 56.

27. SD, p. 185 fn. 3.

28. JRAS, 1926, pp. 87-8, 90.

29. JRAS, 1924, pp. 262-5.

30. For both Jinasenas, see Velankar, Jinaratnakosa, Vol. I, p. 29 (under Adipurana )
and p. 460 (under Harivamsapurdna I).

31. Keith, HSL, p. 498; Velankar, Jinaratnakosa, p. 233.

32. See NIA, IV, p. 396.

33. Keith, HSL, p. 142.

34. Winternitz, GIL, III. p. 74, n. 4; Keith HSL, p. 135.

35. Krishnamachariar, HCSL, p’ 163.

36. HBR, p. 310.

37. HBR, p. 123.

38. Keith, (HSL, p. 480) tacitly accepts this identity; but De expresses doubt
(NIA. II, p. 269 n. 7, Ross Comm. Vol. p. 85 n. 7).

39. Ayyar, QJMS, XIV, pp. 302-11.

40. Krishnamachariar, HCSL, p. 326, n. 3; Keith, HSL, p. 97, n. 5 and 98.

41. Winternitz, GIL, III, pp. 75, 415; Velankar, Jinaratnakosa, p. 185; Krishnama¬
chariar, HCSL, p. 169; HSL, p. 137.

42. Keith, HSL, p. 150; Winternitz GIL, III, pp. 43-4; also Biihler translated by
Ghate in IA, XLII, pp. 29 ff., 137 ff., etc.

43. The work is said to have been composed about A.D. 1005 — Keith, HSL, p. 151.

44. For details and references, see Krishnamachariar, HCSL, pp. 325-6, and 326 n. 3.

45. See Andhra Patrikd, Annual Number (1917-18), p. 224, quoted by Krishnama¬
chariar, HCSL, p. 492 and n. 1.

46. See Jinaratnakosa, Vol. I, p. 387 (Sobhanastuti ); and Peterson, Fourth Report,
p. cxxi (Sobhana).

47. Peterson, Fourth Report, p. xcii (Manatuhga; author of the Bhayaharastotra) .

48. Keith (HSL, p. 215) holds that Siddhasena Divakara composed his Kalyana -
mandira in deliberate imitation of the Bhaktdmarastotra. But as this Divakara
flourished between A.D. 650 and 750, Manatuhga may have to be placed in
the first half of the seventh century A.D.

49. NIA, II, p. 268 (Ross Comm. Vol., p. 84).

229

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

50. HSL, p. 98.

51. GIL, III, p. 65. 0 orT,

52. HSL, p. 98; also see Krishnamachariar, HCSL, pp. 236 n. 3, 169 n. 2, 271 n. 17

and 372 n. 1 for further references.

53. Gode, J1H, XIX, pp. 312-9.

54. Edited by Dr. F. W. Thomas from a Nepalese manuscript of the twelfth century

—Keith, HSL, p. 222.

55. For quotations from these, see Krishnamachariar, HCSL, pp. 399-401.

56. Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 316 and n. 1 (also n. 2); Keith, HSL, p. 273.

57. Winternitz, GIL, HI, p. 341.

58. Peterson, Fourth Report, p. lxii (Dhanapala).

59. Keith, HSL, p. 331.

60. This is also called the Dhanapalapahchdsika. Cf. Velankar, Jinaratnakosa, Vol.
I, p. 58.

61. Oldenberg has adduced analogous cases in the Jataka book. For references,
see Keith, HSL, p. 332, n. 2.

62. SDar, VI, 336.

63 . Devaditya according to Keith, HSL, p. 332, where the legend about th6 composi¬
tion and the unfinished state of the work is also given.

64. Raghavan, NIA, VI, pp. 67-9.

65. Cf. Yasastilakachampu (NSP), I. 17.

66. HSL, p. 336.

67. Ramavatara Sarma, Kalpadrukosa, Intro, p. XXV.

68. Bhandarkar, CW, II, p. 71.

69. De, NIA, II, pp. 272 and n. 2, 3, 4 and 6 ( Ross Comm. Vol. p. 88 and n. 2, 3, 4
and 6).

70. Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 401 and n. 2.

71. Belvalkar, SSG, p. 91.

72. It has been necessary to use in this section many technical terms which can¬
not be adequately translated or explained within the short scope of this
chapter. For their full significance the readers are referred to standard works
on the subject mentioned in Bibliography.

73. Kane, HAL, pp. XLI-XCV, Revised 2nd edn. pp. 125-246.

74. See above, p. 115.

75. V. 12-14.

76 . B.C. Law Volume, Part I, pp. 179-193.

77. Cf. Devisataka, stanza 104 and commentary thereon (KM, IX, p. 30).

78. NIA, II, pp. 412-419. Ndtakaratnakosa forming only a part of Kumbha’s
Samgltardja, cf. Raghavan, ABORI, XIV, pp. 259-63.

79. C. K. Raja Commemoration Volume, pp. 141-152.

80. JBBRAS, 1935; JUB, 1936.

81. Keith, HSL, p. 511; Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 550. For a discussion regarding
other works ascribed to this author see De, NIA, II, p. 274 ( Ross Comm. Vol.,
p. 90).

82. Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 550 and n. 4; contra, Keith, HSL, p. 511 and De NIA, II,
p. 274 ( Ross Comm. Vol. p. 90).

83. Cf. Devasthali, Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts in
the Library of the University of Bombay, No. 278, p. 113.

84. Ray, History of Hindu Chemistry, ii, Sanskrit Texts, p. 14; Keith, HSL, p. 512;
Winternitz GIL, III, p. 552.

85. Dikshit, Bharatiya Jyotislia Sdstra (in Marathi), 2nd ed. pp. 229-236, and
312-315.

86. Dikshit, op. cit, p. 486 and n.

87. POC, Summaries of Papers, XI, 1943, p. 64.

88. R. C. Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customsr
Dacca, 1940.

89. Cf. Kane, KHDS, I, pp. 224, 239.

90. Festschrift Kane, pp. 405-407.

91. Chitrav, Madhyayugina Charitra Kosa s.v. Vachaspati.

92. Also called Tattvavaisaradi.

93. Read the concluding verses of Bhamati.

94. Dr. D. C. Bhattacharya gives the date as A.D. 1054 ( JGJRI , XI, pt. 4).

230

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

95. De, NIA, II, p. 271 and n. 3 ( Ross Comm. Vol. p. 87 and n. 3).

96. Winternitz, GIL, IU, p. 466. The same Udayana is also the author of the
Lakshandvali a Vaiseshika work composed in A.D. 984 (ibid, p. 474).

97. A work in 85 karikas ascribed to Ad Lesha (Patahjali) printed in Pandit ,
Vol. V, 1871, pp. 189 ff, and TSS, No. 12, 1911, is different from the one referred
to by Abhinavagupta — cf. Winternitz, GIL, III, p. 446 and n. 3.

98. Pali Language and Literature, pp. 34-5.

99. Saddhamma-Samgaha, Ch. IX.

100. JPTS, 1886, pp. 60, 70.

101. JPTS, 1917, p. 2.

102. Buddhaghosa, p. 77 n. 3.

103. PLC, pp. 144-5; CII, III, pp. 274 ff.

104. Dipavamsa und Mahdvamsa, p. 79; Catalogue, p. xiv.

105. PLC, p. 162; HIL , II, p. 223.

106. See Vol. II, pp. 221-3.

107. Prdkrita-sarvasva, 16.2.

107a. H. P. Sastri (Bauddha Gan O Doha, Intr.) called this language Sandhyd-bhashd.
or “twilight language”. V. Bhattacharya (IHQ, IV. 287-296), P. C. Bagchi
(IHQ, VI. 389-396) and F. Edgerton (JAOS, 1937. 185 f), however, have/shown
that the correct name is Sandhabhasha, meaning “symbolical or intentional
speech”. Winternitz (HIL, II. 393) and De (HBR, I. 329), among others, accept
this meaning. — Ed.

108. See above, pp. 197, 209.

109. R. S. Mugali, The Heritage of Karnataka (1946), p. 22.

110. E. P. Rice, Kanarese Literature, p. 29.

111. History of Kannada Language (1934), p. 56.

112. Mugali, The Heritage of Karnataka, p. 29.

113. Written both as Tirthakara and Tirthahkara.

114. Prof. R. S. Mugali’s translation.

115. For the section on Kannada Literature, I am greatly indebted to Dr, S. C.
Nandimath and the late Prof. S. S. Basawanal.

116. Vol. Ill, Ch. XV, Sec. III.

231

CHAPTER X

POLITICAL THEORY, ADMINISTRATIVE
ORGANISATION, LAW AND LEGAL

INSTITUTIONS

I. POLITICAL THEORY

The stream of political thought which in the preceding period
ran principally along the channels of the late Smritis and the early
Puranas, as well as Kamandaka’s ‘Essence of Polity’ ( Nitisara ), was
continued in the present epoch in the Smriti-commentaries of Medha-
tithi and Visvarupa and the later Puranas, as well as ‘the Nectar
of the Sayings of Polity’ (Nitivakydmrita) of the Jain Somadeva
(tenth century A.D.). We shall attempt in the present chapter to
consider some of the leading political ideas of these works, specially
as regards the theory of kingship.

Medhatithi, while repeating the old Smriti view of the com¬
prehensive scope of rajadharma, brings out clearly the dominance of
the king’s public functions. Explaining the term rajadharma in the
opening verse of Manu’s seventh chapter, he takes this to signify
the (whole) duty of the king. This duty, he continues, comprises
that which relates to visible affairs (drishpdrtha) , such as the six
types of foreign policy, and that which is concerned with invisible
things {adrishtdrtha) , such as the fire-offering (agnihotra) . It is the
former, he observes, which are chiefly dealt with in the present
place, for these alone are generally known as rajadharma. In other
words rajadharma , while equivalent to the Whole Duty of the king,
comprises chiefly his public acts, or to put it more generally, is
synonymous with Politics. Corresponding to this double composi¬
tion of rajadharma, Medhatithi indicates its twofold source. For
he says in the same context, that the duties here described are based
not wholly upon the Vedas, but upon other sources as well. Explain¬
ing the scope of the latter, he observes, on the authority of a text
of Katyayana, that the duties which are not contrary to Dharma -
sastra are laid down here. Rajadharma , then, has a twofold source,
namely, the Vedic and the non- Vedic (Arthasdstra) , the latter being
subordinate to the former.

As regards the idea of kingship Visvarupa as well as Medha¬
tithi introduces info the Smriti literature a discussion which was
started by the early Mlmdmsa writers in the field of Vedic ritual.

232

POLITICAL THEORY

This is concerned with the question of eligibility of individuals to
the royal title (rajan). These authorities, adopting the strict dog¬
matic attitude, confined the application of this title to the Kshatriya
alone, though they were led by the logic of facts to recognise its ex¬
tension to non-Kshatriyas in accordance with the maxim of
representation. A more logical attitude is adopted by the Smriti
writers above mentioned. Thus Visvarupa in one place1 quotes
Manu2 to show that the royal title belongs to one who possesses a
kingdom, and not to a Kshatriya alone. In another place3 Visvarupa,
after affirming on the authority of Manu4 and Yajnavaikya6 that
the designation rdjan belongs to the Kshatriya, adds the qualification
that the title to dominion ( rdjya ) belongs not to every Kshatriya,
but to one who has the attributes of coronation and so forth. Very
similar is the view of Medhatithi.6 For he includes within the con¬
notation of rdjan any territorial ruler {janapadesvara) , although of
non-Kshatriya caste, while on the other hand he excludes Kshatriyas
who have not received consecration. Medhatithi’s originality con¬
sists in his justification of this interpretation. While the use of the
term Kshatriya in the text, he argues,7 proves that a Kshatriya alone
is eligible to rulership, a substitute is permitted in the Kshatriya’s
absence, for otherwise the subjects would perish. Again he says8
that while according to Manu9 the Kshatriya is to live by bearing
arms and weapons, other castes who live by the Kshatriya’s occupa¬
tion are likewise entitled to rulership. For, as is stated by an anony¬
mous (Smriti) text, whoever protects the people is known as king
( nripa ) and this duty has been ordained for the purpose of ensuring
the welfare of the people in general. Manu’s use of the generic word
pdrihiva for king, Medhatithi concludes, makes his teaching appli¬
cable not to the Kshatriya alone but to any other territorial ruler,
for otherwise the kingdom would not be stable. Medhatithi, there¬
fore, while fixing the stamp of legitimacy upon rulers irrespectively
of their Kshatriya caste, bases his view upon the principle that
kingship is essential for the security of the State as well as the peo¬
ple.

As regards the mutual relations of the ruler and his people
Medhatithi10 hints at the principle of the king’s unlimited executive
authority. Here, while explaining Manu’s warning against incur¬
ring the king’s anger, he- observes that other men may forgive a
fault because of difficulties in placing complaints before the king,
but when the king makes up his mind to destroy a man, the latter
is surely ruined because the king is all-powerful. Medhatithi, how¬
ever, is careful to lay down the limitations on the authority of the
king’s executive edict. The ‘law’ ( dharma ) laid down by the king
for the people’s observance, he says,1 1 refers to the executive arrange-

238

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ment ( kdryavyavasthu ) that is not contrary to the canon as well as
custom. More particularly he observes that the king has no autho¬
rity over the castes and orders as regards religious matters such as
the fire-offering, for otherwise there would arise the occasion for con¬
flict with other Smritis. In the above the author evidently applies
the fundamental Smriti principles of the supremacy of the canon and
the binding authority of custom to limit the scope of the king’s execu¬
tive edict. Medhatithi likewise discusses the nature of the twofold
obligation of protection imposed upon the king by the old Smriti law.
The point is fully discussed by him while explaining Manu’s text12
promising the reward of heaven to the king who protects those
following the Aryan rule of life. Medhatithi’s first interpretation
distinguishes between the king’s contractual and his general obli¬
gation of protection. It is proper, we are told, that the king should
go to heaven by protecting the poor, the friendless and the learned
Brahmana who pay no taxes and no duties. In the case of others,
however, the king, by not performing his obligation, incurs sin, for
their protection is purchased by payment of the king’s means of sub¬
sistence. On the other hand the king attains immunity from sin,
but not the reward of heaven, by paying the ransom in the shape of
offering protection. This means that the king’s contractual obliga¬
tion is a compulsory ( nitya ) duty in contrast with his general obli¬
gation which is optional ( kdmya ). This is explicitly supported by
the old Smriti argument that taxes are the purchase-money paid to
the king for the service of protection. According to Medhatithi’s
alternative explanation, Manu’s text should be understood to refer to
fulfilment of the rule regarding the king’s livelihood. This simply
repeats the old Smriti conception that the king’s general obligation
of protection is imposed upon him by his distinctive occupation.
Another view, quoted by Medhatithi, does away with the distinction
between the king’s contractual and his general obligation. Dismis¬
sing the reference to the king’s reward of heaven as a mere declama¬
tion, this view maintains that the protection of those who do not
contribute to the king’s livelihood is likewise fixed by the king’s
occupation, for these people also form part of the kingdom (which it
is the king’s obligation to protect). Supporting the above by an
argument from analogy, the author observes that artisans plying
their craft for a living are made by the king to perform some work
in lieu of taxes13 and similarly the king, engaged in his livelihood
in the shape of protection of his subjects, is made by the canon to
protect the Aryas as a compulsory duty. Again the author applies
the analogy of a householder kindling the sacred fire, who performs
obligatory rites not for winning heaven or for any such reward. The
king’s obligation of protection, in other words, is compulsory since

234

POLITICAL THEORY

it is bound up with his occupation which is imposed upon him by
canonical authority. Adding in this context the sanction of poli¬
tical danger to that of spiritual penalty for non-observance of the
king’s contractual obligation, Medhatithi says:14 “He who receives
taxes and still fails to slay thieves, incurs a double blame, namely in
this world the disaffection of his subjects and in the next the loss of
heaven: it is but proper that he who receives the taxes and yet fails
to give their requital should incur (this twofold) blame”.

The old Smriti law from the time of the Dharma-sutras onwards
mentions a number of civil rights of individuals which they are
entitled to defend by force of arms, if necessary. These rights are
explained and amplified by Medhatithi. Construing the relevant
verses of Manu16 as two different sentences, Medhatithi takes the
first verse to mean that ‘the twice-born classes’ may take up arms
on all occasions. Medhatithi rejects the contrary interpretation
which would by making the two verses a complete sentence confine
their scope to the specific occasions mentioned by Manu and no
other. This is justified in part by the characteristics of desperadoes
( dtaidyl ) who do not wait for the other party to take up arms. The
other argument is based upon the important principle of insuffi¬
ciency of the State administration to ensure universal security. It
may be urged, Medhatithi argues, that one may take up arms when
one’s religious duties are disturbed and when disorder is produced
in evil times in consequence of the king’s death, but at other times
when the kingdom is well governed the king himself gives protec¬
tion. To this argument Medhatithi replies that the king cannot
stretch his arms so as to reach every man within his kingdom. There
are, he explains, some wicked men who attack the most valiant of
the king’s officers, but are afraid of persons bearing arms. From
this it follows that the people are justified in bearing arms at all
times. This is evidently a plea for giving the individuals (spe¬
cially of the upper classes) the permanent right to carry arms for
self-defence. Continuing his argument Medhatithi puts the ques¬
tion whether bearing arms is intended only to strike terror, and he
answers it emphatically in the negative. The slayer of a desperado,
he observes, is liable neither to punishment by the king nor to
penance, and he can kill the latter by all means, either publicly in
the presence of other people, or secretly by administering poison
and so forth. This obviously gives the individuals the fullest right
to self-protection even at the cost of secret murder of their assai¬
lants. Finally Medhatithi, while paraphrasing Manu’s list of occa¬
sions justifying killing of desperadoes, adds that one may take up
arms for the protection of his family or property. He also quotes
an anonymous view which extends this right to the protection of

235

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAU«T

others as well on those occasions. One may, Medhatithi observes in
the same context,16 unhesitatingly fight for self-defence. The in¬
dividual’s right of self-defence, in other words, extends to the pro¬
tection of his family and property and, according to one view, to the
protection of others as well.

As regards the political rights of individuals Visvarupa assumes
an attitude which brings him into line with Mcihabharata texts17
justifying the subject in slaying a tyrant. When the king, we read,13
is guilty of a grave crime, he should be slain by throwing even a
mighty clod of earth against him. For, he argues, the destruction
of the army, the revenue and so forth would otherwise be inevitable,
as all these have their roots in the king. The people, in other words,
are entitled to slay the tyrant in the interest of the State.

It will be seen from the above examples that boldness and ori¬
ginality of political ideas are by no means wanting in the Srnriti
commentaries of this period. Such is, however, not the case with
the thought of Lakshmidhara, author of the oldest known Srnriti
Digest called Kritycikalpataru. We shall deal here with the section
of this work dealing with rajadharma ( Rdjadharmakdnda ). As re¬
gards the origin of kingship, Lakshmidhara19 quotes Manu’s dogma
of divine creation of the king out of particles of the eight Regents
of the Quarters, so as to make him a superman. With the same
mechanical exactitude he quotes20 the old Srnriti texts relating to
the nature of kingship. Such are the texts regarding the parity of
the king’s executive and judicial functions with the attributes of
multiple deities and those enjoining the individual’s obligation of
honouring and obeying the king. To the same category belongs his
quotation21 of the R&mayana text on the evils of a kingless country.
The king, then, according to the author, is a superman by virtue of
his divine creation, while his functions are comparable with those
of various deities. The king’s office, again, is the grand safeguard
of security and welfare of the people. From these conceptions fol¬
lows the people’s obligation of honouring and obeying their ruler.
As a set-off against the above principles bearing on the king’s author¬
ity, the author22 quotes the old Srnriti passages enjoining the ruler’s
obligation of protection by means of the usual sanctions.

Compared with the political ideas of the Smriti-commentators
analysed above, those of the late Puranas are singularly wanting in
originality. As regards the origin of kingship the legends of crea¬
tion of the social order in these works23 involve the principle that
the Kshatriya is divinely ordained for the purpose of protection.
We are moreover specifically told that the Self-existent One created
the king out of particles of the gods so that he might inflict chastise-

236

POLITICAL THEORY

merit for the protection of all creatures,24 According to Brihad*
dharma25 Brahma created the king’s body by taking lordship from
Indra, prowess from Agni, cruelty from Yama, good fortune from
the Moon, riches from Kubera and goodness from Ramajanardana,
and the king alone atid no other should be recognised as Indra. Again
we read26 that the king assumes different divine forms by virtue
of his different functions or attributes. The king then is a multiple
deity literally by virtue of his creation out of divine particles by
the Highest Deity and metaphorically because of parallelism of his
attributes and functions with those of various divinities. In the
composite account of the origin and nature of kingship in Vishnu -
dh cir mo tiara27 , the author first shows, by means of his picture of a
'State of Nature’ without a king, how the king’s office is the founda¬
tion of the institutions of family and property, as well as the /grand
security of observance of duties by the castes and the safeguard of
the people against providential and human calamities. This is
accompanied by the author’s statement of the doctrine of the king’s
divinity in the literal sense of the term. The king is born among
men by being strengthened with Vishnu’s lustre and by bearing the
divine attributes on his person. The fundamental importance of
kingship in the interest of the people is illustrated by a passage in
Garuda28 which includes a land without a king in a list of places
where one should not live.

The above ideas of the king’s office and functions are pressed
into service in the late Puranas (as in the Smritis) for justifying
the obligation of the people towards the ruler. In the extract quoted
above29 the V ishnudharmottara observes in the words of a Mahfi-
bharata text30 that the chief est duty of the people of a certain
territory ( rashtra ) is the consecration of the king. Again we are
told that honouring and obeying the ruler is the divine as well as
the human obligation of the people. “When the king is pleased
the gods themselves are satisfied and when he is angry the people
are filled with anger: the king indeed is born because of his high
spiritual merit and therefore the whole world submits to the king’s
command”- The king,, says Brihaddharma ,31 should not be harmed
or reviled or slighted or abused, for the gods move about on earth
in the form of kings. The same work mentions32 propitiation of
the king among the duties of the Vaisya, while it includes33 the act
of seeing the king among the householder’s daily and periodical
duties.

The principle of the king’s authority is balanced in the late
Puranic theory (as in the theory of the Smritis) by that of the ruler’s
obligations. Howt protection is the divine purpose of the Kshatriya’s

237

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and the king's creation is told in the stories of their origin mentioned
above. The king, according to Brihaddharma,34 is a Kshatriya de¬
voted to the protection of the people. According to Vishnudhar -
mottara35 the king immediately after his selection by the chief men
in the State shall take the vow ( vrata ) that he would protect all of
them who are righteous. As in the older thought, this obligation is
enforced by the promise of spiritual rewards and the threat of spiri¬
tual penalties.36 Some clauses of positive law in the late Puranas
(like those in the Smritis) reflect the principles of the king’s authority
and obligation. Agni 37 repeats the penalties for such offences
against the king’s dignity and authority as violation of the Queen,
miswriting the king’s edict and mounting the king’s conveyance. On
the other hand Vishnudhar mottara 3S repeats the ancient Smriti
clause requiring the king to restore stolen property to owners of all
castes.

The late Purana versions39 of the old Mahdbhdrata legend of
Vena and his son Prithu throw some light upon the authors’ ideas of
the nature of the king’s office. It must be observed at the outset
that these versions are given, not (as in the Mahdbhdrata account)
for explaining the origin of kingship, but in the context of geiiea-

logical narratives of the Patriarchs, or at the most in answer
to questions about the origin of the earth and the mixture of castes.
Nevertheless we learn from the Matsya and Brihaddharma accounts
that the motive for selection of the king (Prithu in the former and
Vena in the latter case ) was fear of anarchy. This of course involves
the old Smriti view that the king’s office is essential for the security
of the people. In the different accounts of Prithu we are told that
he bore the mental aspect of Vishnu ( Garuda ), that Vishnu having
consecrated Prithu to universal lordship appointed kings over diffe¬
rent orders of beings (Agni), that Prithu was an incarnation of God
Vishnu ( Brihaddharma ), and that he was Vishnu in human form
(Vishnudhar mottara) . This involves the doctrine that the first legi¬
timate king (or universal ruler) was created by the great God Vishnu
and was His human incarnation. The king, then, derives his autho¬
rity not only from his divine creation, but also and above all from his
divine personality as a representative of Vishnu. On the other hand
the story of the remonstrance of the sages addressed to the tyrant
Vena implies the doctrine of supremacy of Justice (or Righteousness)
or else of canonical injunctions over the king.

The Nitivakyamrita of the Jain monk Somadeva Suri
announces itself as a manual of instruction to kings and others on
the subject of general morals including statecraft. The author’s
political thought bears little trace of his Jain beliefs and principles,

238

POLITICAL THEORY

but on the contrary is inspired throughout by the old Smriti-
Arthasastra tradition. Somadeva40 accepts in toto the ancient
Arthasastra category of four sciences (namely, ‘the Sacred Canon’,
‘Philosophy’, ‘Economics’ and ‘Politics’) which he aptly designates
as ‘the royal sciences’. Explaining the place of ‘the Sacred Canon’

( tray I ) in this list he says,41 in words recalling Kautilya, that the
castes and orders are fixed in their duties and are dissuaded from
their opposites through it, and that both the king and the people
attain the threefold end by avoiding confusion of their distinctive
duties. This repeats the old and fundamental Smriti principle that
Society is an association for the complete fulfilment of the indivi¬
dual in accordance with the law of his appointed duties and that
the source of this law is the Sacred Canon.

As regards the nature of kingship Somadeva in the first place
repeats the complex view of the king’s origin and office found in
Manu-smriti and other works. The king, we read, is a great deity
and bows to none else except to his superiors.42 Again we are
told43 that all the Regents of the Quarters attend upon the king
who is therefore described as the best of his class. In another place
the author exalts the king to the level of the three Highest Deities
of the Brahmanical pantheon. The king, we read,44 becomes
Brahma in his childhood when as a student he resides in his pre¬
ceptor’s household and studies the sciences; he becomes Vishnu when
after attaining sovereignty and receiving the ceremonial initiation
at his consecration he attracts the love of his subjects by his quali¬
ties; and he becomes &iva when with increased strength and with
the possession of the highest authority he sets about extirpating
thorns of the State and becomes a conqueror. Elsewhere Somadeva,
applying the old conception of the supremacy of righteousness, dis¬
tinguishes between the consequences of the king’s attitude towards
this vital principle. When the king is unrighteous, every one else
becomes the same.45 But when the king justly protects his subjects,
all quarters fulfil the desires of people, the rains fall in time, and all

beings live in peace,46 The king in this sense is the cause of time.

As a corollary of his view of the king’s authority Somadeva,
like the authors of the Brahmanical Smritis, enjoins upon the people
the obligation of honouring and obeying their ruler.47 Repeating
the Smriti view of the king’s obligation towards his people the
author further observes48 that protection is the duty of the
Kshatriya and that the king’s duty consists in cherishing the good
and chastising the wicked. Protection, indeed, is the supreme and
distinctive obligation of the ruler. He is no king who fails in his
duty of protection:49 the king’s dharma does not consist in shaving

289

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the hair, wearing matted locks and so forth. Following the same
Smriti authority Somadeva 0 enforces the king’s obligation of protec¬
tion by the promise of spiritual rewards. On the other hand the
author, probably under the influence of the Jain doctrine of ahimsd,
so far from repeating the advanced Smriti ideas of resistance against
the evil ruler, resigns himself passively to the latter’s acts. The
king’s wrong-doing, he says,'51 like the ocean’s crossing the shores,
the Sun’s causing darkness and the mother’s devouring her own
children, is a characteristic of the Iron Age.

II. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION— NORTH INDIA

The Pratlharas were the most dominant political power in
North India in the latter part of the ninth and the beginning of the
tenth century A.D. In their stone records, they ordinarily assumed
the imperial title of mahdrdjddhirdja , though in their copper-plate
inscriptions they usually chose to be called by the more modest sty ie
of maharaja. The territory under the direct administration of these
emperors was divided info the traditional bhuktis (provinces), sub¬
divided into mmidalas (districts), which were further split up into
vishayas . Among the officers of the central government mentioned
by name in their records are the dandapdsika (police officer), rnahd-
pratilwra (chief of the palace guards), dandanayaka (general), and
balddhikrita (commander of forces). A remarkable inscription of
A.D. 87652 shows how the affairs of Gwalior (and probably of other
important cities as well) were conducted in the time of Bhoja I. A
certain Alla was appointed by the Emperor as the officer in charge
of the fort ( kottapdla ), while Tattaka was commander of the forces
(balddhikrita) , and a Board consisting of two sreshthis (guild-
presidents) and one sdrthavaha (caravan-leader) was apparently
entrusted with the civil affairs of the town. Not only then was the
civil administration of the town separated from the military, but
further, the command of the fort was distinct (no doubt, for reasons
of security) from that of the troops stationed thereabout. The con¬
cluding lines of the record give us some further indications of the
character of the civil administration. Here we read that the whole
town ( sakalasthdna ) made a gift of land in two specified villages
which were in its own possession (svabhukti) . It would therefore
appear that besides the town executive just mentioned, there -was
a to wn Council (or Assembly) which owned some adjoining villages.
The description of the donated land as being measured by the impe¬
rial cubits (paramesvariya-hasta) suggests that the official
standard was used by the town authorities for the survey of lands
in their possession. In the above record, Alla is mentioned as guar¬
dian of the fort by Bhoja I’s appointment. From another inscription

240

POLITICAL THEORY

of the same reign33 we learn that Alla’s father was born in a Brah~
rnana family and was appointed ‘Warden of the Marches’ (maryada-
dkurya) by Emperor Ramabhadra. Afterwards Alla succeeded to
this office and was further appointed guardian of the fort by Bhoja I.
This proves that Brahmanas at that time sometimes adopted a mili¬
tary career and that offices went by hereditary succession.

Outside the territory directly governed by the Emperor lay the
tracts ruled by chiefs belonging to various clans, such as the Chaha-
manas, the Tomaras, the Chapas, the Chalukyas, and the Pratiharas.
There were besides the great feudatory families like the Chandellas
and the Paramaras who were destined for a long and independent
career as ruling powers after the fall of the Pratiharas. What is
more, we find the donated village in two records of A.D. 893 and
899, 54 described as belonging to a group of eighty-four villages. This
was exactly the standard size of the clan-chief’s estate in mediaeval
Rajputana. In the light of the above facts it is possible to trace back
the type of clan-monarchies, as they have been called by Baden-
Powell, at least to the period of the Imperial Pratiharas of Kanauj.
The administration of the Pratihara feudatories possessed the usual
complement of officers known to Northern India from older times.
The list of persons receiving information of the donor’s grant in the
record of A.D. 893, mentioned above, consists of the raja (prince), the
rdjanyas (nobles), the rajasthdnlyas (viceroys), the uparikas (gover¬
nors), the amdtyas (ministers), and the dandapdsikas (police officers).
Another record of a feudatory chief, mentioned above, refers to a san-
dhivigrdhika (minister of foreign affairs) as the writer of the charter.
From the well-known Siyadoni inscription35 we learn that this town
was in possession of chiefs bearing the lofty title mahdrdjddhirdja in
the tenth and eleventh centuries A.D. We have some hints of the
policy of the imperial government in keeping the feudatories in check.
In the two records of A.D. 893 and 899, referred to above, the grant
of lands by the donor required the approval of an individual des¬
cribed as tcintrapala of the reigning emperor. Probably the tantra -
pala held an office similar to that of the Political Agent in an Indian
State during the British rule. The grant by Mahendrapala II of a
village in the holding of a certain talavargika in A.D. 946 probably
points to the Emperor’s right of alienating lands in the possession of
the smaller feudatories. Nevertheless we find even in the reign of
Mahendrapala I reference to a fight between two mahdsdmantas in a
memorial tablet of V.S. 960. The decline of the Imperial Pratihara
power gave the opportunity to many of the clans — the Kachchha-
paghatas of Gwalior, the Chandellas of Jejakabhukti, the Haihayas of
Dahala, the Paramaras of Malwa, and so forth — to assert their virtual
independence.

241

A.I.lv. — 10

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The contemporary Arab observers were greatly impressed with
the military strength of the Imperial Pratiharas whom they called
Ba’urah and kings of Jurz.66 What concerns us here is to note the
high tribute paid by one of them to the efficiency of the Pratihara
administration. “There is no country in India,” says Mas’udI,57
“more safe from robbers.”

By far the most important of the dynasties of Northern India
contemporaneous with the Imperial Pratihara s were the Palas of
Bengal, their rivals for the prize of empire. The Pala monarchy vras
distinguished from nearly all other governments of this period by the
peculiar circumstances of its origin. It was to stem the tide of anar¬
chy that Gopala, the founder of the line, was called to the throne by
the prakritis , meaning probably the leading chiefs.58 Such a momen¬
tous beginning failed to lay the foundation of a truly constitutional
monarchy in ancient Bengal, probably because there was i-J perma¬
nent and regularly constituted Council of Ministers (or Assembly of
the People) at that time. In the later records of the Palas, their gov¬
ernment is wholly assimilated to the pattern of a personal monarchy,
and there is no question of any constitutional restraint upon the
king’s authority. The Palas from the first assumed the usual impe¬
rial title of paramesvara paramabhatpiraka mahdrdjdd hirdj a , for
which the precedent had been set by the Imperial Guptas in their
North Bengal inscriptions. As regards the offices of the central gov¬
ernment, a mantr'l is mentioned only in later Pala inscriptions belong¬
ing to the times of Mahlpala I, Vigrahapala III, and Nayapala. But
we have the record59 of a distinguished Brahmana family which fur¬
nished a succession of what can only be called Chief Ministers from
the time of Dharmapala to that of Narayanapala. Making due allow¬
ance for evident exaggeration in the claims of these ministers, we
may conclude that they exercised a commanding influence on the
Early Palas. But this influence was due entirely to their personal
capacity, and not to the constitutional status of the office in question.
From the list of officials given in the formula of the Pala land-grants,
we can infer that the central government of the early kings comprised
a number of Departments. These Departments with the officials be¬
longing to each may be enumerated as follows: — Finance ( shashtha -
dhikrita, torika, tarapati, and saulkika), Police ( dandasakti , danda*
pcLsika, and chauroddharanika) , Army and Navy (sendpati, gaulmika,
ndvddhyaksha, and baladhyaksha) . Besides, there were executive
officers with functions imperfectly known (rajdmdtya, daiihsadhasa-
dhanika, duta f khola, gamdgamika, abhitvdramdna , tadayuktaka, and
viniyuktaka) , as well as superintendents (adhyakshas) of the royal
herds and studs. The later records point to the creation of new officers
representing the Departments of Finance ( pramdtri ), Police (dan-

242

POLITICAL THEORY

dika), Justice (dasapamdhika), Army (prdntapdla, kottapdla, and
perhaps kfutndaraksha) , besides the more indefinite sarabhanga ,
kshetrapa f and so forth. Some names like senapati , bhogapati,
shashthadhikrita f and dandasakti, on the other hand, drop out of the
picture altogether. The later inscriptions testify to the creation of a
whole set of High Imperial officers of the type known to the Imperial
Guptas. Such are the mahdsdndhivigrahika (minister of Foreign
Affairs), mahdkshapatalika (Chief Accounts Officer), mahdsendpati
(Commander-in-Chief), Mahddan^andyaka (Chief Commander of
forces?), mahcikart&kritika, mahddauhsddhasddhanika, and mxihdku-
mdrdmdtya (three classes of executive officers).

Among the dignitaries mentioned in the formulas of the Pala
land-grants are included the uparika , the vishayapati f the vishaya -
vycivahcrins (comprising the jyeshthakdyastha or leading scribe
and the mahdmahattaras, mahattamas , and mahattaras who were
elders of three grades), as well as the ddsagrdmika (lord of ten vil¬
lages), and the grdmapati (village headman). The uparikas and the
vishayapatis were respectively in charge of provinces (bhuktis) and
districts ( vishayas ) into which the Pala kingdom is known from
other records to have been divided for administrative purposes.
The office of ddsagrdmika seems to show that the unit of local ad¬
ministration known to Manu and the MahabhdrataQ0 existed in
Bengal at this period. The vishayavyavahdrins suggest a body of
leading householders of the district. The grdmapati points to the
continuance of the traditional village administration under a head¬
man.61

In the ninth century Kamarupa was ruled by kings of the line
of Salas tambha who are commemorated by a number of inscriptions
one of which bears the date corresponding to A.D. 829. The kings
adopted the usual imperial title of mahamjadhiraja paramesvara
paramabhattdraka , or more shortly mahdrajddhirdja. Though the
succession to the throne was usually hereditary in the male line,
we have a remarkable instance62 of two Princes Chakra and Arathi
being passed over in favour of the latter’s son for the offence of dis¬
regarding the opinion of their elders. Among the chief officers of
State are mentioned a mahdsainyapati, a mahadixirddhipatya, a
mdhdpratihdra , a mdhdnvdtya, a Brahmairndhikdra, and a number of
balddhyakshas . The mahdsainyapati and the baladhyaksha may be
identified respectively with mahdbalddhikrita and baladhihrita of
the Gupta records, while the mdhdpratihdra is an old Gupta official
title. The mahdmdtya probably stood at the head of the civil ad¬
ministration, while the mahdsainyapati and baladhyaksha repre¬
sented the military chief and his assistants. From the description
of the donated land in one of the records, it appears that the kingdom

243

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

was divided into the usual vishayas. The same record refers to
rural people headed by the vishctyakaranas and the vyavahdrikas ,
but the precise nature of their functions is unknown.

We can form some idea of the general characteristics and ten¬
dencies of administration in Kashmir during this period from Kal-
hana’s account. The succession to the throne was by hereditary
descent, subject to breaks caused by usurpation and the like. The
accession of Yasaskara (A.D. 939) after the extinction of the Utpala
line was a striking exception to the general rule. For Yasaskara
was elected by an assembly of Brahmanas.63 But this revolution
was barren of constitutional results like the still more famous revo¬
lution in Bengal in the shape of Gopala’s election to the throne. As
regards the organisation of the administration, we find Lalitaditya,
the greatest king of Kashmir, being credited in the Rdjatarangim 64
with the creation of five new offices ( karmgsthdnas ) over and above
the eighteen older offices attributed to the semi-legendary king
Jalauka65. The five offices were those of mahapratihara, mahd-
sdndhivigrahika, mahdsvasdla, mahabh&ndagarika, and mahd-
scidhanabhdga. Of these, the first two, known from Gupta times,
mean respectively the Chief of the Palace Guards, and the Minister
of Foreign Affairs, while the last three probably mean Chief Officer
of Cavalry, Chief Treasurer, and Chief Executive Officer respective¬
ly. Other State offices are incidentally referred to by Kalhana in
the course of his description of the subsequent reigns. Some of
these like nagaradhipa (Prefect of the city), pratlhdra (Chief of
palace guards), dandandyaka (general), and rdjasthariiya (viceroy?)
had their counterparts in the kingdoms of the plains.66 Common to
both again was the akshapatala (accounts office), although the
ekdngas of the Rdjatarangini, forming a sort of military police
attached to the same, are unknown elsewhere. Other offices like
those of the paddgra (revenue collector?), the dvdrapati (commander
of the frontier passes), the mand alesa (governor), and the kampa*
nesa (commander-in-chief) are more or less peculiar to Kashmir.67

Kalhana has preserved68 anecdotes of two well-known kings,
Chandraplda and Yasaskara, testifying to the exceptional wisdom
and equity of their judicial decisions. Incidentally we have in these
•examples a concrete illustration of the well-known Smriti rule re¬
quiring the king personally to look after the administration of
justice. The interest that the Kashmir kings took in works of pub¬
lic utility is illustrated by Kalhana’s remarkable account69 of the
extensive drainage and irrigation works carried into effect by an
exceptionally able officer called Suyya in the reign of Avantivarman
(A.D. 855/6-383). The history of financial administration, on the

244

POLITICAL THEORY

other hand, is on the whole a dreary record of unjust exactions
inflicted by a succession of tyrants.70

III. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION— SOUTH INDIA

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta were the heirs of the Cbaluk-
yas of Vatapi in the imperial sovereignty of the Deccan. Though
the Rashtrakutas were at first content with the feudatory title of
mahdsdmantddhipati, they afterwards adopted full imperial titles.
Next to the king in dignity, if not in authority, stood the Crown
Prince. In contrast with their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani,
the Queens and Princesses of the Rashtrakuta line hardly exercised
any political influence. We have only one record71 of a Queen
granting a village on her own authority. Among the high officers
of State are mentioned those bearing the titles of mabascindhivi-
grahika (Minister of Foreign Affairs), bhandagarika (Treasurer),
battdhikrita, dandandyakci, and m a hdpr a chcmdci d a ridanay aka (three
grades of military officers) and the officer connected with the court
of justice. One record72 mentions a mahas&ndhivigrahika as being
the son of a baladhikrita, which indicates a tendency towards the
selection of high officials by hereditary descent.

The structure of local government under the Rashtrakutas
partook of the regional variety of their empire. In Maharashtra
and South Gujarat the donated villages are often described as lying
within groups of 12, 24, and 84, while sometimes such a village is
located within a bhukti . The numerical groups are reminiscent
of the typical clan-chief’s estate and its sub-divisions to which refer¬
ence has been made above. The bhukti is the old administrative
division known from the Gupta times. In the Kannada region, on
the other hand, the villages are included in groups having larger or
smaller numerical endings.73 These figures, as Fleet74 pointed out
long ago, refer to the real or supposed number of villages comprised
within the groups. The policy of the central government often
allowed combination of the larger and smaller divisions under the
same officer. We also hear of separate officers ( nahgavwfbdas ,
translated as county-sheriffs) in charge of smaller groups of 300
and the like. We have reasons to think that the office of the county-
gavunda was one of high authority and dignity. In one record75
the county-gavunda in charge of two groups of 300 each bears the
title of dharmamakartija known to the Early Pallava and Kadamba
kings, and he expressly reserves for his own share a fixed revenue
along with the king’s share, while granting some lands to a temple.
The county -gavurida, either singly nr jointly with other gavunfas,
could endow lands, transfer revenues, and grant remissions for pious
objects.76

245

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The machinery of town and village administration under the
Rashtrakutas was as varied as that of the administration of the pro¬
vinces and districts. In North Konkan, which was ruled by the
Silahara feudatories of the Rashtrakutas, the towns were in charge
of purapatis or nagarapatis (Town Prefects). In the Kannada tract
the towns were ruled by ur-gdvundas (sheriffs). In Maharashtra
and South Gujarat the villages had their headmen called grama-
kutas 9 the number of these in a single village being sometimes as
many as six or twelve.77 By the side of the headman there was the
group of mahattaras (elders) with an executive board bearing the
title of adhikarins.78 In the Kannada area the villages had their
bodies of mahajancis , who not only attested gifts by private indivi¬
duals and received assignments of local taxes from provincial and
district officers, but also made grants of land for pious purposes.79

The feudatories of the Rashtrakutas constituted an important
factor in the State administration. The great feudatory families
like the Gangas of Gangavadi 96000 were invested with military
commands, and they fought wTars on behalf of their paramount sove¬
reign. The court and administration of the great feudatories were
modelled on those of the paramount power. Thus the Rashtrakutas
of Gujarat who bore the title of mahasamantadhipati had on their
staff, as we learn from the formula of their land-grants, the sandhi -
vigrahika, the rdshtrapati, the vishayapati, the g'rdmakuta, the
niyuktaka, and the yukta} — a sandhivigrahika (or mahasandhivigra-
hika) being mentioned as usual as the writer of charters. Never¬
theless the status of the feudatories must have differed greatly
according to their importance. While the higher class could assign
taxes and alienate lands without the consent of the paramount
power,80 the lower grades had to submit to alienations of their lands
at the orders of the ruling sovereign or his ministers.81 The semi¬
independent position of the great feudatories is expressed by the
conventional phrases indicative of their rule which differentiate it
at once from the rule of the paramount Emperor and the govern¬
ment of mere State officials.82

The administration of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose
-rule, beginning before the Rashtrakutas, survived their downfall,
has some interesting features. Among their high dignitaries of
State are mentioned, besides the yuvavdja (Crown Prince) and the
senani (Commander-in-Chief) known to other dynasties, a body of
five ministers and the katakadhisa (Superintendent of the Royal
Camp). The provinces were called vishayas and the leading mem¬
ber (perhaps the governor) had the title of 'rashtrakuta. We have
some glimpses into the working of the village administration under

246

POLITICAL THEORY

the rule of this dynasty. In one case83 the king is said to have
granted the office of grdmakiifa in perpetuity to an individual. This
proves that the village headman, at least in some cases, could be
nominated by the king. Another record84 states that the mahd-
j anas of a village elected the members of a Brahmana family on the
Committee of five (pancha-vctra) , because of their eloquence in
committee assemblies. From this it may be inferred that the Vehgl
country under the Eastern Chalukyas, like the Chola Empire in
later times, knew self-governing village assemblies with elected
committees for the transaction of business.

Few details have been preserved of the administration of the
Pandya kings in the first period of their ascendancy (from the begin¬
ning of the seventh to that of the tenth century A.D.). There are,
however, clear indications of the existence of a well-organised
government under their rule. A distinguished family of the time
of the Early Pandya king Jatila Parantaka (c. A.D. 765-815) fur¬
nished a number of high officials with the titles uttcCramantri (Prime
Minister) and mahdsdmanta to the State service. We hear, besides,
of officers for executing the king’s orders for a pious gift as well as
of other revenue officers. Reference is made to the sen&pati
(general), while other records mention an officer in charge of
elephants ( matangajddhyaksha ) as well as troops in the service of
the king or other leaders.86 Not only therefore was the army in
charge of the supreme general, but there were separate commands
for its different branches, while the king as well as other leaders
maintained troops in their service. The lowest unit of the local
administration was the gramam (village) and a number of these
formed the kurram or nadu sometimes Sanskritized into rashtra.
In the working of the village administration the assembly ( sabhd
or ur) played an important part. Such was the reputation of these
bodies for integrity and efficiency, that kings often placed perma¬
nent endowments of gold coins in their hands for meeting the ex¬
penses of worship in temples out of the interest accruing therefrom
at specified rates.86 Again, the body of temple servants and the
representatives of the village assemblies were sometimes jointly
constituted as trustees for the proper administration of the temple
funds.87 The assembly also owned lands which could be granted
by the great men of the village, and its approval was necessary
when a Brahmana donee of a village granted lands to his kinsmen.88
From a record of A.D. 80089 we learn that the assembly used to
meet at a stated hour in a fixed public place. According to the
rules framed by the assembly on this occasion, it was to be open
to all land-owners, but only those who had a certain property quali¬
fication along with the prescribed intellectual and moral attainments

247

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

were to take part in its deliberations. Only those possessing the
requisite qualifications were to be admitted to the committees
( variyctms ) of the assembly. This important record proves that
self-governing village assemblies with elected executive committees,
such as can be traced more fully in records of the time of the Chola
Parantaka I, existed in the Bandy a kingdom about a century earlier.

The administration of the early Imperial Cholas assumed a
high degree of complexify with the march of time. A record of
the reign of Sundara Chola90 points to a relatively simple adminis¬
trative machinery and procedure for executing the king's order for
a pious grant of land. The king’s oral order was first communicat¬
ed by the proper executive officer to the local authorities. After¬
wards the record of the transaction was drawn up and attested by
a number of witnesses who were either local magnates, or govern¬
ment officers. Far more complex is the process indicated in the
larger Leiden plates of Rajaraja I91 recording the Emperor’s grant
of a village to a Buddhist shrine. Here the king’s order is succes¬
sively committed to writing by the proper official, signed by four
Chief Secretaries, and ordered to be entered in the Accounts Regis¬
ter by a Secretary and arbitrators. The entry is made by four
officers of the Tax Department and three other officials called ‘main-
tainers of tax system’. Then a Superintendent and five other
officials are deputed for the marking of the donated village. Finally,
the royal order is sent to the Assembly (n&ttar) of the district to
present themselves on the spot and to draw up and grant the deed
of assignment to the donee. The advanced organisation of the
Chola Empire is illustrated by the fact that a general survey of
lands with a record of rights was carried out about the middle of
Rajaraja I’s reign, while fresh surveys were undertaken from time
to time thereafter. Cases were decided by the judge with the help
of learned Brahmanas at the dharmasana (probably meaning the
king’s court).

The lowest unit of the local administration was the self-govern¬
ing village of which there were two principal types. The first type had
an assembly called the ur and an executive body called the tilunga-
nam (sometimes shortened into ganam). The second type, which
was specially represented by villages of Brahmanas, had an assem¬
bly called the sabha and various committees ( variyams ) of the same
to carry out its executive work. The working of this second type
is best illustrated by some records of the reign of Parantaka I relat¬
ing to the Brahmana village of Uttaramerur. At first the sabha
of this village by a resolution ( vyavastha ) fixed the mode of appoint¬
ment (by a mixed method of lot and election) to its five executive

248

POLITICAL THEORY

committees. Shortly afterwards, the sabha adopted another resolu¬
tion amending the rules of election. After some time the sabha,
by a fresh vyavastha, arranged for appointment of a committee for
assaying gold for the village people.92 It was to consist of experts
to be chosen by lot from those who paid taxes and lived in different
quarters of the village. It was to be responsible to the Tanks and
Annual Committees and (unlike the sabha and its committees) was
to receive a monthly remuneration. It is reasonable to think that
the above method of entrusting executive work to elected com¬
mittees was followed by other sabhas as well. The sabhas exercised
a wide range of powers. They kept their own records relating to
the rights of the villagers. They decided disputes that did not fall
within the jurisdiction of other groups. They granted lands; for
maintenance of services and sacred teaching in the temples. They
founded and maintained hospitals and took charge of all charitable
endowments in the village. They controlled a number of taxes
which they could assign or remit at their pleasure. They had their
own staff of officials such as the madhyastha, who assisted in the pro¬
ceedings of the assembly without sharing in its deliberations.93

IV. LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS

The period from A.D. 750 to 1000 is definitely associated with
the works of the great Smriti commentators and makers of Digests
in place of the metrical Smritis. The change, as already observed,94
marks the advent of a new stage — the critical in place of the con¬
structive — in the history of Hindu Jurisprudence. Among these
famous Smriti commentators Medhatithi and Visvarupa, who wrote
commentaries on Manu and Yajnavalkya respectively, deserve spe¬
cial notice. Reference has also to be made to -the Smritisamgraha, a
Digest by an unnamed author.95

1. Visvarupa

Visvarupa’s opinion on the law of partition and inheritance is
marked by resemblances and differences with Vijnanesvara’s
thought. He anticipates Vijnanesvara in holding that ownership
does not arise for the first time on partition, but that partition takes
place of what is already jointly owned. But, unlike Vijnanesvara,
he interprets Yajnavalkya96 to mean that the father, distributing
his property in his lifetime, has absolute discretion in giving equal
or unequal shares to the sons. Again, he takes Yajnavalkya97 to
imply that the father, giving equal shares to the sons in the case
just mentioned, shall allow the husband’s share to his wives, as also
to the widows of his pre-deceas-ed sons and grandsons who have not
been provided with stndhana. Vijnanesvara, on the other hand,

249

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

would take the text in its literal sense to apply to the father’s own
wives alone. Similarly Visvarupa understands Yajnavalkya98 to
mean that what a man acquires by himself, without detriment to his
father’s interest, as well as a nuptial present and what he gets as
present from a friend, shall not be shared by him with his co-par-
ceners. He also takes Yajnavalkya" to mean that what was gained
by learning shall not be given to the co-parceners. These views
differ completely from those of Vijnanesvara. In the case of a man
without a son, Yajnavalkya100 mentions the order of succession as
follows: — wife, daughters, both parents, brothers and their sons, etc.
Commenting on these passages Visvarupa says that the wife shall
succeed if she were pregnant at the time of her husband’s death,
and the daughter shall do so if she was an “appointed” daughter.
This is quite different from the view of Vijnanesvara who would
allow the widow to succeed without any restriction save that of
chastity, and the daughters to do so without any qualification save
that the unmarried has precedence over the married, and the un¬
provided over the endowed daughter.

2. Medhatithi

Passing to the views of Medhatithi, we may first notice his
statements on the constitution and functions of the courts of justice.
Referring to the members of the king’s court, Medhatithi101 shows
by a concrete example that the Brahman as assisting the king have
to be versed in polity, while he quotes an alternative view to the
effect that, whereas the mantris (counsellors) should have know¬
ledge of the details of the case, the Brahmanjas should have the qua¬
lity of impartiality. More important than the above is the fact that
Medhatithi extends membership of the court in special cases to
other parties as well. For he says:102 “Where the parties, e.gr.
traders, cultivators, and cattle-breeders belong to the same pro¬
fession, and where other persons belonging to this profession feel
that they would be affected by this decision, they are entitled to
take part in the investigation.”103 In the same context Medhatithi
throws an interesting light on the nature of the hierarchy of courts.
Taking Narada104 as his text, he defines kula as ‘the body of rela¬
tives’, srenl as ‘a body of traders and others following the same pro¬
fession’, ganas as ‘persons who always move about in groups’, and
unlike sreriis act collectively. He also takes ‘an authorised person’
to mean ‘the Brahmana learned in the Vedas.’ It follows from the
above that the srertHs corresponded to trade- and craft-guilds, and
the ganas to wider and more closely knit Associations. The family
courts, Medhatithi goes on, through fear of relations do not always
exercise a check upon persons deviating from the right path. Hence

250

POLITICAL THEORY

a party not having confidence in them is entitled to carry his case
to the Guilds. The Guilds are very jealous of their independence;
in fact they take care not to let any matter within their purview go
before the king, lest the king’s officers should take the opportunity
to interfere with their work. It is their practice to take sureties for
satisfaction of judgment from both parties at the beginning of the
suit, the surety being liable to a fine in the case of his party not
accepting the decision. The Associations investigate cases by them¬
selves, and they appoint committees ( upasad ) for enforcing their
decision. Their practice of collective action makes them dreaded
by all. The king, because of his great power, is superior to all other
courts, so that a case decided by him cannot be re-opened. From
the above discussion Medhatithi draws the important conclusion
that the other courts (“Brahmanas and others”) are entitled to pro¬
nounce judgments, though the king alone has the right of inflicting
punishment. Medhatithi takes this opportunity to point out the
essential difference between the standpoints of the king and other
authorities in judicial trials. The motive of the king, he says, in
looking into cases is the proper administration of his kingdom,
while that of others lies only in settfing doubtful points for the
benefit of the people. In another context Medhatithi105 explains
the difference between the spirit of the king’s executive and judicial
administration. “When he is seated upon his royal throne, the king
regards wealth ( artha ) as the most important matter even in pre¬
ference to morality ( dharma ). But when he is engaged in deciding
suits, he regards morality as the most important thing.”

The rationale of judicial proceedings consists, according to Med¬
hatithi106, in ensuring the immunity of the people from seen and un¬
seen troubles along with preservation of the kingdom which would
otherwise be destroyed. In this we have a remarkable illustration
of the Smriti view of the identity of interests of the king and his
subjects. Medhatithi’s views on various points of judicial procedure
treated by the older authors indicate the remarkable independence
of his thought, combined with good sense and love of fair-play. Deal¬
ing with Manu’s rule requiring the king to take up cases of suitors
in the order of their respective castes, Medhatithi observes: “This
order of investigation based upon castes is to be observed only when
the troubles of all the suitors are of the same degree: when, on the
other hand, the business of the lower caste is very urgent or very
important, then it should be taken up first.” Medhatithi justifies
this rule on the remarkable ground that the public interest over¬
rides the written text. ( Salus populi est suprema lex) For he
says: “The investigation of cases is for the purpose of maintaining

251

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

order in the kingdom, so that the rules laid down need not always
be followed literally.’, In connection with the question of time
allowable for filing the plaint and its answer, Medhatithi107 argues
that the plaintiff already knows the amount of his dues or the man
who has wronged him. On the other hand when the defendant is
dragged before the court, he does not know the nature of the com¬
plaint against him and cannot find the right answer. The plaintiff,
therefore, must complete his plaint on the same date, or he may
be granted two or three days’ time. The defendant should be grant¬
ed a postponement which, however, must be only for the period
regarded as a fair interval for the understanding of the suit and the
finding of the answer. The text of Gautama108 allowing postpone¬
ment of the answer for one year, Medhatithi emphatically says,
should not be followed in practice, as he pertinently asks, if non¬
understanding is sufficient cause for delay, why should it cease to
be so after the lapse of one year only?

From the benefit of the rule allowing postponement of the ans-.
wer, Medhatithi expressly excludes the group of heinous offences.
His argument in support of this contention indicates his clear grasp
of the essential difference between civil and criminal cases. “In the
case of non-payment of debt and the like,” he says, “if the parties
settle it themselves, it is no business of the king to interfere. But
in the case of a criminal, it is the duty of the king to punish him
even though he may have come to terms with the plaintiffs.” In
other words, civil suits are the concerns of the private parties, while
crimes are essentially offences against the State. The different pro¬
cedure adopted in the two classes of suits is explained by Medhatithi
while discussing Manu’s text109 which forbids the king or his ser¬
vants to promote a suit. “This applies”, he says, “to non-payment
of debt and similar subjects: as for thieves and criminals who are
like thorns in the kingdom, these the king shall capture and punish
even when he catches them himself.” Dealing with the law of evi¬
dence, Medhatithi categorically rejects Narada’s statement that
documentary evidence is superior to witnesses. As he cogently
argues, “Documentary evidence is of two kinds — those written by
the party himself and those written by another person. This last
again is of two kinds — (a) those written by a scribe who volunteers
to do the writing, and (b) those written by an authorised scribe.
Now, a document written by another person is in every way of the

nature of a .witness . No reliability attaches to what has been

written by a single man, just as it does not attach to a single wit¬
ness. It may be argued that it is only when witnesses set down their
hands to something that they become documentary evidence. But
this difference cannot make the one superior to the other .... ‘Being

252

POLITICAL THEORY

authorised’ also cannot be regarded as a ground of distinction, be¬
cause as a matter of fact all persons authorised by the king are not
necessarily thoroughly tested.”

Medhatithi’s ideas of the law of ownership may be illustrated
by one example. Dealing with the question of the king’s title to
the property lost but claimed by the owner thereafter, Medhatithi1 10
quotes a view to the following effect: — “Even after the lapse of three
years, it will not be right for the king to take or possess what belongs
to another person, and hence what is meant is that after the lapse
of three years, if the rightful owner does not turn up, the king shall
enjoy the usufruct of the property.” This doctrine which implies
that title cannot be lost by any extent of adverse possession is quoted
by Medhatithi only for refutation. But it was destined to be adopted
afterwards by Vijnanesvara and his school.

We have referred above to some of Medhatithi’s views on parti¬
tion and inheritance. But some other points may be noted. Accord¬
ing to an unnamed authority quoted by Medhatithi,111 Manu’s rule
assigning additional portions of the family property to the eldest,
the middle -most, and the youngest sons at the time of partition
refers to past times and is not meant to be observed during the cur¬
rent Age. Medhatithi rejects the above view on the authoritative
ground that no such restriction as regards time is allowed anywhere.
In so far as the unmarried sister is concerned, Medhatithi1 12 quotes
a view which objects to her being given a share in the family pro¬
perty on the ground that the girl is entitled by custom only to the
benefit of her marriage being performed. Rejecting this view Medha¬
tithi says: “The direct assertion of the Smriti is definitely more
authoritative than custom. As a matter of fact, however, the cus¬
tom referred to is by no means universal.”

3. The Smritisamgraha

We may conclude this chapter with some reference to the views
of the Smritisamgraha Digest, which are often of great historical
interest. Ownership, according to the author, is indicated by the
sdstras and is not an affair of the world — a view which was after¬
wards to become classical through its adoption by Vijnanesvara and
his school. Elsewhere the Smritisamgraha observes that the son’s
ownership is created in the father’s property by partition — a view
which was afterwards to be vigorously opposed by Vijnanesvara.
In another passage the Smritisamgraha takes the view quoted by
Medhatithi only for refutation, namely that Manu’s allowing an
extra share to the eldest son at the time of partition is not followed
in the present Age. In the order of heirs enumerated in the Smriti -

253

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

scirhgraha, the paternal grandmother takes the property after the
mother and before the father — a view followed afterwards by Dha-
resvara. Finally the Smritisamgrahci allows the widow of a separat¬
ed co-parcener without sons to succeed only if she submits to niyoga
under the instructions of the elders. This doctrine which was des¬
tined to be vigorously opposed by Vijnanesvara is interesting as
marking a mile-stone on the road to the childless widow’s acquisi¬
tion of an absolute right to succeed to her husband’s property.113

1 . TSS Edition, p. 98.

2. I. 109.

3. op. cit., 181.

4. VII. 2.

5. I. 119.

6. On Manu, III. 119, IV. 84, 110, V. 93, VII. 1-2.

7. On Manu , VII. 2.

8. On Manu, VIII. 1.

9X9

10. On Manu, VII. 12.

11. On Manu, VII. 13.

12. IX. 253.

13. Manu, VH. 138.

14. On Manu, IX. 254.

15. VIII. 348-49.

16. On Manu, VIII. 350.

17. (Cr. Ed.) XII, 93.9; (B) XII, 92.9; XIII, 61. 32.33.

18. TSS Edition, p. 192.

19. Ibid, p. 2.

20. Ibid, pp. 2-6.

21. Ibid, pp. 7-8.

22. Ibid, pp. 83-86.

23. Bhavishya, I, 2. 120-24; Garuda, I. 217. 12.

24. Matsya, CCXXVI. 1; Vislinudharmottara, II, 71.1.

25. Brihaddharma, III, 3, 8-9.

26. Matsya, CCXXVI. 3-12; Brihaddharma, III, 3.6.

27. II, 2. 2-16.

28. CX. 26.

29.11,2.2-16.

: 30. (Cr. Ed. and B.) XII, 67. 2.

31. Ill, 3. 7.

32. Ill, 4. 1.

33. Ibid, 6. 1, 56.

34. Ill, 3. 1.

35. II, 4. 2.

36. Brihaddharma, III, 3. 10-11; Agni, CCXXIII. 9-10; Vislinudharmottara

II, 61. 18-27. '

37. CCXXVII. 63-64.

38. II, 61. 49-50.

39. Garuda, I 6. 5-8 ; Agni XVII. 11-18; XIX. 22-29; Matsya, X, 3-16; Brihad -
40 ya£™a’ ***’ 4-59, 14. 1-74; Vishnudharmottara, I. 108-09.

41. VII. 2, 3; ibid, 20.

42. V. 67.

43. XVII. 52.

44. XXIX. 16-19.

45; XVII. 33.

46. Ibid, 51.

47. XVII. 25-27; XXXII. 66.

48. vn. 8.

254-

POLITICAL THEORY

49. VII. 21.

50. VII. 23.

51. VII. 49.

52. El, I. 159.

53. El, I. 156.

54. El, IX. 4 ff.

55. El, I. 175 f.

56. Cf. the observations of Sulaiman (A.D. 851) and Mas’udI (A.D. 941-943)
quoted in HIED, I. 4, 21, 23.

57. HIED , I. 4.

58. El, IV. 243 f. For the above explanation of prakritis, cf. HBR, I. 98.

59. El, II. 150.

60. Manu, VII. 118-119; Mhh, (Cr. Ed.) XII. 88. 3, 6; (B) XII. 87. 3, 6.

61. On the Pala administration, see HBR, I. 273-80, 285-87; Benoy Chandra Sen,
Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal (Pre -Muhammadan
epoch), Calcutta, 1942 (Part III). The most important references are El,
IV 243, XXIII. 290, XVIII. 304, XVII. 318, XV. 293, 304 and JASB, LXIX. Part
I, 68. On the significance of the titles of khola and khandaraksha see U.N.
Ghoshal, The Beginnings of Indian Historiography and other Essays, 151-153.

62. Kamarupasdsandval i by P. Bhattacharya, pp. 48 ff.

63. Rdjatarahgini, V. 476-77.

64. Ibid, IV. 14i-43.

65. Ihid, I. 118-20.

66. Stein (Rdjatarahgini) translates dandanayaka as ‘Prefect of City’ and raja-
sthaniya as ‘Chief justice.’

67. For references to the above titles, see Stein’s Rdjatarahgini, Tr. II. Index s.v.

68. RT, IV. 55 f., 85 f; VI. 14 f.

69. Ibid, V. 84 f.

70. For a detailed account of the above, see U. N. Ghoshal, Hindu Revenue Sys¬
tem, 249-252 and IHQ, XVUI. 307-9.

71. El, XXII. 105.

72. El, X. 85 f.

73. Such were Banavasi 12,000, Kundur 500, Purigere 300, and Kandarage 70.

74. Dyn. Kan. p. 298 fji. 2.

75. El, XIV. 365 f.

76. El, XIV. 365 f; XVI. 278 f. Altekar ( The Rashtrakutas and Their Times, 158-
160) thinks that the rd shtramahattaras and the vishayamahattaras referred to
in El, VIII. 186 and I. 55 (actually the former inscription mentions rashtra -
grdmamahattaras ) refer to councils of notables and elders in the provinces and
the districts respectively. But the evidence is clearly inconclusive.

77. JBBRAS, X. 283 f; El, XIV. 144 ff.

78. El, X. 85 f; XIV. 150; XVII. 249 etc. According to Altekar (The Rashtra -
kutas, 196) the dyuktas, niyuktas and upayuktas mentioned in the Rashtra-
kuta land-grants after the grdmakutas and before the grdmamahattaras were
no other than village accountants and their assistants.

79. El, XXI. 208; VI. 102 f. 353; VII. 201 f.

80. IA, XIII. 136; El, in. 310.

81. I A, I. 141; El, XVin. 248.

82. The phrase applied to the feudatories is ‘ruling with pleasure of agreeable
or friendly interchange of communications’. This is distinguished on the one
hand from the grandiloquent formula applied to the paramount ruler, namely,
‘the virtuous reign, augmenting with perpetual increase, being current so as to
endure so long as the moon and sun and stars may last’, and on the other
hand from the simple style of purely subordinate officials, namely, ‘to govern
with punishment of the wicked and protection of the good’. Cf. Dyn. Kan,
p. 428, f.n. 4.

83. El, VII. 185 f,

84. El, V. 135 f.

85. See K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Pandya Kingdom 60-61, for references to the
uttaramantri and the mahasarnanta, and ibid, 85-86, for reference to the
matahgajddhyaksha.

86. In the adjoining territory under the rule of the Bana kings we have similar
records (El, XI. 227-228) of village assemblies receiving endowments of gold
from a queen and a magnate for providing worship in temples out of the
resulting interest.

255

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

87. El,- IX. 92 f; XXI. 109 f; etc.

88. El, XVII. 298 f.

89. El, XXII. 9 f.

90. El, XV. 50.

91. El, XXII. 238 f.

92. El, XXII. 149.

93. The above is based, where references are not given, upon K. A. Nilakanta
Sastri, The Cholas II (Part I) 277 f.

94. Vol. Ill, j 356.

95. According to Kane ( KHDS , I), Medhatithi “most probably flourished bet¬
ween 825 and 900 A.D.” (p. 225), Visvarupa, between 750 and 1000 A.D.
(p. 261) and Smritisamgraha “was probably completed between the 8th and
10th centuries of the Christian era” (p. 242).

96. YAj, II. 118.

97. Ibid, II. 119.

98. Ibid , II. 122.

99. Ibid, II. 126.

100. Ibid, II. 139, 140.

101. On Manu, VIII. 1.

102. On Manu, VIII. 2.

103. The present and following translations of extracts from Medhatithi are taken
from the work Manu-Smriti, The Laws of Manu, with the Bhdshya of Medha¬
tithi, translated by Ganganath Jha, (published by the University of Calcutta).

104. I. 8.

105. On Manu, VIII. 23.

106. On Manu, VIII. 1.

107. On Manu, VIII. 56.

108. XIII. 28.

109. VIII. 43.

110. On Manu, VIII. 30.

111. On Manu, VIII. 112.

112. On Manu, VIII. 118.

113. For references to the texts of Smritisamgraha quoted above, see Smritichan-
drika, Vyavaharakanda, 257, 259, 266, 294.

256

CHAPTER XI

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

A, GENERAL REVIEW

The fundamental features of religious ideas and practices, which
characterised the previous period, 1 continue during the period under
review. But the relative importance of the different religious sects
undergoes a great change. - The Puranic Hinduism, in the forms of
Saivism and Vaishnavism, now gradually dominate the field, and vie
with each other for supremacy. Both Buddhism and Jainism are
gradually ousted from the Tamil land and other parts of South India.
Jainism for a time gains an ascendancy in the Deccan, and retains
its stronghold in Western India, while Buddhism, as a living force,
is practically confined to the dominions of the Pala kings in Bengal
and Bihar. Both these heterodox creeds are still followed by isolated
groups all over Northern India, but there is ample evidence that they
were fast losing their importance, save in very restricted areas. Two
notable characteristics of religious life in the preceding period, viz.,
toleration and worship of images, not only continue in full force but
are ever on the increase. The temples grow in number and massive
grandeur, and the images are multiplied almost without any limit.
These two features of the religion are not noticed separately in the
present volume, but will be dealt with in the next, which will afford
an opportunity to trace their development in an unbroken line, down
to the last days of Hindu rule.

The spirit of toleration displayed by the followers of different
religions led to a Catholicism which overrode narrow sectarian views,
and members of the same royal family are known to have been vota¬
ries of different religious cults. The most typical example is fur¬
nished by the Imperial Pratiharas. The founder of this family was a
devotee of Vishnu, while his three descendants were worshippers,
respectively, of Siva, Bhagavati and Sun-god. The Pala Emperors,
though staunch Buddhists, employed orthodox Brahmanas as their
hereditary chief ministers and attended the religious ceremonies of
the latter. Many other examples of this type will be met with in
the history of the different royal dynasties treated in this volume.

It is no wonder, therefore, that the period brings into prominent
relief the reciprocal influence of different religious sects upon one
another. Both Buddhism and Jainism develop theistic tendencies

257

A.I-K.— 17

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

on the analogy of Saivism and Vaishnavism. Buddhas and Jinas
are regarded as gods, and their images are worshipped in temples
with devotional songs, accompanied by rites and ceremonies which
clearly betray the influence of the devotees of &iva and Vishnu.
Jina is described as the Universal spirit-— a very near approach to the
conception of God — manifesting itself as 6iva, Sugata, and Vishnu,
while Buddha and Jinas are accepted as avataras or incarnations of
Vishnu. The idea of Hari-Hara, or personification of the two gods
Siva and Vishnu in one image, is another illustration of the same
spirit. On the other hand the cult of ahimsa, which still manifests
itself in many spheres of Indian life, notably in the vegetarian diets of
upper class Hindus in large areas of India, is a permanent memorial
of the influence of Jainism and Buddhism upon Brahmanical sects.

One of the potent factors in the evolution of the religious ideas
of this period is the emergence of the Tantrik cult which profoundly
influenced Buddhism and transformed it almost beyond recognition.
The same ideas also pervaded different Brahmanical sects and radi¬
cally changed their views and practices.

The fundamental unity of ideas underlying these changes not
only explains the characteristics of religious transformation in
general, but the gradual assimilation of Buddhism with the Brah¬
manical religion in particular. Jainism alone withstood these new
currents and largely maintained, as before, its rigid orthodoxy. This
is one of the reasons which enabled it to continue as a distinct cult
while Buddhism slowly but steadily lost its separate existence in
India.

While the growth of Tantrik ideas was sapping the vitality of
Buddhism, Brahmanical religion was enthroned on a high pedestal
by philosophers like Sahkaracharya. His triumphant career finally
assured the victory of orthodox Brahmanical religion over the hetero¬
dox sects. Though he was a Saiva by persuasion and undoubtedly
gave a great fillip to that sect, his philosophical dissertations were
conducive to the revival of other Brahmanical sects as well. The
predominance which £aivism acquired from this dominant person¬
ality was further helped by the growth of a special school in Kash¬
mir which did away with many outlandish practices that disfigur¬
ed that sect. Vaishnavism also developed an intellectual and philo¬
sophical aspect, as opposed to the emotional fervour of the preceding
period, in the Tamil land. The Acharyas took the place of Alvars,
and Nathamuni, who flourished during this period, was the forerun¬
ner of a band of distinguished religious leaders who shed lustre on
the succeeding age. We find already the beginnings of that great
controversy about the respective place of bhakti (devotion), jnana

258

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

(knowledge) and karma (Vedic rites and ceremonies), in the scheme
of final salvation. These three ideas which clustered round the
Vaishnava Acharyas and the two Schools of Mimamsa associated with
the names of Sankara and Kumarila still form the main planks or
bases of the Hindu religion.

B. BUDDHISM
I. DOCTRINAL CHANGES
1. Emergence of Tantrikism

The period under review witnessed not only the decadence of
pure Hmayana and Mahayana Buddhism but also the appearance
of a new phase of the religion, in which the original ethical and phi¬
losophical principles were superimposed in such a way by an esoteric
Yogic system, combined with endless rituals and forms of worship,
that it could hardly be called Buddhism any longer. As we have
seen above, Buddha’s rational and ethical teachings, free from wor¬
ship and rituals, gradually gave way in the early centuries of the
Christian era to a popular form of the religion with a new ethical and
devotional outlook, while his philosophical teachings received a new
interpretation at the hands of the masterminds like Asanga, Nagar-
juna, Vasubandhu, and Aryadeva. With Chandraklrti and Santi-
deva, Dinnaga and Dharmakirti ended the glorious days of Buddhist
logic and philosophy. Then came the days of stotras and stavas be¬
gun by Sarvajnamitra of Kashmir in the eighth century A.D.1a The
religion lost itself in the maze of mysticism and was engulfed by a
host of mudras (finger-gestures or physical postures), mandalas (mys¬
tical diagrams), kriyds (rites and ceremonies) and eliaryds (medita-
tional practices and observances for external and internal purity).
The teachings of one of the noblest minds were thus deformed into
a system of magical spells, exorcisms, spirit-beliefs, and worship of
demons and divinities.

It is strange that the promulgators of the new system sought
their justification from the ancient words of Buddha and the philo¬
sophical teachings of Asanga and Nagarjuna, and succeeded in con¬
juring up before the eyes of the masses a religion with immense pos¬
sibilities. It must however be admitted that this new type of sddha-
nas or yogic practices did confer on the adepts some superhuman
powers and also led many to the realization of high spiritual states,
and that there were among the adepts some who, in purity and know¬
ledge, ranked in no way inferior to some of the best ariiats of the
past. In fact this new phase of Buddhism was not a hocus-pocus or
a ruse for debauchery but envisaged something very deep and subtle

259

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

to be realized only by those who were initiated into the secrets by
their spiritual teachers. At the same time it must be admitted that
the human mind can be worked up into any type of perversity
through faith, logic and reasoning derived from the same religion
which once upheld the noblest ideals of human life and the same phi¬
losophy which unfolded the deepest mysteries of the universe. Be
it ancient India or Egypt, mediaeval China or the Middle East,
modem Europe or Japan, we find the same story, viz. that in the
name of religion and philosophy, necessity and circumstances have
debased human mind to the lowest conceivable vulgarity.

The mission of Buddha to wean the Indian mind from the blind
faith in the efficacy of worship and rituals passed into oblivion, and
the leaning of the Indian mind towards the worship of divinities and
the awe and veneration for rituals and mystical utterances ( man¬
tras ) re-asserted itself. The belief in the efficacy of the Atharva-
vedic mantras, the superhuman powers acquired by the mystics
( sadhakas ), the arts of divination, necromancy and the hundred and
one superstitious beliefs could not be totally eradicated from the
Indian mind, however arduous might have been the efforts of Bud¬
dha in that direction. The huge sacrificial literature (the Srauta -
sutras) that grew up in the post-Vedic period permeated the Indian
mind to such an extent that it was almost impossible to separate reli¬
gion from ritualistic worship and mystical utterances (mantras).
Buddha had to repeat his warnings to his disciples and devotees to
disabuse their minds of the efficacy of the mantra rituals, but the
sequel shows that he failed in his mission. In as early a text as the
Digha Nikaya there is one complete suttanta (Atdnatiya)2 which is
described as a rakkha (protecting spell) to be memorised for avert¬
ing evils from yakshas, gandharvas and other evil spirits. The
anomaly of the occurrence of parittas ( =rakkhd— protecting spells)
in the Pitakan texts has been discussed in the Milindapanha.3 The
Mahdmayurtdhdrant appears in the Vinaya-Pitaka of the Sarvasti-
vadins. Hence it must be admitted that throughout the career of
Buddhism, the use of incantations or mystical utterances was in
vogue, and so Taranatha4 rightly said that in general the origin of
Sutras and Tantras could not be distinguished in regard to time, place
and teacher, and the utmost that could be stated is that the Tantras
(excluding the Anuttarayogatantra) appeared at the same time as the
M.cihdydna-sutras. The tradition is that the yogic practices propound¬
ed by Asanga led to the growth of esotericism, which in course of time
became Tantrikism. Tantrikism is not confined to Buddhism and re¬
presents a common phase of development both in Buddhist and Brah-
manical religions. A more detailed account of its nature and pro-

260

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

gress will be given in a later section of this chapter. Here it will suffice
to note only its characteristic features so far as Buddhism is con¬
cerned.

2. Dharanis

The earliest literature which may be called precursor of Tantra
was known as the Dharanis and formed a part of the Mahaydna -
sutras. At the time of composition of the Lalitavistara!5 or Sandhi-
nirmochana-sutra 6 (about second century A.D.), the special sense of
Dhdrani was unknown and its earliest use as a mantra was made in
the Kdranidavyuha7 of about the fourth century A.D. It is a text
devoted to the glorification of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara who
with Tara formed the chief deities of worship in the early Tantra
literature. In most of the early Mahayana texts, e.g., in the Suvar-
naprabhdsa-sutraQ there is a section exhorting the gods and demons
to protect those, who read and write the Sutra, from harm. In the
Saddharmapundarika 9 there are a few Dharanis which, if uttered
by the reciters of the Sutra , would protect them from all harm. In
course of time a large number of Dharanis were composed, and the
utterance of these Dharanis not only protected the reciters from
ndgas, yakshas, rakshasas and other evil spirits, but also from king’s
punishments, snakes, ferocious animals, fire, theft, diseases, deadly
sins and all causes of untimely death. The utterance of Dharanis
again conferred all kinds of blessings on the reciters like peace and
happiness at the time of death, a desirable rebirth, and even a strong
desire for Bodhichitta and ultimate emancipation.

In course of time, the mantras were written on birch-bark and
used as amulets for particular purposes.10 The utterance of the
Dharanis or Mantrapadas was preceded and followed by an ela¬
borate ritualistic worship of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and other
deities. These were represented either by images or by paintings,
for which also there were directions in the texts. The priests, who
officiated in these ceremonial worships, wrere called Vidyddharas
whose function was to recite the Dharanis or Mantras which, in
some special instances, were designated as Vidydrdjm (e.g. Mahd -
mdyuri-vidyavdjni), for the benefit of the xorshipper (yajamand).

The growth of the Dhdrani literature took place between the
fourth and eighth centuries A.D.- A large number of manuscripts
containing Dharanis have been discovered in Gilgit, Eastern Turkes¬
tan and Central Asia. These are written in Upright Gupta charac¬
ters of the seventh ceutury A.D. Some of these appear also in the
languages current in Central Asia.

261

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The Dhdranls or Mantrapadas had very little to do with the
secret yoglc practices of Tantrikism. The efficacy of the Dhdranls
rested mainly on the repetition of mantras on the auspicious days of
a month along with some ceremonies for the worship of Avaloki¬
tesvara. There is no place for Sakti in these ceremonies nor in the
mudrds and mandalas, kriyds and charyds.

3. Avalokitesvara and Tara

The only deity invoked in most of the earlier Dhdrams is the
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who was a devotee of Buddha Vairo-
chana. The abode of Avalokitesvara is placed at Potalaka, a place
somewhere in the south, near Srldhanyakataka (Amaravati). In
the Kdrandvyuha (fourth century A.D.) this Bodhisattva is glori¬
fied as the first god to issue out of the primordial Buddha (Adi-
B ud dha Ad i natha — Va j r a ) and to create the universe. In this
text, the goddess Tara does not appear- while there are references
to Mahesvara and Uma, as devotees of Avalokitesvara. It seems that
in course of time this Uma-Mahesvara conception was superimposed
on Mahayana and paved the way for the advent of Tantrayana.

It is in this text again that we come across for the first time
the well-known mantra eOm manipadme hum 3 with an account of
the immense magical merit derived by the utterance of the six
syllables. This mantra is said to be the innermost core (hridaya)u
of Avalokitesvara and the quintessence of all knowledge (including
the navdhga — nine divisions of the Tripitaka) and was known as
the shadakshalrl-mahdvidydrtijni. Repetition of these words not
only conferred all the conceivable earthly and heavenly blessings,
but also led to the attainment of the highest knowledge, the truth.

Thus, we see that up to the fourth century A.D., Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara was the chief object of worship, and the goddess
Tara had not yet been included in the Buddhist pantheon.

In the Manjusrlmulakalpa , the Bodhisattva Manjusri is glori¬
fied, but the goddess Tara is also recommended for worship by those
in distress seeking relief. In the Guhyasamdja 12 Buddha Vairo-
chana appears as the primordial Buddha, from whom emanated
many Buddhas in the female forms of Lochana, Mamaki, Pandara-
vasini and Samayatara. In the Manjusrlmulakalpa ,13 the names
of different forms of Taras are Bhrikuti, Lochana, Mamaki, Sveta,
Pandaravasini, and Sutara and these are described as Mahamudras
(great aids for yoga). In the text the goddess Tara is described as
the Vidyarajnl, full of compassion and given to the alleviation of
sufferings of worldly beings. Her sphere of action is the east but
she wanders over the whole world.14

262

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

The elevation of Tara to the position of the highest deity is found
for the first time in the Mahdpratyangird-dhdranl, a fragment of which
was found in Central Asia written in Upright Gupta characters of
the seventh century, and transliterated in Chinese characters by the
famous Tantrik teacher, Amoghavajra (A.D. 704=774). In this

treatise Tara is described as goddess of white colour and noble mien,
wearing a garland of vajras , holding a vajra in her hand, and having
the figure of Vairochana on her crown, and so forth. The Kashmi¬
rian poet Sarvajiiamitra of the eighth century composed a stotra in
praise of Tara called the Sr agdhara- stotra, in which the goddess is
described as a giver of strength to the weak and solace to the dis¬
tressed, the saviour of all beings from sufferings.

It is from the seventh century A.D. onwards that we find the
exuberance of Tara-stotras , and goddess Tara (Prajna or Prajna-
paramita) raised to the mothership of all Buddhas and made a com¬
panion of Avalokitesvara, the personification of love (maitn) and
compassion ( karwnd ). This notion reminds us of the Hindu Tan¬
trik conception,15 in which Brahman is placed as the primoraial
cause, the unmanifested Purusha and Sakti. Brahman, being neuter
and incapable of creation, produced Siva and Sakti, of whom Sakti
is the cause of liberation ( moksha ), Siva or Purusha, the cause of
bondage (samsdra) . The Buddhist conception runs almost parallel
to the above and we may equate Brahman to Adi-Buddha, Sakti to
Tara or Prajna, the cause of liberation, and Siva to Avalokitesvara,
the only deviation being that Siva or Purusha is the cause of samsdra
while Avalokitesvara is the embodiment of love and compassion.

It did not take long to reach the Tantrik conception that Tara
as such was Buddha’s sakti and the relation of Buddha to Tara was
similar to that of Siva to ParvatT, the dual manifestations of Adi-
Buddha or the monistic Brahman.

4. Early Tantrik Texts
(i) The Manjusrimulakalpa

The earliest works dealing with Tantrik Buddhism are the
Manjusrimulakalpa and the Guhyasamdja. The composition of both
of these works took place some time after the Kdranda v yu ha and
before the Mahdpratyangird-dhdravd, i.e. about the fifth or sixth
century A.D.16 Though both may be classified as Tantrik Buddhist
texts, the topics of the two treatises are quite different. The
Guhyasamdja deals with yoga and anuttarayoga and incidentally
with mandalas, while the Manjusrimulakalpa gives an exposition

263

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of endless mudrds (finger-poses), mandalas (mystical diagrams),
mantras (mystical spells), kriyds (rites) and chary as (duties of an
officiating priest in worship). This text teaches that observance of
moral precepts (sila), vows ( vratas ), cleanliness in acts ( saucha -
chard), religious austerities ( niyama ), offering of oblations ( homa ),
muttering of prayers ( jdpa ) and meditation (dhyana) are the pre¬
requisites for success in the Mantra cult. The directions regarding
the above are given by the Mandaldchdrya (spiritual preceptor profi¬
cient in diagram, paintings, etc.), who gives the initiation (abfti-
sheka) and then imparts the mantra . After a long time, when the
teacher feels that his disciple has advanced spiritually, he teaches
him the duties for secret tantra-mudrd. 1 7

By far the best part of the treatise is the section devoted to
pafavidhana, i.e. directions for drawing pictures of different Bud¬
dhas, Bodhisattvas, Tara and other goddesses as also of the
Krodharajas, Yamantakas, Yakshas and Yakshinis.18 The drawing
of diagrams ( mandalas ) forms another important section of the
treatise. Each mandala as well as each pata is associated with cer¬
tain rites and ceremonies for worshipping the deities or propitiating
the evil spirits. Within and outside the mandalas, images of deities
including Buddhas and Bodhisattvas had to be painted, and the text
abounds with detailed directions of the paintings of a mandala and
the group of deities to be placed within the same. Even the deities
like Siva with a trident seated on a bull, the well-adorned Uma,
the ever young Karttikeya seated on a peacock are included in the
paintings.19 This text contains mantras for both Hindu and Bud¬
dhist deities. It makes an important contribution to the art of paint¬
ing by describing how the abstract qualities like dana (charity),
maitrt (love)', and prajna (knowledge) are to be depicted.

Apart from mantras and directions for patas (paintings) and
mandalas (diagrams) the text furnishes us with a list of the holy
places for quick success in Mantra cult and recommends particular¬
ly Srlparvata as the most suitable for such practices. This list
includes all those countries which became later the chief seats of
Tantrik Buddhism.20 In this text there is very little of the secret
Yogic practices envisaged in the Tantrik literature. The practices
recommended are mostly rites and ceremonies for worship of
Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and other deities, and utterances of mantras .
There is an admixture of Hinayana and Mahayana doctrines with
mantras and rituals. It depicts the stage just preceding the deve¬
lopment of full-fledged Vajrayana or Tantrayana and may be des¬
cribed in the words of Taranatha21 as Kriyd and Karma tantras, on
the decline of which appeared the Yoga or Anuttarayoga tantra.

264

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

(ii) The Guhyasamdja

The Guhyasamdja, devoted to Yoga afid Anuttarayoga, contains
also several mantras and a few direction^ for mandalas , but its chief
aim is to explain the Tathdgata-guhya f i.e. the unknowable reality,
the source of all Tathagatas as also of the phenomenal world, and
how to realise it. Its importance as an early text of Vajrayana lies
in the fact that it indicates the new ways and means for realising
the reality, the guhya , the vajra, with the help of mantras and
masalas, rites and ceremonies. The Tathdgata-guhya is so deep and
subtle that |t can be described as the secret of all secrets; it is the
unchangeable eternal reality, the Vajra, the Sunyata of Nagarjuna,
and the Vijnaptimdtratd of Vasubandhu. It is unfortunate that the
word (guhya> has tempted a few scholars to trace in the text sexual
ritualistic practices, and Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, in his intro¬
duction to the Guhyasamdja ,22 has done injustice to the work by
isolating, from the topic and trend of exposition, the verses which
have references to the conception of sakti, by interpreting certain
verses superficially without any reference to the theme of the pas¬
sages preceding and following them,23 and also by misinterpreting a
few verses.24

The Guhyasamdja, as stated above, gives repeatedly the exposi¬
tion of the Truth which, according to the text, is the Vajra, or one¬
ness of the universe, in which there is no distinction between a man
and a woman, between a wife and a sister or a mother, between the
excreta and the meat of any animal, even of a human being. The
Truth or the Vajra is immanent in the phenomenal world of rupa
(from), rasa (taste), gandho. (smell), sparsa (touch), etc., hence the
adepts are asked to realise the fact that Vajra is as much identical
with the phenomenal world as with the Truth.25 The text26 states
that even ragacharyu (acts of passion) is included in the functions of
Bodhisattvas because it is not different from the Truth, the Vajra,
just as all objects are in space and space is in all objects. Dvesha
(hatred), moha (delusion), rdga (attachment), chintdmani (Bodhi-
chitta) and samaya (doctrine') are the five hulas and constitute the
means of escape from kdma.27 The first three as also chintdmani
(Vajra) are called ratis, but they are really Buddhas in female form.
This Imagery wants to establish that dvesha, moha, and rdga are as
much emanations of Buddha or the Truth as is the Bodhichitta. The
Bodhisattvas are instructed to develop their body, speech, and
thought in such a way that they may become V air as, i.e. remain un¬
affected by the worldly affairs.28 In this text chitta, developed into
chitta-vajra stage, is identified with Bodhichitta, and so the concep¬
tion of Bodhidhitta is different from that of the Bodhicharyavatdra

265

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and other Mahayana texts. The Bodhichitta or Chitta-vajra in this
text29 means the realisation of the unity, the non-duality ( advaya -
madvaidhikaram) of the Truth and the universe.

5. Two Schools of Tantrik Teachers

Among the Tantrik teachers, the Vajracharyas, there were two
schools of thought; one adopted the Madhyamika and the other the
Yogachara. The conception of Vajra, as given in the Guhyasamdja
and in the works of Anahgavajra and Indrabhfiti, is that of sunyata
or extreme advayavdda of Nagarjuna, while that in the Dohas and
Cliarydpadas of Lui-pa, Kanhu or Bhusukupada is the idealism or
Vijnaptimatratd or Chittamatra of Asanga and Vasubandhu. The
Tibetan tradition speaks of two lines of Vajracharyas, one commenc¬
ing with Padmavajra and the other with Saraha.30 It is not im¬
probable that the Tantrik teachers had differences not only in regard
to the methods of sddhanas, i.e. kriyd, charya , mantra, and yoga , but
also about the conception of Vajra.

6. Distinction between Tantrikism and Mahayanism

The difference between Tantrikism and Mahayanism (i.e. the
Madhyamika- Yogachara systems) was in the ways and methods of
realising the highest truth. The Tantrikism takes the aids of mudrds,
mandalas and mantras for inducing concentration of thoughts (yoga)
and even takes recourse to hatha-yoga (meditation with artificial
aids). With these mudrds and mandalas are associated freely the
conceptions of goddesses and yoga-minded women of any caste or
origin. The sole underlying object of such association was to make
the adepts realise that the female sex, believed to be the
source of all our worldly sufferings, was as much an appearance as the
male sex, and that in the order of worldly creation, the place next to
Adi-Buddha is that of 6akti (female energy), i.e. Tara of the Bud¬
dhists and Uma of the Brahmanas. It is stated in the Guhyasamdja 31
that a few Buddhas issued out of the body of the Vairochana Buddha
in the form of female goddesses as Lochana, Mamaki, Fandaravasinl,
Samayatara, some in the shape of Rupa (form), Sabda (sound),
Gandha (smell) and Sparsa (touch), some as Dvesharati , Moharati ,
Rdgarati and Vajrarati, some as the four elements, earth, water, air
and fire, and others as the five constituents of a being, viz. Rupa
(physical elements constituting form), Vedand (feeling), Samjnd
(conception), Samskdra (impression) and Vijnana (consciousness).
In the same text32 it is also stated that earth is represented by
Lochania, water by Mamaki, fire by Pandaravasini and air by Tara,
while the five constituents of a being are represented by the five

266

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Dhyanl-Buddhas.33 Thus an important and early Tantrik text
teaches that all the causes of our worldly attachments, viz. the four
elements, five constituents, the objects of the organs of sense are in
reality emanations of Buddhas, who are in turn emanations of the
Vairochana Buddha, i.e. the Adi-Buddha. In other words, the uni¬
verse represents the variety of the unity, the Adi-Buddha.

On account of the abuses made of the Tantrik practices by quite
a large number of religious sects, there is a general notion that all
the Tantriks advocated the use of five Makaras, viz. madya (wine),
rmmsa (meat), maithuna (sexual union), matsya (fish) and mudra
(finger-poses). In the Guhyasamaja and a few other early texts,
there are references to meat-eating, union with females, and finger-
poses, but not to the use of wine and fish, which were probably later
additions. It is a pity that a religion, with the highest monistic philo¬
sophy and the noblest ideals, recommended such ways and methods
for the quick realisation of the Truth, and that it resulted more in
abuses than in the proper utilisation of the aids. Although Tantrik-
ism has been generally condemned, it still retains its hold and works
unconsciously upon the Indian mind.

II. HISTORICAL REVIEW
1. Traditional Account by Taranatha

Taranatha presents us with a picture of the state of Buddhism
during the period which immediately preceded the reign of king
Gopala, i.e. the first half of the eighth century A.D., when lived and
worked the famous logician Dharmakirti. He writes that during the
time of Dharmakirti and earlier, Buddha’s teaching was shining like-
the sun. The Acharyas of the Mahayana schools were very scholarly
and the members of the Sanghas were excellent. The number of
monks of the Hinayana schools was very large. After Dharmakirti
there appeared many distinguished Acharyas but they could not stand
in comparison with the stalwarts of the earlier period and were
unable to maintain the high traditions of their teaching. He then
furnishes us with a 1st of such scholars. One of these was Acharya
Vinltadeva, who wrote commentaries on some of the works of
Dharmakirti,34 and a few independent works on logic. He was also
the author of the history of the eighteen sects of early Buddhism.
Other teachers who dealt with logic and taught the Sutra and Vinaya
texts were 6llapalita, Santisoma, Acharya Jnanagarbha, and Acharya
Srlgupta. In the east there were a few Naiyayikas (Logicians) who
wore pointed caps and defeated the non-Buddhist Naiyayikas in dis¬
putations. Taranatha speaks of a number of Vinaya teachers, who
evidently belonged either to the Sarvastivada or the Theravada

l26 7

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sects. They were Dharmamitra, a Vibhajyavadin of Tukhara, Punya-
klrti of the Maru country, and Matricheta of Kashmir. The only
Sautrantika teacher mentioned by Taranatha is Subhamitra.

From the time of Arya Asahga, there appeared many distinguish¬
ed Mantracharyas, but their teaching of Anuttarayoga was trans¬
mitted secretly to a few deserving disciples. Though it did not spread
widely, it superseded the prevailing Kriyd (rites) and Chdrya (obser¬
vances) tantras. Taranatha35 criticises those who are doubtful about
the indigenous origin of the Tantras and tiy to trace foreign influ¬
ences. He is of opinion that the Tantras appeared at the same time
as the Mahayana Sutras, but the texts of Anuttarayoga tantra which
are full of deep meaning were produced gradually in the following
order: —

(i) Buddhakapala-tantra of 6ri Saraha;

(ii) Yoginisamcharya of Lui-pada (or Lui-pa);

(iii) Hevajra-tantra of Kambala and Padmavajra;

(iv) Samputa-tUaka of Krishnacharin;

(v) Kris hnay amari-tantra (3 sections) of Lalitavajra;

(vi) Vajrdmrita of Gambhiravajra;

(vii) Mahamayti of Kukkuri; and

(viii) Kalachakra of Pifo.

Taranatha writes that at the time of Dharmakirti there were
three Acharyas headed by Saraha and his disciple Lui-pada, and the
four distinguished Tantrik Acharyas, viz., Kambala, Lalitavajra,
Padmavajra and Indrabhuti. At that time there were two chief
centres of Tantrikism, one at Nalanda and the other at Udyiana.

Lui-pa, the head of a line of Tantrik teachers, was also a con¬
temporary of Asahga, and claimed Saraha as the founder of his line
of Acharyas. Lui-pa was born in Ujjayini, and was a writer of a king
of the west called Samantasubha.36 He was initiated into the
Chakrasambara mandala by Smasanapati and reached Bhangala
(Bengal). He initiated the king of Odivisa (Orissa), Diarika, and his
minister Tehgi into Tantrik rites.37 In the Tibetan Catalogue, the
following works are attributed to Lui-pa besides the Yogim-sam-
charyd mentioned above: — Sribhagavadabhisamaya, Vajrasattva-
sndharia, Abhisamayavibhanga and Buddhodaya. The common prac¬
tice among the disciples of adopting the names of some distinguished
Acharyas has created a good deal of confusion. It is very likely that
Lui-pa of Asahga’s time was different from the Lui-pa, the composer
of Dohas. Acharya Kambala attained some siddhi. He wrote Praj -
nd pdramitd-navosloka-pinddrtha and Svasamvedanaprakritasdstra.

268

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

He, along with Padmavajra, brought the He-vajra-tantra (He—dgyes
—cheerful ) from Udyana to Nalanda. One of his contemporaries
was Acharya Lalitavajra, who was a teacher of Nalanda. He also
brought from Udyana a few Dharanis, Kris kriayamari-tantra and a
few works on Tantrik rituals (Kalpa-kramas) , and propagated the
same in India. He taught Vairochana-mayujdla-tantra. Taranatha
writes that he was a contemporary of Naravarman,38 a petty non-
Buddhist prince of the West.

Acharya Padmavajra, in one Tibetan tradition ( vide Cordier
Catalogue), is placed at the head of a line of spiritual heads (guru).
He composed the Guhyasiddhi 39 in which he gave an exposition of
the Vajra-conception and the means of attaining it almost on the
same lines as the Guhyasamaja } dealt with above. He wrote Utpatti-
kram a-sadhana and a few other works.

Anahgavajra succeeded Padmavajra. He wrote a number of
works, of which one, the Prajnopaya-vinischaya-siddhi, is available
in original in Sanskrit.40 In this short treatise he explains the Truth
almost in the same way as Nagarjuna did in his works. His contri¬
bution is that the Truth can be attained only by the combination of
knowledge (prajnd) and compassion (updya--- karuna), and that the
adept must take the aid of a spiritual preceptor as also of mudrus and
mantras to realise the same.

Acharya Indrabhuti, who succeeded Anahgavajra, was a king
of Sambhala, one of the two dominions into which Udyana was
divided, the other being Lahkapuri, which was ruled over by Jalen-
dra. Indrabhuti took to Tantrik practices even when he was ruling
the kingdom. He received Acharya Lalitavajra with due venera¬
tion when the latter visited his kingdom, and learnt from him more
of the Tantrik sadhanas. He was also the author of several works,
one of which, the Jrvanasiddhi, is available in original Sanskrit.41
His name appears also in the Sadhanam ala42 as the author of Kuru-
kullasadhana. In the Jnanasiddhi, he points out that neither mudrd
nor mandala nor japa nor mantra can help one to attain the Truth.
It is with the help of the Guru, and by following his directions that
one must realise the Truth. Indrabhuti does not actually discard
the efficacy of the artificial aids, but what he wanted to impress
upon his disciples was that these were to be treated as mere aids and
not the means for the realisation of the Truth. He composed also
the Sahaja-siddhi.

Acharya Indrabhuti was succeeded in the spiritual leadership
by his sister and disciple Lakshmimkara who had also a few works
to her credit. One of her ^orks, Advayasiddhi, has been found in
original Sanskrit. In this work, she more or less reiterated the

269

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

views of her brother Indrabhuti.43 She is believed to be the prea¬
cher of Sahaja-yana.

Lakshmlmkara’s disciple and successor was Acharya Lllavajra44
who wrote several works, some of which were on Sahaja-yana. He
was consecrated at Udyana. He belonged to the Nyaya-madhyamika
school and invoked ManjusrI. He attained perfection and lived some
time after the demise of king Devapala, about the middle of the ninth
century A.D.

2. The Patronage of the Pala Kings

The patronage of the Pala kings forms one of the most impor¬
tant factors in the history of Buddhism during the period under re¬
view. The Pala rulers were all Buddhists, and during their long
rule, extending over nearly four centuries, Buddhism found a safe
refuge in Bihar and Bengal after it had ceased to have any footing
in the rest of India, with the exception of Kashmir, Nepal, and a few
isolated regions.

While the numerous inscriptions of the Palas leave no doubt
about their adherence to Buddhism, they do not tell us much about
their activities in furtherance of this faith. For this we are in¬
debted mainly to the traditions recorded by Tibetan historians like
Bu-ston and Taranatha and in texts like the Manjusnmulakalpa .

(i) Gopala

It is said about Gopala, the founder of the royal dynasty of the
Palas45, that he was a devotee and benefactor of Buddhism.46 He
revived the Nalanda monastery, erected several new monasteries in
his dominion, and offered lavish gifts to the Buddhist clergy. At
his time Kashmir continued to be an important centre of Buddhism
to which place resorted the monks “from the western countries. In
the west, his contemporary king of Kachchha, Vibharatta, had Bud¬
dhist leanings, but his ministers had Brahmanic faith. For this
reason the temples erected in that part of the country contained
images of both Buddhist and non-Buddhist gods. Here was one
famous temple, called Amritakumbha, consecrated by the Tantrik
Acharya Viriipa, the junior.47

It is said that during the reign of Gopala, an upastuca built the
towering Odantapurl (Tib. hyed hphur=zf[ ying high) monastery,
spending immense gold, which he obtained miraculously. The walls
and the rooms of the monastery were superbly executed and the
best of workmanship was displayed in the erection of the monas¬
tery. This structure served as a model for the first monastery built
in Tibet.

270

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

The great philosopher and dialectician &antarakshita lived and
worked during the reign of king Gopala and passed away from this
world at the time of king Dharmapala. At the invitation of the Tibe¬
tan king Khri-sroh-lde-tsan, son of the Chinese queen of Sron-tsan-
gam-po, he went to Tibet and stayed there up to A.D. 762. In Tibet
he was called Pandita Bodhisattva or Dharmasantighosha. He came
of a royal family of Bengal and became a distinguished Acharya of
Nalanda. He belonged to the Svatantrika-madhyamika school,46
though in his work Tattva-samgraha 49 he is found to be supporting
the Yogachara views. He wrote a commentary on Dharmakirti’s
Vddanyaya but his masterpiece was the voluminous work Tattva-
samgraha in which he discussed and refuted the views of several
Brahmanic as well as Buddhist philosophers and dialecticians.

(ii) Dharmapala

The next king Dharmapala was a great admirer of the teachings
of the Prajhaparamita-sutras and made Haribhadra, the great com¬
mentator of the Prajnaparamitd-sutra and exponent of the Yogachara
philosophy, his spiritual preceptor. He erected as many as fifty
monasteries for the study and teaching of the same. In Vikrama-
silavihara, founded by him, he granted allowance to those who studied
these texts. Taranatha acknowledges that the teachings of the Prajna-
pdramitds spread widely under the auspices of this king.60 After
the demise of Haribhadra, Dharmapala made Haribhadra’s disciple
Buddha jnanapada his spiritual preceptor. At the advice of this new
preceptor, the king supported also the study and teaching of the
Guhyasamaja .

Acharya Haribhadra (his full name being Haribhadrapada) came
of a royal family. He studied the Madhyamika t€ixts with Santarak-
shita, and the Yogachara texts with Vairochanabhadr^. He was ins¬
pired by Ajita Maitreyanatha in a dream and pref erred the Yoga¬
chara teachings. He wrote commentaries on the Ashtasahasrika *
Prajndpdramitd and other texts. His commentaiy ( Aloka ) on the
Ahhisamayalankdra, a treatise interpreting the Prajnapdramitd-
sutras from the Yogachara standpoint, bespeaks his vast and deep
knowledge of the Buddhist doctrines. He resided in the Traikutaka-
vihara and died about twenty years after Dharmapala’s accession to
the throne.61

One of the best disciples of Haribhadra was Buddhajnanapada,
who, after the demise of Haribhadra, became the .spiritual preceptor
of the king. He propagated the rituals and teachings of the Kriyd
and Yoga tantras particularly of the Guhyasamaja, M&yajtila, Chan -
draguhyatilaka* and Manjusrtkrodha. He performed the consecra

271

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

tion ceremony of the Vikramasila monastery and became its spiritual
head, the Vajracharya.

Besides these two teachers, there were a number of distinguished
monks, specialising in certain branches of studies. They are as
follows: —

(i) The Tantrik Acharyas Prasantamitra, Buddhaguhya and

Buddhasanti, disciples of Buddhajhanapada, Rahulabhadra

and Acharya Padmakaraghosha of Kashmir.

(ii) The commentator Kamalaslla.

(iii) The dialecticians (Naiyayikas) Kalyaina-rakshita, Sobha-
vyuha, Sagaramegha, Prabhakara, and Purnavardhana and
Dharmakaradatta of Kashmir.

Prasantamitra was a disciple of Jhanapada. He studied the Pro jna*
paramit&s and some sections of the Kriyd and Yoga tantras and
attained Y amantaka-siddhi. He built a monastery called Amrita-
kara to the south of Nalanda.

Dharmapala founded the Vikramasila monastery in the north
on the top of a mountain near the Ganga in Magadha. Around the
central monastery, there were fifty-three cells suitable for Tantrik
esoteric practices and fifty-four rooms for general use of monks; in
all there were 108 chambers. These were surrounded by a wall
having six gates. One hundred and eight monks (Pandit as) were in
charge of this monastic institution; and each had a certain specified
duty, viz. making offerings to deities, performing homa, giving ini¬
tiation, looking after pigeons, temple-attendants, and so forth. Some
of these monks were entrusted with the duties of teaching different
subjects, e.g. grammar, metaphysics, logic, ritualistic practices, etc.
Not only were these 108 Panditas maintained by the state, but even
the students or listeners to the discourses were given food and money.
There was provision for the award of diplomas to the monk-students
who showed proficiency, and the reigning kings took interest in the
award of the diplomas.62 The income of the establishment was
shared equally by the 108 Panditas.

This monastery grew up to be an important academic centre,
to which flocked students not only from all comers of India but also
from Tibet and other foreign countries. At this monastery many
Sanskrit texts were translated into Tibetan. Jinarakshita, the com¬
mentator of Sarvajnamitra’s Sragdhcird’Stotra ,63 lived in this monas¬
tery and so also did Dharma-srlmitra, mentioned in the Brihat-sva*
yambhu-piirdna.5A Dharmapala’s second spiritual preceptor Acharya
Buddhajhanapada was put in charge of the monastery at its com¬
mencement.

272

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

In Chapter 38 of his work, Taranatha gives an account of the
succession of the Vajracharyas of the Vikramaslla monastery. He
writes that there were five generations of Vajracharyas, but actually
there are twelve names, preceding the six dvara-panditas, viz.
Buddha jnanapada — Dlpankarabhadra — Jayabhadra — Sridhara 1
— - Bhavabhadra — Bhavyaklrti — Lllavajra — Durjanachandra —
Krishnasamayavajra — Tathagatarakshita — Bodhibhadra — Kama-
larakshita; — then the six dvdra-p audit as — Dlpahkara-Srljnana and
others and then — Abhayakaragupta — ^ubhakaragupta and others.

During the reign of Dharmapala, the Saindhava-sravakas creat¬
ed some troubles at Vikramaslla-vihara. They came to the monas¬
tery soon after its erection. They destroyed the metal image of
Heruka and burnt the Mantra-treatises. They preached that Maha-
yanism (i.c. Tantrikism) did not represent Buddha’s teachings and
converted many pilgrims coming from Bengal to their faith. These
Sravakas were mostly bhikshus of Simhala. King Dharmapala was
enraged at this attempt of the Sravakas and was going to punish
them, but he desisted from doing so at the advice of his spiritual
preceptor Buddhajnanapada.

The revival of Hlnayanism by the monks of Simhala and of
Sindhu is an important event in the history of Buddhism. The fact
that they decried the Mahayana and Tantrayana teachings at such
a late date as the ninth century, and still later during the rule of
the Sena kings, speaks highly of their courage and firm faith. It
seems that they obtained the patronage of the Gurjara rulers who
asserted their sovereignty in the east during the Pala period.

The successors of Dharmapala did not interfere with the endow¬
ment5'3 and so this monastic establishment carried on its work quiet¬
ly for a century without any event of extraordinary importance.
About the tenth century A.D. Vikramaslla monastery became a
famous academic centre with six renowned dvara-pariditas, whose
function was not only to admit students into the monastery, but also
to enter into controversy with the teachers of other religious faiths.
The names of these dvara-panditas are as follows: —

i) Ratnakarasanti in charge of eastern gate;

ii) Vagisvarakirti of Banaras in charge of western gate;

iii) Naropa in charge o£ northern gate;

iv) Prajnakaramati in charge of southern gate;

v ) Ratnavajra of Kashmir, the first Mahastambha, and

vi) Jnanasrlmitra of Gauda, the second Mahastambha.

273

A.I.K.— IS

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

(iii) Devapdla

Devapala was a zealous advocate of Buddhism.56 His remark¬
able achievement was the restoration of the sand-buried temple,
6rl Traikutaka, and its enlargement. This temple in course of time
came to be known as the new Somapurl-vihara the ruins of which
have been discovered at Paharpur.57 Haribhadra states in the colo¬
phon of his work, Abhisamayalahkar aloha, that he resided in the ex¬
cellent monastery Traikutaka, which was adorned with learned men.

In the Nalanda stone-inscription58 of Vipula-srlmitra, it is stated
that he was a disciple of Asoka-srlmitra, who again was a disciple of
Maitrl-sHmitra. The teacher of Maitrl-srlmitra, Karunasrlmitra,
while residing at the Somapuri monastery, was burnt to death by an
army of Vangala. At the time of Dharmapala, the Saindhava-srava-
kas burnt the image of Heruka and Tantrik books. The dvdra-pan-
dita of Vikramasila was Jnana-srlmitra, who was at first a Saindhava-
sravaka and then became a Tantrayanist. It seems that the inscription
refers to a deadly quarrel between the Saindhava-sravakas, whose
names probably ended with the words “Srimitra”, and the Tantraya-
nists of Bengal.

Another event of outstanding importance in the history of Bud¬
dhism is the communication of the king of Suvarnadvipa, Balaputra-
deva of the Sailendra dynasty, to Devapala, to which reference has
been made above.59 In this connection, we may refer to Chapter
XL of Taranatha’s History in which it is stated that Buddhism was
propagated in ancient days in the small islands called Siiiihaladvlpa,
Yavadvlpa, Tamradvlpa, Suvarnadvipa, Dhanasrldvlpa and Pahgu-
dvlpa. In the last two islands only there were Mahayanists and a
few in Simhala.

(iv) The Successors of Devapdla

As Taranatha’s account of the Pala kings after Devapala is hope¬
lessly confused, it is impossible to give a chronological list of the
Buddhist teachers mentioned by him. He refers to a number of
distinguished monks. Four of them, viz. Sarvajnadeva, Jinamitra,
Danaslla of Kashmir and Dharmakara went to Tibet at the time of
Ral-pa-can for translating the Buddhist texts.60 In the colophon of
Dul-va (= Vinaya), it is stated that in the ninth century, the text
was translated by Sarvajnadeva and Dharmakara, and revised by
Vidyakaraprabha. From among the Tantrik teachers we may men¬
tion the names of Tilopa, Gambhlravajra, Amrita-guhya, Bhaga and
Anandagarbha. Tillipa or Tilopa is counted as one of the 84 mahd-
siddhas. He was the guru of Naropa, one of the six dvara-pcvnditas
of Vikramasila, who. lived in the tenth century. It was his disciple

274

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Mar-pa, who founded the Kar-gyu-pa sect in Tibet in the eleventh
century. This line of teachers propagated the Tantrik teachings
widely in MagacLha.

A king whom Taranatha calls Mahapala, but whose identity can¬
not be established, was a supporter of the Sthavira-vadins, whose
centre was in the western parts of India. They are referred to by
Taranatha as Saindhava-sravakas and bhikhus of Simhala.61 Tara¬
natha writes that the king showed great honour to the Saindhava-
sravakas who must have lived in large numbers in the Odantapuri-
vihara, and for whose accommodation, the king made an annexure,
called the Uruvasa-vihara. This king enlarged the monasteries of
Nalanda and Somapuri-Traikutaka. At his time the Kdlachakr at antra
was introduced by Pito. Among the distinguished Acharyas of his
time, the names of Jetari and Krishnasamayavajra may be men¬
tioned. The former was a disciple of Buddha jnanapada and was
recognised as one of the his ecclesiastical successors. Acharya Jetari
was exceedingly intelligent. He learned quickly the various scripts
and sciences, the Abhidharma, and other works. He at first failed
to obtain the royal diploma of Vikramasila and it was after he had
made himself famous by defeating in controversies many Painditas
of other lands, that he was granted the diploma of Vikramasila.
He delivered discourses in the Vikramasila monastery and wrote
short commentaries on Santideva^s Sikshdsamuchchaya and Bodhi -
charydiiatara, on Akdsagarbhasutra } and other texts. He wrote three
treatises on logic, viz. Hetutattava-upadesa , Dharma-dharmi-vini-
schayn and Bdldvatdrcttarka.

III. ICONOGRAPHY

Numerous standing and seated images of Buddha of the media¬
eval period have been discovered in different parts of India, his
independent recumbent figure illustrating his Mahaparinirvajna being
extremely rare. Mahaparinirvana of the Master is depicted in
mediaeval Buddhist art in a secondary manner. Many sthanaka
and dsana types of Buddha are extant which contain on their pra-
bhavall summary representations of seven of the principal miracles;
the miracle — and every incident in the life of the Master is a mira¬
cle according to the pious Buddhists — of the great decease is in¬
variably shown on the top centre of the back-slabs of such reliefs.
The eight miracles, including that depicted by the main central
seated or standing image, were connected with the four principal in¬
cidents, Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, preaching of the first sermon
and great decease, and the four others, such as his taming of Nala-
giri, the wild elephant that was set upon him by his cousin
Devadatta at Rajagriha, his descent at Sankasya from the Trayas-

275

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

trimsa heaven after preaching the law there to his departed mother,
the acceptance of the honey ottered by a monkey at Vaisaii, and
lastly the great miracle, in which he simultaneously multiplied him¬
self in the presence of king Prasenajit of Kosala and a host of his
own followers and other Tirthikas at Sravastl. The Eastern Indian
School of mediaeval sculpture contains numerous examples of such
standing and seated figures of Gautama, and the Indian Museum,
Calcutta, alone possesses a large number of such images, mostly
hailing from Bihar and Bengal. The central figure in these com¬
positions usually depicts Buddha seated in baddhapadmasana with
his hands mostly showing the bhusparsa , indicating that it represents
the Master’s victory over Mara at Bodh-Gaya preliminary to his
attainment of the enlightenment, the other seven miracles in mini¬
ature being shown in well-arranged groups on his either side on the
back-slab. The main image with its hands in the dharmachakra-
mudra f illustrating the preaching of the first sermon, is comparatively
rare, as is also the standing type with the seven miniatures on the
background. The much mutilated figure in the collection of the
Vangiya Sahitya Parishat Museum, Calcutta (No. ) is thus of
some interest, for it shows Buddha standing in the sarnapddasthdnaka
attitude on a double-petalled lotus {visvapadma) below which the
Buddhist formula62 is written in ninth century script, flanked on
either side by three parallel rows of two scenes each with that of
Mahaparinirvana just on the top. The rarity of such compositions
can be accounted for by referring to the artistic sense of symmetry
required in the display of the miniatures. In this particular relief,
if the central figure is connected with the descent from the Traya-
strimsa heaven, then the explanation of the miniature standing Bud¬
dha on the right in the middle row is difficult; the one on the left in
the same row undoubtedly stands for the taming of Nalagiri, the wild
elephant of Raj agriha , and the Safikasya and Raj agriha miracles
are the only two in which the standing posture is necessary. The
birth-scene, of course, would necessitate the showing of Maya in
the same pose, but it is almost invariably carved in the right lower¬
most corner of the prabhavali and it does not jar at all with the
artistic sense. Many standing Buddha images again, which do not
contain these illustrations of the stereotyped set of miracles, fall
either under the Devavatara or Nalagiri-taming types; the first of
the two is more common and is often shown attended on either side
by 6akra and Brahma. Just to emphasise the act of descent, the
artists sometimes indicate stairs beneath the feet of the three, thus
reminding us of the early Buddhist convention of showing the same
scene with three stairs side by side, the middle one having one foot-
mark on its topmost rung and another on its lowermost one.63

276

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Numerous seated images of Buddha have been found, which can be
classified under different groups according to their association with
one or other of the miracles, clearly indicated by their different
hand-poses and sitting postures. The Sddhanamdlu describes one
iconographic type, named by it as Vajmsana Buddha, in which Bud¬
dha is seated in baddhapadmasana on a visvapadma with his hands
in the bhHspcirsamudrd) attended by Avalokitesvara on the left and
Maitreya on the right, the respective iconographic cognizances of
the acolytes being a lotus and a bunch of Nagakesara flowers.64
Other dsana Buddha figures, which do not contain the seven miracles
in miniature in the prabhavali, show Buddha preaching the first ser¬
mon, which event is suggested not only by the dharmachakramudrd
peculiar to this motif, but also by the presence of a wheel ( dharma -
chakra) flanked by two couchant deer on the pedestal. A good many
mediaeval compositions have been found in eastern India which show
Buddha seated in a similar manner with his hands in the same mudra,
but we do not find the wheel and deer indicative of the locality of
Sarnath on the pedestal, in the place of which are shown the Naga
kings, Nanda and Upananda, on either side of the lotus stalk; figures
of miniature seated, standing, and rarely recumbent, Buddhas are
gracefully arranged round the central image. These undoubtedly re¬
present the Great Miracle of Sravasti which seems to have been a
very favourite theme with the artists of mediaeval India. A com¬
paratively rare type of seated Buddha depicts him with an alms-bowl
placed on his hands, joined over his lap, and a monkey carved on the
pedestal or by his side; this is nothing but an illustration of the
scene of the monkey’s offering honey to Buddha at Vaisali. An inter¬
esting relief in the collection of the Asutosh Museum, Calcutta Uni¬
versity, depicting this variety of seated Buddha, contains an addi¬
tional detail by his side, the monkey climbing a tree for bringing
down the honey to be offered to Buddha. The usual sitting posture
of these Buddhas is baddhapadmasana or yoqasana in which the legs
with soles upwards are interlocked on the lotus-seat. But there is
another rarer sitting mode in which the legs are shown hanging
down the edge of the seat, which is described by many scholars as
“being in European fashion”. Its textual name seems to have been
paryahkasana, different from ardhaparyahkdsana in which one leg is
tucked up on the seat and the other dangles down. It was at one
time the practice to name the Buddha figures shown in this way as
those of Maitreya, the Buddha of the future; but this identification
cannot be accepted, for the particular sitting posture is often shown
in the scene of the Great Miracle of SravastI where Gautama Buddha
is the principal actor. Moreover, such figures are dressed in monk’s
robes which would ill fit with Maitreya. But a number of standing

277

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and seated Buddhas have been found in northern and eastern India,
who, though attired like a monk, wear a jewelled crown and two
short necklaces, no other parts of the body being adorned with orna¬
ment. These crowned Buddhas were assumed by some to stand for
Adi-Buddha who appeared late in the pantheon; but this view is
hardly tenable, for most of them, if not all, are associated with the
incidents in the life-story of Gautama Buddha, and are thus none
but so many of his representations.65 Another point of interest with
regard to the standing Buddhas is that miniature figures of seated,
and rarely standing, Buddhas are often depicted on the top section
of their prabk&vciVi, and these presumably were meant to represent
some of the Dhyanl-Buddhas, whose cult, described above,66 was
further developed during this period.

The cult of the Dhyani-Bodhisattvas also underwent a great
transformation. It has already been said that the special cognizance
of Maitreya, the Buddha of the future and thus a Bodhisattva, in the
mediaeval Buddhist art is a bunch of Nagakesara flowers placed in
one of his hands in place of the earlier nectar-flask. Another dis¬
tinctive mark of this Bodhisattva is a miniature stupa placed in his
crown or by its side. This refers to the stupa of Kasyapa Buddha in
the Kukkutapada-giri near Bodh-Gaya; on descending to earth from
the Tushita heaven Maitreya would go to it from which Kasyapa
would come out and present to him the garments of a Buddha. Mai¬
treya can hardly be found now represented singly; he is either shown
as a well-dressed secular figure in the company of the seven ManushI
Buddhas very rarely represented, or as one of the acolytes of Vajra-
sana Buddha. But several of the Bodhisattvas of a different cate¬
gory, the Dhyani-Bodhisattvas, were extremely popular iconographic
motifs of the mediaeval age. That Padmapani-Avalokitesvara
among them should be the most important one can be explained by
the fact of his having been the Dhyam-Bodhisattva of Gautama Bud¬
dha, and thus numerous varieties of him have been described in the
s&dhanas; mediaeval images, more or less corresponding to some of
these descriptions, have been found mostly in northern and eastern
India. If a careful analysis is made of the iconographic traits of
some of them, there is hardly any difficulty in recognising in a good
many of them the Mahayanistic adaptations of two of the principal
Brahmanical cult-icons, viz. Vishnu and Siva. The iconography of
~the general form of Avalokitesvara and of a few others of his special
ones has some analogy to that of Vishnu, and the ideology underlying
both these gods, especially relating to their character as gods of pre¬
servation and deliverance, is one and the same. But the particular
aspect of Siva, when he appears in the role of a benignant deity and
a healer of diseases after proper propitiation, is none the less discer-

278

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

nible in certain other forms of this Dhyani-Bodhisattva; a few others
of his less common ones, again, portray in a way the dire and terrific
aspect of this Brahmanical deity. One particular variety among the
different types of Avalokitesvara, Hari-Hari-Harivahanodbhava
Lokasvara, undoubtedly owes its iconographic presentation to secta¬
rian rancour. As many as fifteen variants have been selected from
those described in the SddhciuaTTULld > of which five or six at most have
been recognised among the numerous Buddhist sculptures of eastern
and northern India. These are Shadakshari Lokesvara, Siihhanada,
Khasarpana (named after a village in the ancient Khadi-Truxriciala,
modern Twenty-four Pergannas, West Bengal), Lokanatha and Nila-
kantha. The others are mostly to be found among sculptures and
paintings of the northern countries like Tibet and Nepal and they are
usually dated after A.D. 1300. Shadakshari Lokesvara shows a com¬
position with the figure of the four-armed Bodhisattva, its front
hands being in the namaskdra-mudrd and the back ones holding a
rosary and a lotus, and having a smaller male replica of him to his
right and another similar but female one to the left; these two are
none other than Manidhara and Shadakshari Mahavidya, the respec¬
tive male and female attendants of this variety of Avalokitesvara.
A very interesting mediaeval relief depicting it was discovered by
Oertel in course of his excavations at Sarnath; it was wrongly iden¬
tified by him as representing the three jewels of Buddhism, viz.
Dharma, Buddha and Samgha.67 The two-armed god Siihhanada
Lokesvara is described in the texts as three-eyed, seated in the
mahamjalila pose on a roaring lion, wearing a tiger-skin garment but
no ornaments, having a miniature figure of Amitabha on the jatd -
mukuta on his head, with a trident entwined by a white serpent to
his right and a sword placed on a lotus flower to his left, the lotus
stalk being held by his left hand resting on the seat; the three eyes,
the tiger-skin garment, the absence of ornaments, the matted locks,
the snake-entwined trident, — all these traits definitely associate him
with &iva, and the Dhdranis of Siihhanada refer to him as the healer
of diseases. The beautiful sculpture of Siihhanada Lokesvara found
at Mahoba closely corresponds to the description given above. That
the Khasarpana variety of this god was a popular object of worship
in eastern India is proved by a number of such images discovered
in different parts of Bihar and Bengal. The principal type of this
deity depicts him gracefully seated in the lalitdsana pose on a maham-
buja, decked in all sorts of ornaments and holding a fully blossomed
lotus flower by its stalk in his left hand, the right one being in the
varada pose. He is almost invariably accompanied by Tara and
Sudhanakumara to his right and BhrikutI and Hayagrlva to his left;

270

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the five Dhyam-Buddhas are very often carved on the upper part of
the prabhavali with Amitabha, his spiritual father, placed in the
centre. The finely carved image corresponding in most of its details
to the above description, found at Vikrampur and now in the Dacca
Museum, is a representative specimen of this type of Avalokitesvara.
Many standing images of Avalokitesvara endowed with four and
sometimes with six arms have been found in northern and eastern
India; some are in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and
a few are in the Patna Museum. These have been usually described
as Lokaniatha, but the description given of this variety of Avalokites¬
vara in the Sddhanamald does not tally with the sculptures. The
four-armed figures show vara , akshama la, bhringdra and padma in
the lower right, upper right, upper left and lower left hands res¬
pectively," Suchlmukha and Hayagriva to the right and left are the
usual attendants in these cases. The six-armed standing figures, on
the other hand, have a vara , mdtulunga , akshamdld in the right hands,
and a bhringara , pdsa and padma in the left ones; here both the
attending figures are female and very probably represent Tara and
Bhrikutl. Standing images of Lokesvara with more than six arms
are, though rare, not unknown; reference may be made to one twelve¬
armed variety of this god in the collection of the Indian Museum,
its additional hands holding such emblems as ankusa , kartri and a
few other indistinct objects.68 The Lokanatha aspect of Avalokite¬
svara, however, as described in the Sddhanamald, is two-armed, the
left hand holding a lotus, the right being in the varada pose; one of
the sddhanas of this deity refers to the mandala of eight gods like
Maitreya, Kshitigarbha, Vajrapani and others surrounding him. But
Lokanatha is generally depicted alone, seated or standing, only occa¬
sionally accompanied by Tara and Hayagriva. Nilakantha, as des¬
cribed in only one sadhana, is similar in appearance to his spiritual
father Amitabha; he is not decorated with any ornaments, and has
two serpents on his either side; the name and the iconographic traits
of this type of Lokesvara fully show that he is one of the Maha-
yanistic adaptations of Siva. Several other types of Lokesvara
images of the mediaeval period have been found, which do not con¬
form to the descriptions of any of the varieties given in the Sadha-
namMa; this fact proves that as in the case of the Brahmanical icono¬
graphy, our collection of Buddhist iconographic texts is also in¬
complete, and many must have been irretrievably lost. As regards
the mediaeval images of the other Dhyam-Bodhisattvas, whose
names have been already given, it may be observed that whatever
literary importance they might have had in the period, they apparent¬
ly had no prominence in the hieratic art of the time.

280

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

ManjusrI is the general name of another group of interesting
Bodhisattvas who, though not strictly belonging to the category of
the Dhyanl-Bodhisattvas, occupied an important place in the deve¬
loped Mahayana pantheon. He was comparatively late in making
his appearance, and his inclusion in the pantheon could not have
been much earlier than the Gupta period. References in mediae¬
val Buddhist literature seem to connect him with China and Nepal,
and the way in which he is mentioned seems to suggest that there
v/as some historicity behind him, and his human original was per¬
haps connected in some way or other with the introduction of civi¬
lisation in Nepal from China. Thus, there was a great deal of diffe¬
rence between Avalokitesvara and ManjusrI, the former having an
abstract ideological background, while the latter a concrete human
base, which was, however, subsequently assumed to stand for and
illustrate some abstract qualities like knowledge and wisdom. The
Stidhanamala contains a number of sadhanas describing as many
as fourteen different varieties of this god-concept, some of which
were associated with Akshobhya or Amitabha, while others were
either independent or had some association with the group of the
five Dhyani-Buddhas. The usual emblems of ManjusrI are a sword
( Prajnd-kkadga or the sword of wisdom) and a book (book of know¬
ledge — prajncL), the idea being that the god severs the coils of
ignorance with the sword and imparts knowledge from the book;
he is thus in a way the Mahayana counterpart of Brahma and Saras-
vatl of the Hindu pantheon. A good many extant figures of him,
including several variants, have been discovered in different parts
of northern and eastern India, and this fact shows that his was a
popular cult-image, specially in eastern India. Several of the medi¬
aeval representations of this god can be identified as Mahjughosha
and Siddhaikavira (emanations of Akshobhya), Arapachana and
Sthirachakra who have no definite association with any of the
Dhyani-Buddhas. These varieties are usually differentiated on the
basis of particular sitting and standing postures, hand-poses and the
nature of the attendants. Images of Manjuvara and Arapachana are
more numerous; the former is characterised by his lion seat and the
dharmachak'ra-mudrd, with the book Prajrvdparamitd placed on lotus
on his left, while the latter is shown seated in baddhapadmasana, his
right hand brandishing a sword and the left with the book placed
on his breast, his attendants being Kesini, Upakesinl, Siiryaprabha
and Chandraprabha who are shown as exact miniature replicas of
the central figure. That Arapachana form of ManjusrI was held in
great respect by the Mahayanists of the mediaeval period is proved
not only by the number of his images discovered in eastern India, but
also by a few found in Indonesia. The Javanese sculpture of this

281

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

form of Manjusri, now in the collection of the Leyden Museum,
Holland, is a fine specimen of Indonesian art. Manjughosha, like
Manjuvara, has a roaring lion for his mount, but his other peculiar
cognizances are lotus on his left side and vyakhyfinamudrd. A very
fine sculpture of the early mediaeval period in the collection of the
Sarnath Museum, unfortunately much mutilated, corresponds to a
great extent to the textual description of Siddhaikavlra, who has a
blue lotus in his left hand and varamudrd in his right. This form of
Manjusri, which is comparatively rare, has some similarity with the
usual iconographic type of Lokanatha, a form of Lokesvara, but the
figure of Akshobhya on the crown of the former discloses his real
identity. Sthirachakra is another rare form of this Bodhisattva and
is characterised by a sword in his left hand and varamudra in his
right. The Vangiya Sahitya Parishat sculpture of Manjusri, seated
in ardhaparyankasana on a double-petalled lotus, probably depicts
this variety; it, however, holds the stem of a nilotpala in its left hand,
over the blossom of which is placed the sword.

A reference to the images of a few of the numerous varieties
of gods and goddesses who were associated with one or other of the
Dhyanl-Buddhas will not be out of place here, although the con¬
cepts of many of them seem to have been subsequently added. Some
of these deities again were textually connected with more than
one Dhyani-Buddha at the same time, and other images bore on
their crown the miniature figures of either one or the other of these
meditative Buddhas. Thus, Jambhala and Tara (especially her
form known as Mahachina Tara) were emanations of Akshobhya,
but the same god and another variant of the goddess, viz. Khadi-
ravabi Tara could also emanate from Ratnasambhava and Amogha-
siddha respectively. Jambhala and Vajra-Tara, again, in some of
their aspects, were associated with all the five or four of the Dhyanl-
Buddhas; in these cases, the miniature figures of the latter are usual¬
ly shown on the top part of the prabhavali of these images. Many
of these deities of the developed Mahayana pantheon again can be
shown either from their names or their attributes to have been
directly or indirectly derived from various members of the Brah-
manic order. Thus the gods like Saptasatika Hayagrlva, Heruka,
Yamari and Jambhala, the first an emanation of Amitabha and the
last three of Akshobhya, have their prototypes among the various
Brahmanical gods, as their names or iconographic traits show.

Hayagrlva, according to the Puranic mythology, was primarily
a demon to kill whom Vishnu assumed the form of a horse-headed

282

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

man. The special cognizance of Saptasatika-Hayagnva is the scalp
of a horse over his head; another aspect of the same god, which is
associated with Akshobhya, is three-faced and eight-armed, and
the number of arms as well as the emblems in the hands distinctly
connect it with the Hayagriva incarnation of Vishnu.

The fierce god Heruka, whose two-armed varieties have been
found in eastern India, is characterised by the dancing pose, a corpse
below him, emblems like vajra and kapala in his hands, a khatvdnga
along the left side of his body, ornaments like a garland of skulls
( mwiidamala ) and other features which leave no doubt that this
particular god-concept was based on the terrific aspect of &iva.
The Dacca Museum image of Heruka, though it shows a double-
petailed lotus beneath its left leg in place of a corpse ( preta ), corres¬
ponds in other respects to the textual description, and is a well-
carved specimen of the mediaeval Buddhist art of eastern India.

Yamari, as its name indicates, is based on one of the various
Samharamurtis of Siva, Kalari or Kalantaka-murti, in which form
Siva punished Kaia or Yama, the god of death, for his audacity in
attempting to take the life of Markandeya, a great Saiva devotee.
Some of the iconographic traits of Yamari, however, are taken from
the very god of death whose enemy he is supposed to be, while others
are clearly derived from the fierce form of the Hindu god. Like
Yama, he has a buffalo for his mount and a mace with a skull painted
on it or a vajra on its top as his emblem; like Siva, he wears a tiger-
skin, snake ornaments, and holds a noose ( pdsa ) in one of his hands.

Jambhala is undoubtedly a Buddhist counterpart of Kubera-
Vaisravana, as some of his characteristic traits indicate. Like the
latter, he is connected with wealth and treasure; mediaeval repre¬
sentations of him are known, in which he is shown seated in lali-
tdsana with one of his legs resting on an upturned coin-jar by the
side of which are placed seven more jars. The number of the jars,
eight, distinctly proves that they stand for eight treasures (ashta-
nidhi) of Kubera; like the Brahmanical deity his figure is also pot¬
bellied, though the bag in his prototype’s hand is replaced by a mon¬
goose vomitting jewels. In the Brahmanical mythology, Kubera is
associated with Lakshmi or Sri, the goddess of fortune who is the
presiding deity of the ashtanidhis ;69 in the Mahayana adaptation of
him, however, Vasudhara (another name of the earth goddess,
Bhumi or Prithivi) appears as his consort. A good many figures of
Jambhala, mostly seated ones, with many of the above-mentioned
iconographic traits have been found in different parts of eastern and
northern India.

283

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ganapati is another male deity recruited from the Brahmanic
faith into developed Mahayana pantheon, and he is identical in his
mediaeval iconic forms to his Brahmanical prototype. He is general¬
ly depicted as being trampled down under the feet of such goddesses
as Aparajita and Parnasavarl. His independent form as one-faced
and twelve-armed, dancing on the back of his mount (a rat), is des¬
cribed in a late sadhana, but corresponding icons of the mediaeval
period are not known; there is nothing in the texts to show that his
face was that of an elephant.

Interesting varieties of goddesses are associated with one or
other cf the Dhyanl-Buddhas, and they seem to be more numerous
than those of the gods. The worship of the female principle was
comparatively more prevalent in eastern India in mediaeval times,
and this fact is also emphasised by the large number of images of
the Buddhist goddesses discovered there. The cult of Tara and her
various forms was strong in this part of India, and Tara, a great
object of veneration in the Brahmanical Tantrik cult, appears to
have been borrowed directly from the developed Mahayana pan¬
theon. Mahachma-Tara, one of the principal forms of this goddess,
however, as her attributive epithet indicates, was an importation
from Mahachma, a land outside India, which has been identified by
some scholars with Tibet. Mahachlna-Tara, also known in Buddhist-
Tantrik literature as Ugra-Tara, is an emanation of Akshobhya, and
she was most probably the original deity from which various other
aspects of this goddess were derived. The popularity of Tara among
the Mahayanists is indicated by the fact that it is the common ap¬
pellation of many Buddhist goddesses such as Janguli, Parnasavarl,
Ekajata and others. She is described in the sddhanas as of terrific
appearance, four-armed, standing in the pratyaUdha pose on a corpse,
her right hands holding a sword and a chopper ( kartri ), and left
ones, a lotus flower and a skull-cup (kapala); a miniature figure of
Akshobhya is within the ‘crown of chignon’ (ekaiata) on her head.70
The iconographic trait of ekaiata of this goddess gave rise to the
concept of another terrific deitv of the Mahayana cult. Ekaiata by
name, who was also an emanation of Akshobhya; several mediaeval
images of her have been found in eastern India.

The most common form of Tara, however, numbers of whose
images have been found in the north and east of India, is the one
which is described in the sadhanas as Khadiravani-Tara, also known
as £yama-Tar.a, an emanation of the Dhyanl-Buddha Amoghasiddha.
She is depicted either standing or seated in a graceful pose, her right
hand showing the vctrada-mudrd , and the left one holding a lotus
with a long stalk; her two attendants are Asokakanta Marlchl on her

284

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

right and Ekajata on her left. In the extant mediaeval represent¬
ations of this variety of Tara, sometimes curious miniature figures
of eight goddesses or eight illustrative scenes are found carved on
the prabhdvall on either side of the principal deity. One such im-
age in the collection of the Dacca Museum shows the former feature,
and it has been suggested that these miniature goddesses individually
stand for each of the syllables of the eight-syllabled Tara -mantra
(Om Tare tu Tare Svdhd ).71 On an image of this goddess, originally
hailing from Katnagiri (Cuttack district, Orissa), we find the other
feature which collectively stands for the ashtamahdbhayas (eight
great fears) from which she saves her devotees72.

Another variety of Tara, described several times in the Sddha-
namduij is the Vajra-Tara who is simultaneously an emanation of
the groups of five or four Dhyanl-Buddhas. She is four-faced and
eignt-armed, and is seated in the vajraparyahhdsana on a double-
petalled lotus inside a mardala which consists of encircling attendant
deities like Pushpa-, Dhupa-, Dipa- and Gandha-Taras, and Vajrah-
kusl, Vajrapasi, Vajrasphofl and Vajraghanta; the mandala, in order
to be complete, should also contain the figure of Ushnishavijaya on
the top and that of Sumbha below. It should be noted that the num¬
ber of the companion goddesses is ten, which exactly corresponds to
that of the ten-syllabled mantra of the principal goddess, Om Tare
tu Tare ture Svdhd, and it is presumed that the former individually
stand for the respective syllables. Another interesting feature
worth noting in respect of most of these attendant divinities is the
fact that they are nothing but the personifications of the upachdras
(materials used in ritual worship) and weapons or emblems held
by the principal deity in her hands (these roughly correspond to the
ayudhapurushas of the Vaishnavite icons). Vajrasphotl and Ushni¬
shavijaya are, on the other hand, associated, the former with the
holy sound that is uttered during the ritualistic performances, and
the latter with the peculiar physical characteristic of the Buddha.
Several metai images of the mandala of Vajra-Tara have been found
in eastern India; the Indian and Dacca Museum specimens corres¬
pond fairly well to the above description.73

Reference has already been made to Vasudhara, the consort of
Jambhala, who is also like him either an emanation of Akshobhya
or Ratnasambhava; she is the Buddhist counterpart of the Brahma-
nical Vasudhara, PrithivI, or BhudevI, who, as one of the consorts
of Vishnu, holds a blue lotus in her hand. But Vasudhara is cha¬
racterised by varada-mudrd in her right hand and an ear of corn
in her left, and the latter object fittingly symbolises her corn-pro¬
ducing capacity. Several stone and metal images of this goddess,

285

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

both single and in the company of her consort, have been discovered
in the north and east of India.

Another Mahayana goddess, also emanating from Akshobhya
but, unlike the last-mentioned, one of a terrific character, is Naira-
tma who resembles to some extent the Brahmanical Kali. She is
shown dancing vigorously with right leg raised and bent inwards,
the left firmly planted on a corpse ( preta ) lying on its back, holding
kartri (short sword) and kapala (skull- cup) in her two hands; she
looks terrible with bare fangs, protruding tongue, a garland of hu¬
man skulls, and a khatvanga placed along the left side of her body.
Her general pose and appearance remind us of those of Heruka
discussed above, - though their respective emblems are somewhat
different. Her images are extremely rare, and the Indian Museum
specimen may be regarded as unique.74

Parnasavarl, another female member of the Mahayana pantheon,
is of great iconographic interest on account of certain features apper¬
taining to her. She is both an emanation of Akshobhya and Amo-
ghasiddha, and her iconography is the same in both of her aspects.
The sddhanas describe her as three-faced and six-armed, her right
hands holding vajra, sara and parasu , her left ones, parnapichchhika
(a cluster of leaves), dhanu and tarjampdsa (a noose round the index-
finger in the tarjanlmudra) ; she stands in pratyalldha pose either on
personified representations of various diseases or pestilences or on
obstacles personified (Vighnas — the same as Brahmanical Gainesa,
the remover of obstacles, Vighnantaka) , and is clad in leaf garments.
Her mantras describe her as a Pisdcto (ogress) and sarvamariprasa-
mdrn (healer of all epidemic diseases). This fact, as well as her
very name which associated her with the leaf-clad Savaras, one of
the aboriginal tribes of India, distinctly proves that she was recruited
from a non-Aryan cult, as a few of the particular constituents of
Durga, the Brahmanical goddess, were adapted from aboriginal cult
deities. Two extant images of PamasavarT found in East Bengal
closely follow the textual descriptions, and both have the figure of
Amoghasiddha on the top centre of their prabhdvall.75

Prajna-Paramita is a goddess of benign aspect and was held in
great veneration by the mediaeval Buddhists of India and Indonesia.
She was regarded as the personified form of the Mahayana treatise
Prajndptiramitd, which is said to have been recovered from the
nether regions by Nagarjuna, the principal expounder of. the re¬
oriented Buddhism. She is usually recognised by vydkhyana-mudrd
and the manuscript Prajnapdramitd on a lotus; one of the finest
images of this benign Mahayana goddess originally hailed from Java
and is now in the collection of the Leyden Museum.76

286

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

A very interesting goddess of this cult is Marichi, an emanation
of Vairochana, the first of the Dhyani-Buddhas. Several images of
her have been found in eastern and northern India and this proves
that she was held in esteem in this region. Her iconographic features
show that she was an adaptation from the north-Indian Surya and
her name means ‘One who has rays’. She is usually depicted as
three-faced (the left one of which is that of a sow) and eight-armed,
her hands holding such attributes as a needle, a string, an elephant-
goad, a noose, a bow, an arrow, a thunderbolt, and a bunch of Asoka
flowers; she stands in the arrow-shooting pose on a chariot drawn by
seven pigs, and driven either by a goddess with no legs or Rahu,
only a head with no body attached to it. Some of these eight-armed
and three-faced figures of Marichi are attended by four goddesses
bearing peculiar names such as Varttali, Vadali, Varali and Vara-
hamukhi, all sow-faced and four-armed carrying several weapons and
emblems similar to those in the hands of the central deity. The
very fine image of Ashtabhuja Marichi, originally found at Sarnath
and now in the collection of the Lucknow Museum, corresponding
mostly to the description given above, contains, however, the figure
of the Dhyani-Buddha Amitabha in its crown — a striking departure
from the texts.77 Another variety of Marichi, one-faced and two¬
armed, the right hand being in the varada pose and the left touching
an Asoka bough, is generally depicted as an attendant deity of Khadi-
ravani-Tara.

Another goddess of the developed Mahayana pantheon, who is
sometimes wrongly regarded as identical with Marichi, is Vajrava-
rahi, the chief consort of the fierce god Heruka discussed above.78
She is either two-armed or four-armed, and her attributes and pose
resemble those of her consort. Her images of the mediaeval period
are not common like those of Marichi.

Such independent goddesses as Sarasvati, Aparajita, Grahama-
trika, etc. have, as their nomenclature shows, distinct Brahmanical
association, but their Buddhist adaptations came to have definite ico¬
nographic re-orientation. Vajrayogini, as the sadhanas describe her
form, clearly reminds us of the Tantrik goddess Chhinnamasta who
was held in great veneration by the Sakti-worshippers of Bengal;
she was one of the ten Mahavidyas whose cult was an important one
in mediaeval and later Bengal. In a comparatively late period the
Tantrik aspect of the Sakti worship seems to have adopted much from
the Mahayana- Vajrayana cult and it is sometimes extremely difficult
to fix up the definite cult-association of one or other of the individual
deities.

287

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The brief study of Buddhist iconography given above shows
what bewildering diversity the religious art of the later Buddhists
attained in the mediaeval period. The comparatively simple and
general character of the early Buddhist art was made extremely com¬
plex in its later phase and various factors were at work for this
re-orientation. The most important of these was the gradual assi¬
milation in various ways of the god-concepts of many contemporary
rival sects, most, if not all, of which belonged to Brahmanical reli¬
gion. Many of the numerous images of the Mahayana-Vajrayana
cult illustrate this fact in an interesting manner. Another important
point not to be lost sight of in the study of them is the deep esoteric
symbolism which underlies many of them in spite of their bizarre
forms. The numerous unnamed artists, whose services were requi¬
sitioned for the satisfaction of the religious needs of the pious Bud¬
dhists, were not half-hearted in their work, and some of the speci¬
mens which they turned out were enduring works of art.

C. JAINISM
I. ' INTRODUCTION

As in the preceding period, Jainism lacked royal support in
northern India, but this was compensated by the popularity of the
religion among the trading classes in the north, and the extensive
royal patronage it enjoyed in the South.

This is the most flourishing period in the history of Jainism in
the Deccan. There was no serious rival for it, and it was basking in
the sunshine of popular and royal support. Dr. Altekar79 surmises
that probably one-third of the population of the Deccan was follow¬
ing the gospel of Mahavira during the period under review. Jainism
received a serious set-back shortly afterwards owing to rapid spread
of the Lingayata sect.

Important commentaries on the Digambara Canon were com¬
posed towards the close of this period.80 During the tenth century,
Uddyotana started 84 gachchhas through his disciples.81 The Jain
Philosophy reached its high-water mark as evidenced by the master¬
pieces of Akalanka, Haribhadra, Vidyananda and others. Literary
output also was immense. The Jain writers inaugurated an Augustan
period in Kannada literature, and composed outstanding works in
Tamil too.

It may be noted as one of the remarkable features of Jainism of
this period that it saved itself from the influence of the all-pervading
Saktism.82 That the fortunes of Jainism were unaffected by the

288

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

revival of Hinduism has been ascribed to the state patronage, and
the influence of the pious Jain saints.83

It is interesting to note how Jain gurus achieved their ends by
adopting well devised and comprehensive methods. The austere
routine, pious life and the absence of possessive instincts seem, in
the case of Jain monks, to have always led to their being admired
and honoured in the society. As king-makers they secured royal
patronage for generations. By winning over generals, feudal lords
and provincial governors, their success at provincial centres was
assured under the aegis of these officials. By securing popular sup¬
port, they had among their followers the most important section
of the middle class, the Vira Banajigas and the commercial class,
whose financial help went a long way in the cause of Jainism. It
enabled them to construct magnificent Jinalayas and images. Their
spectacular effect, along with the active royal support, made Jainism
popular and strong. These Jain gurus themselves owned nothing
and wanted nothing. And further their insistence on the observance
by the rich of the Jain doctrine relating to the four gifts (learning,
food, medicine and shelter) helped a great deal in winning the alle¬
giance and devotion of the masses, as it answered the primary needs
of humanity. This resulted in drawing large sections of populace
wdthin the Jain fold.

II. JAINISM IN THE NORTH

Except in the west and perhaps Malwa, Jainism appears to have
lost its hold over the rest of the north during the period. It had al¬
ready lost its importance in Magadha, the land of its origin. The Nir-
granthas, who formed a dominant religious sect in Bengal in the
seventh century, seem to have wielded no appreciable influence
there during our period, and there is no reference to them in the
numerous inscriptions of the Palas.

The Chapa rulers84 were patrons of this religion. Vanaraja
Chavtfa, the founder of the line, was installed on the throne, accord¬
ing to the Jain Prabandhas, by his Jain guru Silagunasuri. Though
the official religion was Saiva and &akta, most of the influential per¬
sons in the realm, like Mahajanas, were Jains and occupied high
positions in the state. Vanaraja’s prime minister was a Jain varvik
named Champa, the founder of Champaner. Ninnaya, a merchant
prince whom Vanaraja regarded as father, built a temple of Rishabha
at Anahilava<Ja. Ninnaya’s son Lahora was a general in Vanaraja’s
army. At the suggestion of his guru 6llagunasuri, who refused the
gift of the kingdom, Vanaraja built a temple known as Pancbasara-
chaitya in which the idol of Parsvanatha brought from Panchasar

289

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

was consecrated He and his successors also built other temples.
These rulers tried to keep in check the rivalries among priests of
different sects in their kingdom. The Pratlharas also figure promi¬
nently in the Jain literature.85 Vatsaraja (or Ama, as he is called in
Jain Prabandhas) is said to have built a temple at Kanauj, 100 cubits
high, and consecrated a golden image of Mahavira; at Gwalior he
established an image of Mahavira, 23 cubits high. He is said to have
built Jain temples at Kanauj, Mathura, Anahilavada, Modhera, etc.
His son Niagabhata II is said to have been converted to Jainism and
the latter’s grandson Bhoja was also a great patron of the religion.

Many famous Jain writers like Dhanesvarasuri, Dhanapala and
Santisuri flourished in the court of Paramara kings.

It was during this period that in the contest between Digambaras
and Svetambaras, as the Prabandhas report, the sacred Girnar-tirtha
was declared to be Svetambara. Pradyumnasuri is credited with the
conversion of the rulers of Sapadalaksha, Tribhuvanagiri, etc. to
Jainism.

III. JAINISM IN THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA

Several dynasties, such as the Gaiigas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas,
Kadambas and their feudatories held sway over Deccan during the
period under review, either successively or as contemporaries. We
shall deal with the state of Jainism under these rulers in the above
order.

The Gahga rulers were great patrons of Jainism. Nltimarga
and his second son Butuga were devout Jains. Marasiihha was a
disciple of Ajitasena, and was a staunch Jain. He actively supported
renowned Jain scholars, maintained the Jain doctrine, caused basadis
and vriMnastambhas to be erected at several places, and, after abdica¬
tion, ended his life by Sallekhand (slow starvation). His minister
Chamumjaraya, one of the triumvirate of the special promoters of
Jainism, was a brave general and possessed several exceptional
virtues including liberality. Nemichandra and Ajitasena were his
preceptors. He gave many endowments for the cause of Jainism;
caused the colossal image of Gommata to be set up at Sravana Bel-
gola; constructed a hasadi on -Chikkabetta at &ravana Belgola; and
patronised the Kannada author Ranna. His example was followed by
his successors and feudatories.

The Rashtrakutas were tolerant of the several religious sects of
the time, and many of the rulers of the dynasty were not only great
patrons of, but even showed distinct inclinations towards, Jainism.
The great Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I Nripatunga was more a Jain

290

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

than a Hindu; he followed the Syddvada and also revered the Hindu
family deities. His chief preceptor was Jinasena and he had appoint¬
ed Gunabhadra as the preceptor for his son Krishna II. Authorship of
the ritual of Jain monasteries in Banavasi is attributed to Arnogha-
varsha. His other works and the literary activity of the Jains during
this period will be dealt with later in this chapter. Amoghavarsha
abdicated more than once, probably to observe the vow of a kin-
chancita . How he accepted Jain-dikshd is graphically described in a
contemporary work Caiiita-<sara-samgra ha of Mahavlracharya 86

The age of the Rashtrakutas (A.D. 754-974) was immediately
followed by a Saiva reaction under Tailapa II87 and his immediate
successors. It is alleged that they persecuted the Jains, but the
temporary withdrawal of their patronage was due more to political
than to religious causes.88 On the contrary we read that Tailapa II
had strong attachment to Jainism, and patronised Ranna, Kaviratna,
the author of Ajita-purdna , who received the title kavichakravartin
from the king.89 Tailapa’s son Satyasraya constructed a monument
( nisidhi ) in honour of his Jain guru. One of his successors, Jaya-
simha HI, caused a basadi to be constructed at Balipura.

Though the reigning monarchs of Andhradesa were invariably
Parama-MahesvarCLs, members of the royal family, high state officials,
vassal kings and feudal lords sometimes followed Jain faith, and
were either srdvakas or sravikas. Some of the Eastern Chalukyas
were Jains or patrons of that religion and made pious endowments to
that faith. Three records of Ammaraja II speak of Jainism as a very
popular religion in the tenth century, and show that the ruler, though
Saiva, extended his patronage to Jainism.

An inscription at Ramatlrtham near Vizianagaram indicates that
Jainism continued to flourish till the beginning of the eleventh cen¬
tury, and that the Ramatlrtham hill was regarded as a place of pil¬
grimage by the Jains since early days. A Kannada inscription of the
reign of king Vimaladitya states that Trikalayogin Siddhantadeva-
muni, Acharya of Deslgana, who was a guru of the king, paid respects
to the Ramatlrtham hill. With the reign of Rajarajanarendra, son
and successor of Vimaladitya, Jainism lost royal patronage and sym¬
pathy.

At Vijayawada, the support of the Eastern Chalukyas to Jainism
was counter-balanced by the Parichchhadi Pasupati rulers who fol¬
lowed Hinduism. These, along with Kota kings and Kakatiyas, were
responsible for the disappearance of Jainism from Andhradesa.

Though Hindus by religion, some Kadamba rulers were also
patrons of Jainism.90

291

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

We know from various contemporary records that the feudatories
and high officials of the various ruling dynasties were supporters of
Jainism. Mention may be made of a few important ladies in this
connection. Jakkiabbe, who was appointed Ndl-gdvwnda in her
husband’s place in Rashtrakuta Krishna Ill’s reign, performed the
vow of Sallekhana, Attimebbe, daughter of Tailapa’s commander
Mallappa and wife of Nagadeva, was an ideal devotee, and an
exemplary patron of learning who got prepared one thousand Mss. of
Ponna’s Santi-puraina in Kannada and had them circulated all over
the country. Jakkisundari caused a basadi to be built in A.D. 968.
Pembabbe, elder sister of Butuga, performed penance for thirty
years.

Thus we find that during the heyday of its power there was not
a single dynasty in the Deccan that did not come under the influence
of Jainism at one time or another. Non Jain rulers also patronised
Jainism. Ministers, generals, women — all played their part as de¬
vout Jains.

The story of Jainism in the Tamil area is one of decadence
during our period. The rise of the 6aiva Nayanars and their orga¬
nised efforts to stamp out Jainism, the conversion of Kun Paindya by
Sambandar and that of the Pallava king Mahendra-varman by
Appar, led to the downfall of the Jains in Tamil land about A.D. 750.
Jains were subjected to further humiliation at the hands of the Vai-
shnava Alvars, till in the ninth and tenth centuries, they do not seem
to have enjoyed any prominence in the land. After Nayanars and Al¬
vars, the rise of the great Acharyas aided the evolution of Hinduism.

As a result of all this, the Jains left the Pallava and Pandya
kingdoms and migrated possibly to Koppana, Sravana Belgola and
surrounding territory where they were patronised by the Gahga and
other rulers. The few that remained led an obscure life in Tamil
land. A perusal of the literature produced by the Jains indicates
that they generally lived in large numbers in Mylapore, Nedumbai
and Tirumalai.

It may be noted that the Alvars and Nayanars, who led the oppo¬
sition against Jainism, adopted the very methods of the Jains to sub¬
vert their religion, and to attract the populace to the newly reju¬
venated Hinduism. In the first place, they adopted the four-fold
dana ( dhdra , abhaya , bhaishajya and sastra) in their system to
counter the most effective missile of the Jains. Further, the 6aiva
saints aimed at the highest altruistic principles, discarded caste
system, and recruited people from the lowest grade in their fold.
Like the Jains, the &aiva saints instituted a hierarchy of sixty -three
saints, and composed hymns in honour of local deities. Their potent

292

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

weapon was the winning over the good grace of the king, thereby
securing political patronage of the state. Gradually, as different
kings became converts or reconverts to Hinduism, which was now
made more attractive and receptive to the general public, Jainism
lost its hold and receded into the background.

There were other causes peculiar to Kamatak that worked the
disintegration of Jainism there. Beginning with castes and sub¬
castes taken over from Hinduism, Jainism was progressively adopt¬
ing a number of Hindu practices and beliefs, with the result that
it was gradually becoming almost indistinguishable from the sur¬
rounding creeds. It thus lost its characteristic mark, and its ad¬
herents there fell a prey to the prevailing proselytising forces.

IV. LITERATURE

The Jain literature of this period, written not only in Sanskrit,
but also in Prakrit, Apabhraihsa and the DesabhashcLs , is extremely
rich and varied, its characteristic features being the Jain dogmatics
and ethics, legendary literature in the form of the Puranas and
didactic tales, and logic. In the south, the honour of the creation
of the Kannada literature and of enriching it with classics of abid¬
ing value goes to the Jains. Their contribution to the Tamil litera¬
ture is also valuable; and we find that most of the major and minor
epics, which are the pride of Tamil literature, are composed by Jain
authors.

Haribhadra, originally a Brahmana, was the outstanding per¬
sonality among the Jain writers of the period. He has written a
large number of books in Sanskrit and Prakrit. He is the earliest
Sanskrit commentator of the canon, and his contributions to Jain
logic are outstanding. His Dhurtakhyana is a remarkable satire in
Indian literature. He inaugurated a new era in Yoga literature by
employing new terminology and an extraordinary and descriptive
style. He has also compared the Jain terminology with the Yoga
prakriyas in Patanjali. In his Shad-darsana-samuchchaya he gives
a brilliant exposition of the different systems of philosophy of the
day. Among other Jain writers of the period, mention may be made
of Bappabhatti, Silanka, 6obhana and Dhanapala. The work of eluci¬
dating canonical texts in Sanskrit, begun by Haribhadra and SHanka,
was continued by Abhayadeva (eleventh century) and Malayagiri
(twelfth century), gobhana, Dhanapala, Devendragaipi and Deva-
bhadra produced innumerable romantic tales, both in Sanskrit and
Prakrit, followed by Hemachandra and the writers of the Praban-
dhas and Charitas, who pertain to the subsequent period.

Turning to the authors in the South, we may begin with Aka-
lanka, whose date has been a matter of controversy.91 He was a

293

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

great logician, whose famous works are Rajavarttika and Ashtasati.
Jinasena’s Harivamsa-purdna92 is one of the earliest Jain versions
of the Pantfava tale. Another Jinasena, who was the preceptor of
the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha, wrote the Adi-purana, which
was completed by his disciple Gin?abhadra.93 Amoghavarsha’s
reign produced a galaxy of Jain writers, including the king himself,
who is credited with the authorship of Prasnottaramalikd on Jain
ethics, and Kavirdjamdrga in Kannada on rhetorics. Mahavlracharya
wrote G<inita-sara-samgraha under Amoghavarsha. Sakatayana, a
grammarian, called his work Amoghavritti in honour of his patron.
Vidyananda, Maijikyanandi and Prabhachandra — a triumvirate of
famous Jain logicians — were probably all contemporaries, and lived
about A.D. 800. Under the Rashtrakutas were produced the Yasasti -
laka (to which reference will be made later) and NHtivdkydmrita of
Somadeva.

To the ninth century belong the famous commentaries Dhavala
and JayadhavaW, composed by Virasena and Jinasena, the latter
being the author of Adi-purdna noted above. Amritachandra was a
brilliant commentator who expounded Kundakunda’s works and also
wrote the Tattvarthas^ray Purushdrthasiddhyupaya} etc. Towards
the close of the tenth century Nemichandra produced a number of
fresh philosophic compendiums of considerable importance. It was
during this period that Pushpadanta composed his monumental
Apabhramsa work at the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta (or
Malkhed ) .

V. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The most important contribution of Jainism in cultural field is
the principle and philosophy of Ahimsd. Though Ahimsd preached
by Jainism is in a more extreme form than Buddhism, it has been
duly graded for the householder and for the monk in view of the
circumstances of life in which they are placed, and had no emascu¬
lating effect on the people. Jainism gave to India men who turned
Ahvmsd into a philosophy of action, and numerous instances on record
show that the Jain generals and kings did not spare themselves on
the battlefield, and were not less averse to warfare than their con¬
temporaries of Brahmanical faith.

The Jain householders were not led astray by ascetic ideals, but
they did their duties as true householders without ignoring the prac¬
tical considerations. The Jain kings or soldiers, who killed their
enemies on the battlefield, were following the Jain precept of doing
one’s duty. Such killing, as the hanging of a murderer, being in
pursuance of the enjoined duty, does not constitute violation of
Ahimsd , as prescribed by the code of a 6ravaka.

294

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

It may also be noted that the principle of Ahimsa was responsi¬
ble for ending the himsd in Yajna and other Vedic rites, and also for
introducing vegetarian diet in a large part of India.

The Jains also enriched the fine arts. The subject will properly
be dealt in the Chapter on “Art”. Here we may simply draw atten¬
tion to the colossal image of Gommata at Sravana Belgola, which is
the most distinctive contribution of Jainism. Koppanja, Belgola
Haleb id and other places are studded with spacious and massive
temples with beautiful images, many of which belong to this period.
The free-standing pillar ( stambha ), found in front of almost every
basadi or Jain temple in Karnatak, is another peculiar contribution.
Some of the cave temples of this period also show how Jainism has
enriched this field.

A flood of light is thrown on the state of Jainism during the
period under review by Yasastilaka, a literary romance in Sanskrit
prose and verse, composed by Somadeva in A.D. 959. 94 Devotion to
Jina, goodwill towards all creatures, hospitality to all, and an altruis¬
tic disposition were the religious ideals of the true Jain according to
Somadeva. He emphasises the four gifts of protection, food, medi¬
cine and religious instruction; but would prefer that hospitality and
charitable assistance should be confined mostly to the believers in
the Jain faith. The frequency with which Somadeva defends cer¬
tain practices of the Digambara ascetics such as nudity, abstention
from bath and ablutions, and eating their food while standing, indi¬
cates that the non- Jains looked on these as unattractive features of
Jainism, and it was deemed necessary to remove all misconceptions
in order to facilitate propagation of Jain faith among the masses.

Somadeva's testimony clearly indicates that though eager to
propagate their faith, the Jains were opposed to admitting undesir¬
able elements within their fold and welcomed only those who volun¬
tarily accepted the religion. Considerable latitude, however, was
shown to such converts as were unable to completely forego their
former customs and beliefs. The process of infiltration of non-Jain
elements in the religious practices of the Jains had already set in, and
gradual transformation of Jainism was already at work, when Soma¬
deva accorded recognition to them and tried to bring them into har¬
mony with the orthodox position of the faith. He describes the five
yatv/is of Jain householders which are clearly modelled on the
pancha-mahayajnas , though he means ddna by yaina. South Indian
Jain literature shows that the Jains were not onposd to fire ritual
as such so long as it involved no animal sacrifice. Somadeva sums up
the position bv observing that it is legitimate for the Jains to follow
any custom or practice sanctioned by popular usage so long as it does

295

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

not come into conflict with the fundamental principle of the Jain
faith or the moral and disciplinary vows. In the light of this, thq
provision for balicharuddna , vaisvadeva and agnihotra in some
Rashtrakuta grants for Jain establishments appears to be legitimate
and permissible. Despite their attacks on the Hindu caste system
we find it to be prevalent among the Jains, at least in certain parts
of the country, even at the time of Somadeva,

In many other respects, too, Jainism was strongly influenced by
the faiths and practices of the Brahmanical religion. Jina and his
mystical predecessors came to be looked upon as gods, and many
hymns to Jina were sung as devotedly and fervently as the Brah¬
manical ones, often using similar words but with a different sense.
Jainism is described along with Buddhism as a theistic religion, in
the sense that it accepts God as a spiritual ideal but not as a Creator,
in the Shad-darsana-samuchchaya by Haribhadra. Further, Jina is
described as the Universal Spirit who is Siva, Dhatri, Sugata, and
Vishnu, possibly to accommodate Jainism to the spirit of the age.95
Bhakti , again, is taken as the supreme means of salvation, and Jina
became the saviour of souls, in the sense that his words lead them to
Moksha. The temple ritual with grants for the upkeep of temples, and
anointing images with milk, decorating them with flowers, etc. also
speaks of the influence of Hinduism. It may, however, be noted,
that the image worship and ritual indicated above arose among the
laity and not among the monks. We notice the influence of Hinduism
to a larger extent, particularly in the South, where we find not only
the four castes, but the caste marks, prohibition of widow marriage,
and such other things.

Finally, as already stated, the various Gachchhas originated in
the north with the 84 disciples of Uddyotana. According to the Kha-
rataragachchhapattavali he flourished 550 years after Devarddhi.96
Gandhani inscription on the back of the metal image of Sri Adinatha,
dated V.S. 937 (A.D. 880), refers to Uddyotana’s two disciples. The
inscription shows that he became Acharya in A.D. 880. Pattavalis
give 994 V.S., i.e. A.D. 937 as the year of his death. The inscription
does not mention Gachchhas as these arose after each of his disci¬
ples.97 Most of those Gachchhas have become extinct, and some
new ones like Tapa, Kharatara., Anchala, etc. have come into exis¬
tence. Uddyotana died on a pilgrimage which he had undertaken
from Malavadesa to Satrunjaya to worship Rishabha.98

VI. ICONOGRAPHY

Parts of Raj put ana and Central India, Kathiawar Peninsula,
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and some parts of southern India (specially the

296

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

central and western Deccan) possess Jain sculptural and architec¬
tural remains of the early and late mediaeval periods. There is no
doubt that much of the ancient religious art of the Jains has been
destroyed, and only a limited number of the extant Jain images
go back to a period before the early mediaeval.

Jain images of a comparatively early period are very few in num¬
ber in Bengal and certain parts of Bihar, but in other parts of Bihar
and Orissa, they are fairly common. The image of Rishabhanatha
found at Surohor (Dinajpur District, Bengal), and belonging to the
tenth century A.D., is of unique iconographic interest, on account of
its certain rare features. The sculpture is shaped like a shrine con¬
taining in its centre the main figure seated in dhydnasana, with the
miniature figures of the twenty-three other Jinas similarly seated
inside small shrines all round it; the latter are also characterised by
their peculiar marks which we do not find in the Lucknow Museum
composition of the Gupta period noticed above." The two male
chauri-bearers on either side of Rishabhanatha, the flying garland-
bearer, Vidyadhara couples on his top right and left, the two-tiered
pedestal with a wheel and two lions on the upper tier and the bull
and the figure of the donor on the lower, are all arranged with
delicate skill and refinement. Another mediaeval composition depict¬
ing the same theme in a different manner was found at Barabhum
(Midnapur District, Bengal) and is now in the collection of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta.

Three other Jina images, all hailing from Bengal, are charac¬
terised by the presence of the miniature figures of the Navagrahas
on either side of the main figure standing in the K&yotsarga pose.
Two of them representing Parsvanatha with his snake-hood show
four of the grahas on each side, the presence of the ninth in the
list, Ketu, being indicated by the snake cognizance of the Jina; the
third, recognisable as Santinatha from his Idnchchhana , the ante¬
lope on the pedestal, displays four grahas on the right and five on the
left, the fifth in the left side standing for Ketu. The sculptures all
belong to the late mediaeval period and their execution is not indiffe¬
rent. Some mediaeval Jina images hailing from other parts of India
do not fail to show the formal stereotyped character, but the atten¬
dant Jinas and other figures are displayed in different ways. Thus
the seated Rishabhanatha from Sravasti (Gonda District, U.P.) shows
the miniature seated Jina figures on the rectangular prabhdvali in
four rows of eight, two, six. and eight. The standing figures of Ajita-
natha and Chandraprabha, both from Deogarh (Jhansi District, Cen¬
tral India), have only eight and four figures of standing Jinas carved
on the back slab. The sculptors, however, have failed to carve the

297

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

individual marks below the attendant Jinas in these reliefs, perhaps
due to exigencies of space. Some other seated and standing Jina
icons of the mediaeval period, though they do not contain the figures
of attendant Tlrthahkaras, are very rich in the number and variety
of other types of accompanying figures which are displayed on their
prabhdvali in a very interesting manner.

Reference may be made to one very well-carved seated image
of Santinatha in the collection of the Fyzabad Museum, which shows
the dancing Navagrahas in the lowermost section of the pedestal,
the Upasaka, Sasanadevata, an antelope on either side of a wheel
on the simhdsana above it, two beautifully carved chauri-bearers,
one on each side of the central figure, two elephants with pitchers
carrying riders on lotuses parallel to the head of the Jina, and lastly
on the topmost section of the rectangular prabhdvali the two gar-
land-bearing Vidyadhara couples on the right and left and one single
garland-bearer over the triple umbrella above the Jina’s head, —
all three being depicted in the flying posture. In spite of the form¬
al character of the principal theme, the whole composition is mark¬
ed by subdued grace and beauty.

The Dilwara group of marble temples at Mount Abu, of
which the most important are those of Vimala and Tejahpala (c.
A.D. 1032-1232), display some of the finest examples of Jain figure-
sculpture, chiefly from the point of view of their exquisite delicacy
of carving and severe simplicity. These images are very similar in
appearance, and “representing nothing more than the skilled realisa¬
tion of a fixed formula” are each a note in the whole scheme of the
religious representation. What a contrast between these dream-like
figures of beauty and the colossal Jain sculpture at Sravaga Belgola
(Hasan District, Mysore), one of the largest-free-standng images in
the world! The topmost section of the granite hill Indragiri was
fashioned with marvellous success into this gigantic statue of Saint
Gommatesvara, the son of the first Jina Rishabhanatha, who resigned
his kingdom to become an ascetic. The saint is represented in the
immovable serenity of one practising the K&yotsarga austerity, un¬
disturbed by the serpents about his feet, the ant-hills rising to his
thighs, or the growing creeper that has already reached his shoul¬
ders. This huge sculpture (57 feet high), whose plastic treatment is
very formal, was carved under the orders of Chamun<Ja Raja about
A.D. 983. Most of the extant Jain images from the early mediaeval
period onwards are stereotyped in their treatment and were execut¬
ed according to a set formula in which much that is common to the
cult-icons of the rival Indian creeds is present.

298

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

It has already been shown that the subsidiary deities of the first
class in the Jain pantheon are the Yakshas and the YakshinSS, known
also as Upasakas and Sasanadevatas. The Jain text Pravachana-
saroddhara describes the Yakshas as devotees of the Tirthankaras,
and they, with their female counterparts, are the principal attendants
of the Jin as. Though they are usually shown as accessory figures in
many medieavel Jain sculptures, separate figures of some of them
were well represented in the Jain temple-carvings of the post-Gupta
and later periods. Their names and their iconographic features dis¬
tinctly indicate the Brahmanical association of many of them. Thus,
Gomukha, the Yaksha of Rishabhamatha, from his bull face and bull
mount as well as such of his attributes as battle-axe, noose, etc. shows
his distinct affinity with Siva; the name of his principal, Rishabha-
natha, and the special cognizance also prove the latter’s affiliation to
the same Brahmanical deity. The tenth Yaksha, known as Brahma,
is distinguished by four faces and a lotus seat and such attributes as
citrus, rosary, abhaya or varamudrd} club, noose, etc.; though some
of the latter attributes are foreign to the Brahma Prajapati of the
Hindu pantheon, yet the name, the number of faces, the lotus-seat
etc., closely connect him with the first member of the Brahmanical
triad. Similarly isvara and Shanmukha Yakshas, the eleventh and
thirteenth in the list, can be associated with Siva and Subrahmanya
on the basis of their names, mounts and attributes. But such asso¬
ciation in the case of many others in the list is not apparent, though
their names seem to point towards similar affiliation. A reference
to the iconography of Kumara, Garuda, Kubera, Varuna and others
will prove this point. It seems that their names were adopted from
Brahmanical religion, but their elaborate iconography was developed
according to the ideology of the Jains. As regards many of their
female counterparts also, their names alone do not always explain
their Brahmanical association, though in some cases their names,
attributes and mounts distinctly indicate it. Ambika or Kushmainidini,
the 6asanadevata of Neminatha and consort of Gomedha, falls under
the category of the latter, and her iconographic features leave little
doubt that she is a Jain adaptation of the Hindu goddess of the same
name. But the Jains developed a mythology of their own, which had
very little in common with the stories connected with her Hindu ori¬
ginal. She is one of the Jain goddesses whose images have been
found all over India and her two-, four-, eight-, and even twenty¬
armed varieties of the early and late mediaeval periods are known.
The wall paintings of the Vardhamana temple at Tiruparuttikunram
(Jaina-Kanchi) in the Madras State illustrate the story of Agnita
and her two sons Subhankara and Prabhankara; Aenita was the name
of Ambika in her human birth according to the Digambara version

299

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of the story of the YakshinI’s origin. The Svetambara and Digam-
bara accounts taken together help to explain almost wholly the ico-
nographic traits of Ambika; her symbol of a bunch of mangoes and a
child or sometimes two children near her with her lion mount are
her characteristic cognizances. Sometimes she is shown accompa¬
nied by seven dancing female figures by her side (probably another
adaptation of the Saptamatrika ) , and at other times she is seated or
standing by her consort Gomedha. Several mediaeval reliefs in the
collection of the Varendra Research Society’s Museum, Rajsbahi
(Bengal), show a couple seated underneath the spreading branches
of a tree with children in their laps; miniature figures in Yogasana
are placed above the branches of the tree. These sculptures may
be taken as the eastern mode of representing Gomedha and Ambika,
and there is little doubt that they are adaptations of the figures of
Panchika (Kubera) and Hariti, associated with Mahayana Buddhism.
Padmavati, like her spiritual father, the Jina Parsvanatha, is asso¬
ciated with snakes and her Brahmanical or popular counterpart is
the folk-goddess Manasa, one of whose names is also Padmavati or
Padma.

D. &ATVTSM AND VAISHNAVISM
I. SATVTSM

1. Growth and General Popularity

§aivism attained a dominant position in India during the period
under review. This is testified to by the adherence of a large number
of royal families to this faith and the building of richly endowed
temples,100 some of which have attained world-wide fame.
Alongside this material manifestation of religious fervour, there was
also a parallel philosophical movement which tended to fix the tenets
of Saivism. While the main principles remained the same, there
were local variations and consequent doctrinal differences. It has
been stated in an earlier volume that very early in the development
of Saivism there came into being several sub-sects. Most of these
sects, or rather schools, were the result of different philosophical ten¬
dencies among the worshippers of Siva. Just as in Vedanta we have
Dvaita, Visishtadvaita and Advaita, besides many other points of
view, even so in Saivism we have schools ranging from pluralistic
realism to monistic idealism.

2. K&shmir Saivism

There is a form of Saivism, popularly known as Kashmir Sai-
vism, which is a kind of monism or non-dualism. The names by which
the system is known are: Trika, Spanda and Pratyabhifm ,101 The

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name Trika primarily refers to the triple principle with which the
system deals, viz. Siva-sakti-anu or pati-pdsa-pasu. Though the other
schools of Saivism also accept these three categories, Kashmir Sai-
vism regards the individual soul and the world as essentially identi¬
cal with Siva, and so the three, according to it, are reducible to one.
The term Spanda indicates the principle of apparent movement or
change from the state of absolute unity to the plurality of the world.
And the expression Pratyabhijna, which means ‘recognition’ refers
to the way of realising the soul’s identity with Siva.

The beginnings of Kashmir Saivism are to be traced to the &iva~
sutras whose authorship is attributed to Siva himself. The sutras
are said to have been revealed to a sage by name Vasugupta who
lived towards the end of the eighth or the beginning of the ninth
century A.D. A succession of talented exponents of the system fol¬
lowed Vasugupta. Kallata,102 who was Vasugupta’s chosen pupil,
wrote, among other works, Spanda-sarvasva in which he explained
the meaning of the £iva-sutras as taught by his master. Somananda,
the author of Siva-drishti and a vritti thereon, was probably another
pupil of Vasugupta. Among other teachers of Kashmir Saivism,
who flourished during the period under review, we find the names of
Utpala, Ramakantha and Abhinavagupta. The last named was a
prolific writer on a variety of subjects. The period of his literary
activity extended over a quarter of a century, from about A.D. 991 to
1015. His best known work on Kashmir Saivism is the Paramdrtha-
sara which is an adaptation of an earlier Advaita work of the same
name by Adi Sesha.

The Ultimate Reality, in Kashmir Saivism, as in every school of
Saiva philosophy, is Sambhu or Siva the Supreme God. Siva is the
Atman, the self of all beings, immutable and ever perfect. He is
pure consciousness ( chaitanya ), absolute experience (para samvit),
supreme lord (paramesvara) . He is the ground of all existence, the
substrate of all beings. He is beginningless and one; he resides in all
that moves and all that moves not. Time and space do not limit him,
for he transcends them, and they are but his appearance. He is both
immanent ( visvamaya ) and transcendent (visvottiriia) . The world
does not exhaust him, for he is infinite. He is called anuttara, the
reality beyond which there is nothing. In the familiar strain of the
Upanishads, the teachers of Kashmir Saivism tell us that the Ultimate
Reality is beyond the reach of thought and language. Yet both mind
and speech attempt to understand and express the Real in its rela¬
tion to the universe.

The pure consciousness, which is the Supreme Reality and is
referred to as Siva, is the material as well as the efficient cause of

301

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the universe. This view is much the same as the one sponsored by
Advaita-Vedanta as regards Saguna-Brahman. God or Reality is the
substance of which the world is made as well as the instrument which
makes it. Fundamentally there is no difference between the cause
and the effect. But while for Advaita the manifested world is non-
real, for Kashmir Saivism it is real.

By means of several illustrations the writers on the Pratyabhi-
jna system explain the creation of the universe from and by Siva.
The world is very often compared to the reflected city in a mirror.
“As in the orb of a mirror pictures such as those of a town or village
shine which are inseparable from it, and yet are distinct from one
another and from it, so from the perfectly pure vision of the supreme
Bhairava, this universe, though void of distinction, appears distinct,
part from part, and distinct from that vision.”103 And again, “As
syrup, molasses, jaggery, sugar-balls, candy, etc., are all alike juice
of the sugar-cane, so the diverse conditions are all of Sambhu, the
Supreme Self.”104 The illustration of the rope appearing as the snake
is also employed, though not with the same implication as in Advai¬
ta-Vedanta. Another familiar analogy used to explain creation is
the appearance of ideas in the mind. The creation-theory of the
Pratyabhijna school is known as abhdsavdda, i.e. the view which
holds that the universe consists of appearances which are all real in
the sense that they are aspects of the Ultimate Reality.

The manifestation of the universe is effected through the Power
(sakti) of Siva. And Power is not different from the Possessor
thereof. Sakti is Siva’s creative energy, and is spoken of as his femi¬
nine aspect. There are innumerable modes of Sakti. But the most
important of them are five. They are: (1) chit-sakti, the power of
intelligence or self-luminosity, which means that the Supreme shines
by itself without dependence on any other light and even in the
absence of all objects; (2) ananda-sakti, the power of independence
( svdtantryCL ) which is bliss or joy, and by virtue of which the Ulti¬
mate Reality is self-satisfied; (3) ichchha-sakti, the power of will or
desire, the wonderful power of the Lord to create; (4) jna na^sakti,
the power of knowledge by virtue of which the objects are brought
together and held together in consciousness; and (5) kriyd-sakti , the
power of action which is responsible for the actual manifestation of
objects and their relations. By these powers the supreme Siva in his
aspects as Sakti manifests himself as the universe. He manifests him¬
self by his own free will ( svechchhayd ) and in himself as the sub¬
strate ( svabhittau) . That is, there is nothing other than Siva. If the
universe appears as if different, such appearance is a delusion. With
the opening out of Sakti, the universe appears; and when Sakti closes

802

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

herself up, the universe disappears. Srishti (creation) and pralaya
(dissolution) alternate; and this process is without a beginning.

As in the other schools of ^aivism, thirty-six categories or tat-
tvds are recognised in Kashmir Saivism. The tattva which is count¬
ed as the thirty-sixth but which is first in the logical order is Siva, the
Ultimate Reality, as it holds the potentiality of creation. It is of this
reality, as we said, that the universe is an appearance. The £aiva-
tattva is the first stage in the process of world-manifestation. Of
the five aspects of gakti, chit or intelligence predominates over the
others at this stage. The next category or tattva is sakti . It is not
proper to call it the second stage, for it is by virtue of its operation
that the manifestation of the £iva-tattva is made possible. When
sakti is counted separately, what is meant in reality is the manifesta¬
tion of its dnanda aspect— -the aspect of bliss and self-satisfaction
which is the precursor of the manifestation of a variety of forms. The
other categories need not be discussed in detail as they are mostly
abstruse philosophical principles.

The supreme aim of the Pratyahhijnd system is to enable the
individual soul to find its salvation. The salvation consists in the
soul’s recognition of its identity with the Ultimate Reality. As
bondage is the result of ignorance, release is to be attained through
knowledge. The knowledge which liberates, however, is not mere
intellectual awareness; it is spiritual intuition of the fundamental
unity. The intuition is gained by dikshd, which is the name for the
act whereby spiritual knowledge is imparted and the bondage of
innate ignorance is removed. The intellectual knowledge of the
Pratyahhijnd system is also necessary, because without it dikshci
will not be efficacious.

This is how the process of recognition is illustrated and explained;
“A certain damsel, hearing of the many good qualities of a particular
gallant, fell in love with him before she had seen him, and agitated
by her passion and unable to suffer the pain of not seeing him, wrote
to him a love-letter descriptive of her condition. He at once came
to her, but when she saw him she did not recognise in him the quali¬
ties she had heard about; he appeared much the same as any other
man, and she found no gratification in his society. So soon, however,
as she recognised those qualities in him, as her companions now
pointed them out, she was fully gratified. In like manner, though
the personal self be manifested as identical with the universal soul,
its manifestation effects no complete satisfaction so long as there is
no recognition of those attributes; but as soon as it is taught by a
spiritual director to recognise in itself the perfections of Mahesvara,

308

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

his omniscience, omnipotence, and other attributes, it attains the
whole pleroma of being.”105

Mere human effort will not be of much avail in the path to
mcksha. What really moves here is the Divine Will. Besides^ the three
powers of creation, sustentation, and destruction of the universe,
God has the powers of concealment and grace. His real nature is
concealed from the soul; and after the soul has played out its part in
scimsdra } God’s grace descends on the individual; and the individual
is released. The descent of Divine Grace is called sakti-nipdta.

Moksha , according to the Pratyabhijnd system, is a return to
the original state of perfection and purity of consciousness. Abhi-
navagupta describes it thus: “When thus the imagination of duality.
has vanished, and he (the released soul) has surmounted the illusive
mdyd} he is merged in Brahman, as water in water, as milk in milk.
When thus through contemplation the group of elements has been
resolved into the substance of Siva, what grief, what delusion can
befall him who surveys the universe as Brahman?”106

3. Sankardchdrya

In the south Saivism received a great impetus from the life and
work of a spiritual genius who was born in the Chera country about
the year A.D. 788, and who, in the short space of terrestrial existence
granted to him, revolutionised the spiritual outlook of men in India.
Though he is primarily known as the greatest exponent of Advaita
Vedanta, Sankara was nevertheless the Acharya par excellence who
cleansed the Hindu faiths of the excrescences that had gathered
round them due to accidents of history, and taught each aspirant to
follow the way that was best suited to him. Besides the commen¬
taries which he wrote on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-gitd} and the
Brahma-sutras , he composed hymns in praise of the major gods of
Hinduism. Several of these hymns glorify Siva as the God of gods.
Sankara was himself a Saiva by birth. And tradition has it that he
was an incarnation of Siva, born for the purpose of consolidating
Hindu dharma, and in answer to the implorings of Sivaguru and
Aryamba at Kala^i. In the course of his digvijaya, Sankara met in
argument several groups of pseudo-Saivas who were responsible for
the prevalence of left-handed practices, and by quelling them freed
the followers of Saivism from their baneful influence. At Ujjain,
for instance, which was famous for the worship of Mahakala, he is
said to have vanquished in argument a Pasupatacharya. It is also
recorded that he visited Kashmir. And it is not unlikely that his
doctrine of Advaita influenced, in some ways, the formulation of the
Pratyabhijnd system.107

804

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

4. Iconography

The tendency to multiply the variety of Saiva images was car¬
ried to its fullest extent in the early and late mediaeval Saiva reliefs,
most of which illustrate numerous stories current about the god.
Those that do not seem to be associated with any particular mytho¬
logy retain the early form, and can be generally described on the
basis of later iconographic texts as Siva Chandrasekhara. These are
standing figures; seated types of such images, depicted singly or in
company with Uma and Skanda, are usually known as Sukhasana-
murti, Uma-Mahesvara-murti, Somaskanda-murti, etc., the last of
which was known only in South India. They represent the placid
( sdumya ) aspect of the god, while there are other mediaeval image-
types, usually^ designated as Bhairava, which emphasise his terrific
( ugra ) one. The numerous figures of Siva of the post-Gupta age,
hailing from different parts of India, which are illustrative of various
Saiva mythologies, can also be sub-divided into two principal groups,
viz . samhdra (destructive) and anugraha (gracious), corresponding
to his ugra and sdumya aspects. These two aspects remind one of
malignant-benignant concepts underlying Vedic Rudra; an epic
passage refers to the two bodies of Siva, one auspicious and the
other fierce ( dve tdnu tasya devdsya. . .ghorarii anyam sivcim
anyam . . . ) . Other graceful forms of Siva are known which are
called Dakshina-murti and Nritya-murti etc. in the Saivagamas like
Suprabhedagdmd; they do not illustrate any story, but portary the
god as a master in various arts such as dancing, playing on musical
instruments, expounding the sastras, as also in the practice of
Yoga. Reliefs depicting the themes of the marriage of Siva and
Uma ( Kalyana-sundara-murti ) , Siva’s expiation of the sin of
Brahmahatya (Kankala-murti, Bhikshatana-murti) , descent of the
Gahga on Siva’s head (Gangadhara-murti), granting of Pasupatastra
to Arjuna by Siva (Pasupatastra-dana-murti)- — really a form of
Anugraha-murti, joint forms of Siva and Uma (Ardhanarlsvara)
and of Siva and Vishnu (Hari-Hara), etc., are also known from fairly
early period; they usually come under the god’s sdumya form.
Ardhanarlsvara and Hari-Hara motifs emphasise in their own way
the attempts to harmonise different cult-deities such as Siva, Sakti
and Vishnu. Another group of images were mostly evolved in
South India in the mediaeval times, which like the Chaturviihsati-
murtis in the case of Vaishnavism, were intended to symbolise some
of the principal tenets of Saivism. Sadasiva-murti, Maha-Sadasiva-
murti, Mahesa-murti, etc. belong to this category. This bewildering
diversity in the anthropomorphic way of representing Siva is all the
more noteworthy wbm it is remembered that the principal object

305

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of worship enshrined in the main sanctum is almost invariably an
aniconic symbol.

Reference has been made above108 to the nature and significance
of the Ardhanarisvara-murti. The Purapara image in the Rajshahi
Museum shows a less common way of representing this divine as¬
pect, where the god shown fully in the round is two-armed and
ithyphallic; it is a fine piece of sculpture and can be regarded as
one of the best specimens of the late Pala period.

Mediaeval sculptures representing the marriage of Siva and
Parvatl, usually described as Kalyana-sundara or Vaivahika-murti,
are common in several parts of India, one of the most outstanding
examples of which is the very much mutilated Elephanta relief, a
fine and sublime product of the Indian artistic genius. The easy
grace of the standing pose of Uma and Siva, the tasteful grouping
round them of the accessory figures, the eager and wistful attitude
of the latter who appear as regular participants in the main scene,
have been expressed with great skill by the unknown sculptor.
The Vaivahika-murtis, found in Bengal, do not stand comparison
with the Elephanta sculpture in point of artistic execution, but they
portray some local marriage customs. The Vangiya Sahitya Pari-
shat (Calcutta) specimen of such an image is a representative one
of this group.109 The Dakshina-murti types of Saiva sculptures are
principally south-Indian in character, and such figures as Yoga-,
Jhana-, Vyakhyana-, and Vinadhara-dakshina-murtis have seldom
been found in northern and eastern India.110 But if, as we have
suggested above, the Nritya-murtis of Siva are included among such
Saiva images, it can be shown that particular types of this variety
of Dakshina-murti of Siva were fairly prevalent in other parts of
India as well. The south Indian Nritya-murtis of Siva at first show
a well-marked variety which, however, came to be merged in one
outstanding type, the Siva Nataraja, a sublime creation in the
domain of art. The Ellora and Chidambaram temples, as well as
several other Saiva shrines of the Deccan, contain figures of Siva
shown in various dance poses, such as Chatura, Katisama, Lalita ,
Lalatattl^ka , Talasamsphotita, etc.; but these gradually gave place
to the ideal Nataraja type which, mostly in bronze and rarely in
stone, became common in South India.111 Rao says: “In all Siva
temples of importance a separate place is allotted to Nataraja which
is known as the Natana Sablid or simply Scibha. The most important
of these sabhas is that at Chidambaram.”1 12 This Nadanta dance
mode of Siva Nataraja shows him with his right leg firmly planted
on the back of the wriggling Muvalaka ( Apashmarapurusha, the
evil personified), his left leg raised high up in a slant, his front left

806

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

hand in the dola- or gajci-hasta pose pointing to the lifted foot, the
front right hand in the abhaya pose, the back right and left hands
carrying a kettle-drum and a ball of fire respectively; the whole
composition is placed on a well-decorated pedestal on which rest
the ends of the circular or elliptical prabhd ( tiruvasi in Tamil)
which encircles it. The sublime ideology underlying this very
characteristic dancing type of Siva images has been elaborately ex¬
pounded by A.K. Coomaraswamy.1 13 The Tamil text, called Unmai
vilakkam, explains the symbolism underlying the cosmic dance as
follows: “Creation arises from the drum, protection proceeds from
hand of hope (the abhaya pose in the front right one), from fire
proceeds destruction, the foot held aloft gives mukti” (the same as
anugraha or release). Thus, in a way, it practically embraces all
the five-fold activities of the lord, — his panchakrityas , viz., creation,
preservation, destruction, grace, and obscuration, the tiruvasi round
him symbolising the last of the activities. A different variety of
Nataraja seems to have been evolved in Bengal and eastern India,
which shows the ten- or twelve-armed god dancing in deep ecstasy
on the back of his mount, Nandi, surrounded by a host of accessory
figures. Such ten-armed images closely follow the description of
the dancing Siva given in the Matsya Purdna, and the Dacca Museum
specimen, originally collected from Sankarabandha, a village in the
Dacca District, can be regarded as the most representative of this
group. It is a fine piece of artistic work of the Pala period and
portrays with characteristic vigour the intense movement accom¬
panied by rhythmic grace.1 14 The Anugraha-murtis of Siva have
been found both in northern and southern India, but Some of their
varieties Ike Chandesanugraha-murti are typically south Indian in
character. Ravananugraha-murti figures are often found carved in
mediaeval Saiva temples, and one of the Ellora reliefs, depicting the
theme, has been adjudged as one of the best artistic remains of
ancient India.115 Partially broken square stone pillars from
Chandimau and Rajaona (Bihar), now in the collection of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta, characteristically portary the scenes of Siva
releasing the goddess Ganga from coils of his jatds (matted hair)
after being propitiated by Bhagiratha, and the Kiratarjuna story in
which Siva in the guise of a hunter (Kirata) fights with Arjuna, and
being satisfied with the latter’s prowess, grants him the Pasu-
patastra.116 A huge stone boulder at Mamallapuram (Madras)
contains an elaborate scene carved on its surface, which was sup¬
posed to illustrate the Kiratarjuna episode; it was later explained
as illustrating some phases of the story of the descent of the Ganga.
But it has now been proved beyond doubt that the earlier suggestion
about its character is correct. 117

307

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Among the different types of terrific or Ugra forms of Siva,
some oi wmcn do not seem to illustrate any particular Saiva mytho¬
logy, mention may be made of his Bhairava-, Aghora-, Virabhadra-,
ana V irupaKsna- murtis. The first is also sometimes described as
Branmasirascnnedaka-murti of Siva, and the Pur anas and the
Agamas try to explain this aspect of Siva, cutting off one of the
heads of the polycephalous Brahma, by different stories. But there
seems to be very little real connection between these varying myths
and the iconic types. The Agamic texts enumerate as many as sixty-
four Bhairavas, divided in groups of eight, each group being headed,
respectively by such names as Asitahga, Ruru, Chanda, Krodha,
Unmatta-Bhairava, Kapala, Bhlshana, and Samhara. They are the
consorts or guardians of the sixty-four Yoginis referred to in the
Tantrik form of the Sakti worship. The particular type of Bhairava
commonly found in India is, however, known as Batuka-Bhairava
(literally youthful Bhairava), who is usually shown as a nude figure,
terrifying in appearance, with fangs protruding from the corners
of the mouth parted in a weird smile, with eyes round and rolling,
and hands holding such objects as a sword, a khatvanga or Sula, and
a kapala; he wears wooden sandals and is accompanied by a dog.
One Ellora stone panel is of unique iconographic interest, inasmuch
as it contains a figure of Atiriktahga Bhairava, one of the eight
headed by Samhara; it shows the extremely emaciated standing
figure of the god resting his weight on his three legs (the third leg
is the extra limb — atirikta anga) and attended by other ghostly
emaciated figures, one of whom is Kali. Rao observes, about this
remarkable relief, that “though grotesque, the sculptor has execut¬
ed his work with great skill.”118 Some Aghora and Virupaksha
forms of Siva have been found in Bengal, and one of the latter, in
the collection of the Dacca Museum, depicts in a very striking man¬
ner the uncanny horror underlying such concepts of the god.119
Another type of less terrific image of the deity is his Kankala-murti,
in which he carries on his trident the skeleton of Vishvaksena, the
gate-keeper of Vishnu, who was killed by Siva for his refusal to
admit him into the presence of Vishnu. Such images of the late
mediaeval period are comparatively common in South India.
Bhikshatana-murti of Siva, which is mythologically associated with
the Kankala-murti is, however, of a placid type, and it shows the
deity as a wandering youth of the untouchable order (the bell tied
round one of his legs emphasises social degradation), usually
nude, holding a kapala in one of his hands, and somtimes accom¬
panied by a frisking deer; it may be observed that the above two
types do not appear to have been used as cult objects in northern
and eastern India.120 Among the images of the god portraying his

308

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

terrific nature, which illustrate different episodes in his divine car¬
eer, mention may be made of Gajasurasamhara-murti, Tripurantaka-
murti, Andhakasuravadha-murti, Kalari-murti, Kamantaka-ra.urti,
etc. The first three of these forms portray the destruction of the dif¬
ferent demons like Gajasura, or the demon in the shape of an elephant
whose hide he wore as his garment after destroying him, the three
Asuras of the three castles ( tripura ), and Andhakasura. Some of
the finest sculptures of the early mediaeval period represent these
motifs, and the much mutilated Ellora and Elephanta panels, depict¬
ing the Tripurantaka and Andhakasuravadha-murtis of Siva, reach
sublime heights of artistic creation; in the multi-handed awe-inspir¬
ing god in both of them is very skilfully portrayed the dynamic
energy with which he destroys the demons of evil. It is worth
noting, in connection with the myths underlying such images, that
some of them seem to be regular developments of Vedic epithets
associated with Rudra, one of the constituents of the composite god
Siva of the Epic and Puranic period. Thus, in the satarudrlya
section of Yajurveda one of the names of Rudra is Krittivasa, i.e.
a god who has the hide of an animal (an elephant) for his garment;
it will not be an exercise of our imagination, if we say that the whole
episode of Gajasurasamhara-murti is an indirect development of
the above epithet. Tripurantaka-murti appears also to have deve¬
loped out of some concept associated with Rudra. Gajasurasamhara-
murti is a very favourite theme in the south, and this type of Saiva
images is also found, though comparatively rarely, in northern India.
Kalari-murti, in which form the god chastised Kala or Yama, the god
of death, for his attempt to take away the life of Markandeya, a great
devotee of Siva, while he was engaged in worshipping his deity, is
fairly common in South India and reference may be made to the strik¬
ing Ellora sculpture depicting the theme. Kamantaka-murti is sel¬
dom represented in mediaeval art.

There are certain types of Saiva images which seek to illustrate
some of the tenets of the Suddha-Saiva doctrine. As such they are
not very old, for they presuppose a time when the philosophy under¬
lying the Suddha-Saiva system was fully developed. A comparison
can be fruitfully instituted between such Saiva icons with the
Vaishnava ones falling under the Vyuha category. The latter also,
as has been shown earlier, are associated with one of the principal
tenets of the Pancharatrins: but unlike most of such Saiva images,
those of the two principal Vvuhas of Vasudeva-Vishnu, viz. Vasu-
deva and Samkarshana, are of a very early date. No Sad^siva and
Mahasadasiva-murtis of Siva, which idealise the whole philosophy
of the Suddha Saiva school of Saivism, can be ascribed to the Gupta
age; all the known specimens can be dated in the mediaeval and

309

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

late mediaeval periods. They are mostly of south Indian origin,
being associated principally with a cult which attained its develop¬
ment in that region. The Agamanta Saivism seems to have been
originally evolved in North India, for some of its ideas and concepts
are closely parallel to those of the Pahcharatra system whose
northern origin is beyond any doubt. But it was subsequently fully
developed in all its ideological ramifications in its south Indian sur¬
roundings, and that explains why these Saiva images mostly hail
from different parts of the Peninsula. The Sena kings, of Bengal,
whose orginal home land was the Karnata country, were devout
worshippers of Sadasiva, and they used a five-faced arrdf ten-armed
figure of the god as their seal-device. It was owing to their patro¬
nage that Sadasiva cult gained some importance in Bengal, as is
proved by the discovery of several Sadasiva images from its various
parts. This variety of icons is described in the Makdnirvdnatantra. the
Uttar a-kdmikdgama and the Garuda Purdna. The last two texts des¬
cribe the god as endowed with five faces, ten arms, seated in the
baddhapadmasana pose, showing in his right hands abhaya-, and
varada-mudrd} sakti, trisula and khatvanga f and in his left ones,
sdrpa, akshamald , damaru, nilotpala and vijapura. The five faces
typify the different aspects of Siva — the Panchabrahmas or isana-
dayah, viz., Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha, and Isana,
who in their turn are supposed to have emanated from the five parti¬
cular powers of the supreme deity, Siva, viz . Para-sakti, Adi-sakti,
Ichchhasakti, Jnana-sakti, and Kriya-sakti. These five aspects again
are also known as five sadakhyas or tattvas such as Siva-sadakhya,
Amurtta-sadakhya, Murtta-sadakhya, Kartri-sadakhya, and Karma-
sadakhya, each being dependent on or emanating from its imme¬
diate predecessor. It will not be possible here to go into further
details about the ideologies underlying the Sadaiiva-murti, but
even a cursory study of it will enable one to be aware of the deep
mysticism behind the concrete icon. The importance in which it
was held in the developed cult is emphasised by the fact that its
sectaries thought that all the different ‘ lildmurtis 9 of the supreme
god Siva ( these are the various types of saumya- and ugra - murtis, a
brief account of which has been given above) are so many manifes¬
tations of the Mahesa-murti which is itself derived from a thousandth
part of the last of the tattvas , viz. Karma-sadatattva or Karma-
sadakhya mentioned just now. Rao was of opinion that the so-called
Trimurti of Elephanta cave, as well as the central image of Rana
Mokalji’s temple at Chitorgadh (MewarJ, really represents the
Mahesa-murti of Siva. The Mahasadasiva-murti is a further com¬
plicated aspect of Sadasiva-murti, being endowed with twenty-five
heads and fifty arms; each of the five heads of the latter being

310

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

replaced by the same number of heads makes up the requisite num¬
ber, which again symbolises the twenty-five tattvas of Indian philo¬
sophy. The way in which “these heads are arranged in tiers in
arithmetical progression”, in some of the extant south Indian spe¬
cimens of this variety of a late date, distinctly reminds us of the
multi-headed forms of Avalokitesvara worshipped by the Buddhists
of Tibet and Nepal. There are other Saiva images such as those of
Ekadasa-Rudras, Murtyashtakas, Vidyesvaras, etc., which either
emphasise the Rudra or Vedic part of the composite god Siva or
illustrate in their own way one or other of the philosophic concepts
of the Saiva system. But these images are comparatively late and
rare.

Mention may be made now of another image-type which does
not illustrate any Saiva tenet, but emphasises the highest position
of Siva amongst the orthodox Brahmanical Triad. This is the Eka-
pada Trimurti of the god, in which he is shown as standing one-
legged, holding his usual attributes in his hands, with four-armed
Brahma and Vishnu issuing respectively from his right and left
flanks, their front hands showing the anjalimudra and back ones
carrying their respective emblems. If we leave out these flanking
figures, the one-legged central deity reminds us of the god-concept
Aja-Ekapada, one of the eleven Rudras (Ekadasa Rudras), which is
one of the Vedic constituents of the composite god Siva. This type
of Siva image, again, was at the root of another little-known Vaish-
nava one in which the central figure is that of Vishnu, the flanking
ones being those of Siva and Brahma; there can be no doubt that it
was the direct outcome of sectarian jealousy, the Vaishnava sectary
retaliating, in this curious manner, the lowering of the position of
their own cult-god by the Saivas. Another very little-known Saiva
image-type, known as Sarabhesa-murti, distinctly owes its origin
to the sectarian rancour, for Siva is said to have killed Narasimha
(the Man-lion form of Vishnu) after assuming this curious hvbrid
form, in which the features of man, bird, and beast were combined,
when the latter got out of hand after he had destroyed Hiranya-
kasipu, a great devotee of Siva.121 These two image-groups are,
however, mainly south Indian in character, as are those of the sixty-
three Nayanmars122 or Siva-bhaktas of the Tamil land, which were
sometimes placed in particular sections of important Saiva temples
of southern India.

II. VAISHNAVISM
1. The Achdryas

We have seen how, under the patronage of the Imperial Guptas,
Vaishnavism became a great force in the religious life of both

311

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

northern and southern India and how some of the Tamil saints
(Alvars), who flourished during that age, gave a new impetus to
south Indian Vaishnavism. In the post-Gupta period, the influence
of the Vaishnava faith can be traced in every corner of northern
India; some of the notable kings of various dynasties flourishing in
different north Indian tracts are known to have favoured this reli¬
gion. The same was also the case with South India. It must how¬
ever be admitted that the greatest stronghold of Vaishnavism in
post-Gupta India was the Tamil country where it flourished at first
under the impetus of the Alvars up to the eighth century and then
under another class of saints known as the Acharyas. While the
Alvars represented the emotional side of Tamilian Vaishnavism, the
Acharyas, who were their successors, represented its intellectual or
philosophical side.

The earliest of the Acharyas was Nathamuni, otherwise called
Ranganathacharya, who was a native of Vlranarayanapura (modern
Mannargudi in the South Arcot District). The traditional date of his
death is given as A.D. 920. This date appears to be too early for
Nathamuni’s death, but may actually be the date of his birth.
Another tradition makes him the contemporary of a Chola king re¬
siding at Gangaikondacholapuram and thus assigns his death to a
date not earlier than the reign of Rajendra Chola I who founded
the above city in the first half of the eleventh century. This date
for Nathamuni’s death is now usually accepted.

Nathamuni lived at Srlrangam and was the author of the Nyaya -
tattva which gives an elaborate exposition of the philosophy of the
Visishtadvaita school. The essential doctrine of this school is that
of the prdpatti which is absolute surrender to God in renunciation
and faith and is based on the Gita and the early Pancharatra works.
It is said that this doctrine was first brought into practise by
Nammalvar or Sathakopa and was later elaborated by Nathamuni
and his successors, the greatest amongst them being Ramanuja.
The sect founded by Nathamuni became known as the &rlvaishnava.
Nathamuni was inspired by the songs of the Alvars, especially by
those of Nammalvar or Sathakopa. He is said to have recovered all
the songs of Sathakopa and to have arranged those as well as the
extant songs of the other Alvars into four collections of about one
thousand stanzas each.

The school founded by Nathamuni did not approve of Karmon
done for worldly results and favoured renunciation of all results of
deeds. It was a reaction against the Purva-mlmamsa school of
such teachers as Prabhakara, Sabarasvamin, Kumarila and Mandana,
according to which salvation may be attained by the faithful per-

312

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

formance of ceremonial rites prescribed by the Sruti and Smriti
literature, as well as against the Advaita (Absolute Monism) school
of Sankara ( ninth century) which laid the greatest stress on Juana,
making religion more an affair of the head than of the heart. The
history of this school of Vaishnavism under Nathamuni’s successors
will be treated in the next volume.

2. Iconography

Images of Vishnu and of his avatdras (incarnations) belonging
to the post-Gupta period are found in large numbers all over India.
An interesting variety of the asana-Vishnu of the mediaeval times
in the collection of the Khajuraho (also spelt Khajraho) Museum
shows the god with the fore-finger of his main left hand raised to
the height of his lips, with the usual accompanying figures clustering
round him. The peculiar hand-pose, indicative of silence, not re¬
corded in any of the known varieties of the Vishnu image, reminds
us of the bronze statuette discovered by Marshall at Sirkap and
identified by him as the child-god Harpocrates. There is no refer¬
ence to such figures as the Vishnu maunavratin of Khajuraho in any
of the well-known iconographic texts.123

Images of several incarnatory forms and manifestations of
Vishnu, whose early and late mediaeval representations are known,
are of great iconographic interest. The textual description of one
such, viz. Yajnapurusha or Yajhesa, corresponds to a very great
extent to one image in the eastern gateway ( gopura ) of the Chidam¬
baram temple. It shows a two-headed, four-horned, seven-handed
and three-legged figure with a bull by his side, and symbolises the
Vedic sacrifice in a very interesting manner. In the £atapatha
Brahmana, Vishnu, originally an aspect of Surya, is regarded identi¬
cal with sacrifice, and this is why the symbolical representation of
Yajna is called in some Pahcharatra texts and Puranas an avatara
of Vishnu.124 Another incarnatory form of the god is Dattatreya or
Hari-Hara-Pitamaha who can be recognised among some mediaeval
sculptures of India. It either shows the three members of the
orthodox Brahmanical triad, namely, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva,
placed side by side, or it may appear as a four-armed Vishnu whose
Brahma and Siva aspects are indicated by their respective mounts
carved on the pedestal by the side of Garuda. The standing and
seated images of this god, hailing respectively from Ajmere (Raj-
putana) and Badami (Deccan), are unique specimens of the second
variety of Dattatreya images.125 Visvarupa and Hayagriva are two
other avatdras of Vishnu, whose images, though rare, are not abso¬
lutely unknown. The former, a twenty-armed deity with various
attributes in the respective hands, characteristically portrays the

818

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

all-powerful and all-pervading god. A partially broken image from
north Bengal, though it does not fully conform to the textual des¬
cription of this aspect of Vishnu, seems to stand for Visvarupa.126
Hayagriva or Vadavavaktra, as the name indicates, is another com¬
posite form of the god, in which the head of a horse is placed on a
human body. This peculiar form is said to have been assumed by
Vishnu in order to chastise a demon of that shape, who had despoiled
the Vedas. Though images of Hayagriva are comparatively rare
in India, it is interesting to note that this iconic type travelled to
the countries of the Far East.127

Kamadeva, the same as Pradyumna, the son of Krishna by
RukminI, was represented in mediaeval India. His characteristic
attributes are a sugarcane bow and arrow in his hands, and his spe¬
cial cognizance is a makaradhvaja; he is usually shown accompanied
by his two consorts Rati and Trisha. 1 28 Garuda is usually carved on
one corner of the Vishnu images with his hands in the navnaskdra-
mudrd; sometimes he is shown carrying his master on his back. But
separate figures, which served as capitals of columns erected in front
of Vaishnava shrines, are also known. The Besnagar Garudadhvaja
of the second century B.C. had one, but unfortunately it is lost. The
bird-mount of Vishnu is shown with the face and limbs of a man,
stylised locks of hair rising from his head, and with the beak, wings
and claws of a bird; when used as a capital piece, he is sometimes
janiform. His comparatively rare four-armed types show a snake,
the mortal enemy of the Garuda, in one of his hands. The earliest
representations of Garuda are to be found on the coins of the Imperial
Gupta rulers. A fine specimen of janiform Garuda capital is in the
collection of Rajshahi museum (Bengal), belonging to the tenth cen¬
tury A.D.; it has three eyes and snake ornaments.

Of the goddesses associated with Vishnu-Krishna, Lakshml,
Sarasvati (Sri and Pushti) and Bhudevi are the most represented
ones. They usually appear as attending consorts of the cult-god,
though their independent figures are also not wanting. In the north
and east Indian Vishnu reliefs, Sri and Pushti are almost invariably
shown as the principal companions, while in the south Indian ones,
the place of Pushti is taken by Bhudevi. Sri or Lakshml, when
depicted alone, is usually shown as Gaja-Lakshml, the lotus-carry¬
ing goddess bathed by two elephants, a very familiar motif which
can be traced to the second century B.C., if not earlier. Other
varieties of this goddess, two-armed and four-armed, are also known.
Reference to one eleventh century bronze figure of four-armed Gaja-
Lakshml, hailing from north Bengal and now in the collection of
the Rajshahi Museum, may be made in this connection; one of its

314

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

hands is broken, the other three hold a citron, an elephant-goad,
and a jewel-basket. A Bharhut railing pillar contains a standing
female figure playing on a harp; it may be regarded as the earliest
representation of Sarasvati in Indian art. Her separate figures from
the late Gupta period onwards, however, are comparatively common.
Two-armed images of the goddess are shown playing on a Vina , but
in four-armed ones, the back hands carry a rosary and a manuscript;
her usual vehicle is a swan, but in some Bengal sculptures of the
Devi a frisking lamb takes its place.129 One of the finest mediaeval
figures of Sarasvati is in the Rajshahi Museum; it was found in a
village in the district of Bogra (Bengal) .

The above brief summary gives only a glimpse of the infinite
iconographic variations of one of the most important Brahmanical
cults of India. There is little doubt about their evolution being
gradual, but presumably by A.D. 1300, most of these came to be
displayed in one or other parts of the different Vaishnava shrines
of India according to their relative importance. Rao tells us that
many of the minor avatar as and manifestations of Vishnu were used
as avaranadevabcis, i.e ,f deities placed in small subsidiary shrines in
various corners of the dvaranas or enclosures of Vaishnava temples.
The Jagannatha temple at Puri and the big Srlrangam temple of
comparatively late date illustrate this ancient Vaishnava practice.
These iconic types may appear to the uninitiated as mere aberrations
of human art instinct; but to the appreciative and the initiated they
are nothing more nor less than attempts through the medium of the
language of symbolism to portray the different aspects of the princi¬
pal deity.

(E) TANTRIK RELIGION

The word Tantra has been sought to be derived in the Kasika-
vritti from the root tan, to spread, with the suffix shtran added.
Some philosophical commentators have traced it to the root tatri
or tantri, to originate or to know, while the two roots tan and tantri
have elsewhere been identified and used also in the sense of spread¬
ing or weaving. In its present widely accepted sense Tantra means a
literature which spreads knowledge, and particularly knowledge
of profound things with the aid of mystic diagrams (y antra) and
words possessing esoteric meanings (mantra), and helps the attain¬
ment of salvation. As a matter of fact, however, out of about three
dozen senses in which the term Tantra may be used, quite a number
is utilized in different philosophical systems in an ordinary non-reli¬
gious sense, and it is only in later literature, from about the fifth
or sixth century A.D., that Tantra as a special religious or philo-

315

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sophical concept gradually came into use. The earliest uses of the
word Tantra, as in Srauta-sutras, the Harivamsa, Susruta, Saihkhya
philosophy, and didactic fables, did not bear the meaning of a special
literature dedicated to the cult of Sakti. The worship of Mothers
and reference to Dakinis attending them may be traced to Gangdhar
inscription1 29a of the fifth century A.D., and the images of Mothers
are referred to in the Brihat-samhitd. But neither Amara in his
Kosa nor Bana in his works refers to the followers of Sakti, though
both know the Divine Mothers and Amara knows also that the man¬
tras have power ( sakti ).

It is necessary at this stage to issue a note of warning. Though
Saktism and Tantra are now so much identified that the word
Tantra is almost reserved for the religious literature of the Saktas,
while the term Agama is confined to the Saivas and Saihhita, Kainxja,
or Ratra (knowledge) to the Vaishnavas, the earlier use of the word
Tantra was quite fluent, and it could be applied to Vaishnava and
Saiva sacred literature as well. The conventional division of
Brahmanical religious literature was into Veda, Smriti, Puraina,
and Tantra, arranged in the chronological order and assigned to the
four ages of the world. The only justification for this is that it is
after the Puranas had established the pre-eminence of Vishnu, Siva,
and Sakti, that the Tantras could get under way. It does not mean,
however, that these different types had nothing in common between
them. The contents of the Tantras were obviously modelled on
those of the Puranas to a great extent, while some portions of the
Purana literature would read almost like a Tantra manual. In
fact, both claimed to be in some sense the fifth Veda; but as this
honour was claimed by other types of literature also, e.g. the
Mahabharata , the science of Music, and Tamil Saiva literature
(called Tamil Veda), we may understand the designation ‘Tantra’
as intending all sacred literature and art in which all could parti¬
cipate irrespective of caste and sex, being unlike the Vedas in this
respect. While one class understood by the word Agama an adven¬
titious literature coming from non- Aryan sources, i.e. from outside,
another class took the word in the sense of the Veda itself, which
is also called Agama, being revelational in character. In fact, the
relation between Agama , Siva’s revelation of ultimate truths
through Parvatl, and Nigama, Parvatl’s discourse in reply to Siva’s
query, was sometimes conceived of as similar to that between Sruti
and Smriti; naturally the Sakta Tantras could not accept this inferior
position and claimed the highest authority for themselves. They
claimed to have superseded all previous types of religious tenets and
practices in the Kali age.

316

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Xhe antiquity of the Tantras, in the present acceptance of the
term, is difficult to determine. We learn from an inscription in
Cambodia12 b that the Tantrik texts were introduced there from
India at the beginning of the ninth century A.D. Tantrik manu¬
scripts of seventh to ninth century have been found in Nepal, and
Buddhist Tantras are known to have been translated into Chinese
in the eighth, and into Tibetan in the ninth century. The origin of
the Tantrik cult and the composition of special texts may thus be
dated about the sixth century A.D.; some Buddhist Tantras may be
even older.

Some of the Tantras themselves give their number as sixty-
four, though the number of texts available is much larger. The
number sixty-four is exclusive of the Saiva Agamas, which fall con¬
ventionally into two groups of ten and eighteen, and the Vaishnava
Samhitas which, though conventionally numbered as one hundred
and eight, are more than double the number in available texts. The
Tantras, which are extolled as the best of the four sdstras included
within Kalpa (namely Agama, Yamala, Damara, and Tantra ) and
supposed to hold sway in the present Svetavaraha Kalpa (the first
thirtieth' period of the month of Brahma), deal with an exhaustive
list of topics; namely, origination and dissolution of the universe,
ascertainment of mantra , installation of deities, description of places
of pilgrimage, the .duties of the different stages of life ( asrama ),
support of Brahmanas, maintenance of other creatures, ascertain¬
ment of yantras, theogonic speculation, knowledge of trees, location
of heavenly bodies, purveying of traditional history ( purCina ), dis¬
quisition on precious things, description of sacred vows (vrata),
determination of cleanliness and uncleanliness, delineation of hells,
description of cycles of existence [harachakra) , signs of masculinity
and femineity, duties of kings, modes of charity, contemporaneous
obligations (yugadharma) , customs (or legal procedure), and spiri¬
tual elevation. These contents are classified into four pddas (quar¬
ters) : jnana (philosophical doctrines, sometimes of an occult
character), yoga (meditation, specially meant to acquire magic
powers), kriyci (activities connected with temple-building and idol-
worship) and charyd (observances, rites, etc.). Some of the Tantras
are credited with enormous length in later accounts, while others
are said to be of moderate dimensions, but the number of slokas in
each, as traditionally known, is meticulously recorded in enumera-
tive lists.

We get a fair idea of the general principles of Tantrik belief
from the Mahdnirvdna Tantra which, though of later date, is one
of the most popular and well known Tantrik texts. Almost like a

817

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Vedantic text, it deals with Brahman, which, according to the Saktas,
is nothing but Sakti, the eternal dynamic source of all beings. It
is perceived that all life proceeds from the womb of a woman; so
we should think of the ultimate creative principle in terms of the
‘mother’ and not of the ‘father’. Philosophical concepts like Prakriti
and Maya, and mythological figures like Parvatl, Durga, Lakshml
and Radha constitute the female principle of creation, and are merely
different names of the jaganmatcL (Mother of the World). All gods
including Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, are contained in and issue out of
the Divine Mother. This sect, therefore, looks upon every woman
as an incarnation of the Universal Mother to whom proper respect
should be paid.

The Tantrik cult lays special stress upon the mantras , i.e. pray¬
ers and formulae, bljas f i.e. syllables of mystic significance peculiar
to each deity, yantras , i.e. diagrams drawn on paper or inscribed in
precious stone, metal, etc., mudrds , i.e. special positions of fingers
and movements of hands, and nyasas, i.e. placing the deities on the
different parts of the body by touching them with finger-tips and the
palm, mostly of the right hand. These are the means by which the
Sadhaka (the aspirant after perfection) invokes, and identifies him¬
self with, his chosen deity (ishtadevatd) . Though occasionally they
have been utilised in dark and magical practices to control men and
gods (abhichdra) , the primary aim of the Sakta worshippers in using
them has been to become one with the deity and to attain salvation.

The Tantra texts justify their existence on the plea that the
Vedas are a sealed book to the majority and hence an easier cult is
necessary for the people at large. Moreover, the Tantra form of
worship is open to women and Sudras also. As a matter of fact, how¬
ever, it became equally popular with the higher castes and classes
once the indispensableness of Tantrik initiation ( dikshd ) was
recognised.

Perhaps no religious literature of India has raised such contro¬
versy in evaluation as the Tantras. On the one hand, they have been
extolled as the repository of sublime truths, rigorous discipline,
catholic outlook and indispensable means to the attainment of the
highest spirituality. On the other hand, they have been branded
as a type of composition containing unmeaning jargon, mysterious
mummery, veiled and open obscenity, and revolting antinomianism
of different kinds. Theurgy and thaumaturgy jostle with high
philosophy and deep devotion, dark rites and liberal thoughts go
cheek by jowl with one another, and accurate knowledge alternates
with occult science. We have, in fact, a strange mixture of higher
and lower thoughts, of strenuous discipline and moral laxity,

318

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

of sound understanding and primitive credulity, that presents
a chequered pattern, bewilders the curious in enquiry and con¬
fuses the novice in practice. The matter is further complicat¬
ed by the fact that the language used is sometimes enigmatical
and has both an exoteric and an esoteric meaning, and without the
help of an adept or an interpreter, the proper sense is likely to be
missed. Hence diksha (initiation) by a guru (preceptor or spiritual
guide) is essential for getting access to the esoteric or real meaning
of a\particular word or sentence, — a meaning handed down tradi¬
tionally Indifferent Tantrik schools and not communicated to those
who would not join the particular fraternity. It is the guru who
opens the eyes of the disciple to the true meaning of texts, guides him
through dark, devious and dangerous practices to the realm of light,
and anoints him ( abhisheka ) as a peer of the spiritual kingdom.
Getting the better of his stupefying intellect ( tamasa ) and unintelli¬
gent activity ( rdjasa ), the bound soul (posit) heroically (i fir a) severs
the bond (pdsa) of subjection to various restraints and, with the help
of the pure element in his mental constitution (stittvika) , attains the
divine ( divyabhdva ) that is latent in every finite spirit.

It is obvious that such a complicated system, in which the lower
and the higher elements of human nature tussle with one another,
could not have been a matter of sudden growth, nor could it have
been derived from a single source, particularly if we consider the
complexity of its practices and the diversity of the creeds involved.
On a priori grounds it may even be surmised that systematization
must have been preceded by popular beliefs and rites connected with
the worship of female deities, of which the cult of the Mothers
( matriganci ) latterly became the most prominent. These dark forces
of nature embodied man’s fear of the mysterious and the terrifying,
without and within, and his hope that they could be pacified and con¬
trolled by appropriate incantations, sacrifices and meditations. That
they appealed to something universal in man in his primitive think¬
ing is attested by the presence of similar beliefs in many other cul¬
tures of widely distributed areas of the globe. That Brahmanism,
Jainism and Buddhism should all develop or incorporate occultism
in course of time and fall back upon the use of magic syllables
(mantra) and mystic diagrams (y antra) proves that they had to
take note of some basic needs of the human mind in a composite popu¬
lation drawn from different social and cultural strata and diverse
tribal and racial strains. Magic, religious ministration and medi¬
tation naturally figured in an ascending order, and as intellectual
coherence was demanded by the inherent logic of the human mind
or by the necessity of meeting hostile criticism, methodical philo¬
sophy gradually grew in importance. The different components of

819

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Tantra owe their existence and emphasis to these diverse needs as
they developed in space and time.

It is natural that after claiming to be the final revelation for
mankind in the Kali-yuga the Tantras should draw up a scale of
excellence among the aspirants treading the path of spiritual pro-
gress. The successive rungs of the spiritual ladder are constituted
by three states (bhava) or paths ( mdrga ), — the pasu (the natural
man living a life of routine like animals) following the conventional
moralities of society; the vira (the bold or heroic soul) daring to
indulge in antinomian rites and practices under rigid rules of dis¬
cipline; and the divya (the divine who is above all dualities) uncon¬
cerned about all distinctions as befitting one who has gone beyond
all empirical variety and attained union with the Absolute. Stated
in the language of religious classification, though not meant to be
taken in the literal sectarian sense, these three were supposed in
later compendia to fall mainly into seven subdivisions (dchara), four
being included within the pasu stage, two in the vira stage, and one
in the divya stage. The first group of four is constituted by Veda-
chara, Vaishnavachara, Saivachara, and Dakshinachara (sometimes
the whole group being roundly described as Dakshinachara); the
second group of two is made up of Vamachara and Siddhantachara;
and the last solitary stage is constituted by Kaulachara. In the first
group external worship, devotion to Vishnu, meditation on Siva, and
mental approach to Devi or Sakti find respective expression in the
four stages. In all these the observance of social morality and the
performance of prescribed rites and ceremonies find full sway; —
avoidance of cruelty to animals, abjuration of intoxicants and unlaw¬
ful enjoyments, conjugal fidelity, control of the senses, austerity,
practice of charity, regular worship of the gods in a pure bodily
condition, etc, constitute the main elements of spiritual culture,
though in the fourth stage the acquisition of magical powers by some
secret innocuous Tantrik rites is not barred out altogether. The
fifth ushers in a new outlook and technique, for the correct under¬
standing of mystic rites, generally performed in secret at night,
requires proper training at the hands of a guru and the acquisition
of the necessary courage to disregard social conventions about
sexual purity, to defy taboos about food and drink, and to look upon
all women as manifestations of Sakti (kulandyiha, bhairavi or yogini)
and all males as representatives of Siva ( bhairava ), there being no
bar to the use of any married woman (kulastri) for furthering per¬
sonal perfection by rites, prohibited to the ordinary members of a
society, which might include the use of intoxicants and of the pecu¬
liar feminine impurity as an item of bodily decoration during wor¬
ship. Still, the Vamachara tries to avoid publicity in the matter of

320

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

disregarding fear, shame, pity, caste convention, etc. which his secret
rites involve. The aspirant ( s&dhaka ) practising Siddhantachara,
however, is not afraid of following socially disapproved practices
openly. He is relentless in the pursuit of what he thinks to be true,
and is not, therefore, troubled by the opinions of others regarding
what he eats and drinks, enjoys or hurts, for he holds that there is
nothing that cannot be purified by appropriate means. The use of the
five M’s (panchatattva or panchamakdra ) — madya (wine), matsya
(fish), maihsa (meat), mudrd (parched grain) and maithuna (coition)
— under certain prescribed conditions of discipline could be made
without secrecy in appropriate places and times, and was intended to
further the progress of the aspirant towards the elimination of all
empirical distinctions and the attainment of complete freedom. The
Kuldrnava Tantra virtually tells us that just as one rises with the
help of the very ground on which one has fallen, so also it is through
drinking life ta the very lees that one has to make the spiritual ascent.
A thorn has to be eradicated with the help of another thorn; simi¬
larly indulgence must be forced to yield satiety and higher value.
Wine that merely intoxicates is a sinful beverage, but as the producer
of a euphoric condition, in which care and anxiety are absent, it is a
desirable drink. Similarly, flesh that nourishes the body, fish that
increases sexual potency,* grain that invigorates the system, and
coition that brings about a blissful condition ( mcihasukha ) and pro¬
longs the race at the same time, are all intended to keep the sddhaka
in a fit condition of body and mind to pursue spiritual aims. It is
obvious that in the case of some gross minds they failed to serve
their legitimate purpose, specially when promiscuity was permitted
with different types of women, mostly coming from lower castes and
dubbed as saktis . There was, however, a general prohibition against
using any woman except one’s wife for the purpose of the last of the
five tattvas (maithuna) , and there were also other restrictions. The
idea was that a sddhaka must go beyond dualities of all kinds — of
love and hate, merit and demerit, touchable and untouchable, for¬
bidden and non-forbidden, or delectable and nauseating, in food and
drink, prohibited and non-prohibited in sex relation, male and
female, friend and foe, etc., — and cultivate not only equanimity in
himself but also equality towards all.

It is only when this state of mind is acquired that the last stage
of sanctification is reached, namely, Kaulachara. This is the divyd
condition, for then the aspirant transcends the likes and dislikes of
earthly life like God himself to whom all things are equal. Pity and
cruelty are equally unmeaning in an ultimate reference, and so also
approbated and unapprobated conduct. Just as one of the Upani-
shads has said that to one who has attained Brahma-knowledge no

321

A.I.K. — 21

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sin attaches for any kind of antinomian act, so also the Tantras place
the Kaula (worshipper of kula or Sakti ) above all moral judgments,
and put no prohibitions and restraints in his way as being unneces¬
sary for one who has pierced the veil of space and time, process and
differentiation. A Kaula roams in all dehdras at will, being at heart
a Sakta, outwardly a Saiva, and in social gatherings a Yaishnava.
He sees himself in all things and all things in himself. It appears,
however, that the later (uttar a) Kaulas preferred the gross to the sym¬
bolic, just the reverse of what was fancied by the earlier (purva)
Kaulas, and the Samayins alone discarded both gross sex and sym¬
bolic yantra and restricted themselves to mere mental imagery in
celebrating the worship in a circle ( Srlchakra ). As usual, we have
very exalted explanations of the origin, nature and objective of Kaula
®adhana , and in the Kaulajndnanirnaya, which probably belongs to the
eleventh century, we have a description of the various dehdras , which
must have been crystallised some time before this work was written.
In fact, we have the information purveyed by the same work that
there were various Kaula schools prevalent at the time, as also that
very many methods of yoga ( yogaprandli ) were followed by these
schools. We have incontestable evidence also that both the Bud¬
dhists and the Nathists, too, countenanced the Kaula method of self-
realisation.

Elaborate rules are laid down as to the proper persons from
whom initiation is to be taken. While the Vaishnavas, Sauras and
Ganapatyas can initiate one belonging to their respective sects, the
&aktas and &aivas are privileged to initiate all sects, including their
own. Orthodoxy must have been alarmed, as at the time of Maha-
vira and Buddha, by the popularity of the ascetic and homeless
wandering mendicants, and so it put a virtual, though not absolute,
ban on the initiation of householders by their fraternity. But it made
a compromise by admitting that Tantrik initiation was essential even
for Brahmanas and indispensable for women and non-Brahmanas.
who had no right to Yedic initiation, and it ignored, when not extol¬
ling, the union with a sakti (woman partner) who was not the legally
married wife of the sddhaka ; but it preferred a married man as guru ,
even though he might indulge in vdmachara practices in the mystic
circle, where eight pairs of yoginis or ndyikds and their bhairavas
(male partners) used to meet. We are interested in the information,
furnished by the Dakshindchdra-tantrardja , that Gauda, Kerala ana
Kasmlra (with Kalika, Tripura and Tara as goddesses, respectively,
according to a later account) are the homes of the purer (Dakshind-
chara) sects. Elsewhere (Brihat-Gautamiya Tantra ) it is stated that,
of gurus, those coming from the west are the best, those from the
south are middling, those from Gauda and Kamarupa are inferior

822

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

to the preceding, and those from Kalihga are the worst. An ampli¬
fied description in Jdbdia (quoted by Vidyadharacharya) puts the
gurus from Madhyadesa (Aryavarta), Kurukshetra, Lata, (Nafa,
Nata), Konkana, Antarvedi, Pratishthana and AvantI at the top, those
from Gaud a, Salva, Sura (?), Magadha, Kerala, Kosala and Dasarna
in the middle, and those hailing from Karnata and the banks of the
Narmada, the Reva and Kachcha, the Kalindas, the Kambalas (or
Kalambas) and the Kambojas (probably in Assam) at the bottom
of the scale. The Kuldlikdmndya mentions five celebrated seats of
Tantrik cult in different parts of the country, namely, Guyana, Jala
( Jalandhara), Purna (-giri), Matanga (Srisaila) and Kamakhya. In
the Sddhanamdld the four celebrated Tantrik pithas are Kamakhya,
Sirihatta, (with Arbuda or Jalandhara replacing Sirihatta in some
texts), Purnagiri and Uddiyana. Kamakhya or Kamarupa in Assam
is well known and Sirihatta is Syihet. Purnagiri has been identi¬
fied with Poona, but location in Assam has also been suggested for
it. Uddiyana has been identified with Kashgarh (Sylvain Levi), Swat
valley (Waddell, S. C. Das), Orissa (H. P. Sastri), and Western
Assam (B. Bhattacharyya). These areas for Tantrik gurus of diffe¬
rent grades of excellence, and these Tantrik centres, throw an in¬
teresting light on the diffusion of the creed and the probable place
of its origin. When to this is added the information that north¬
east India had active interchange of thought with the trans-Hima-
layan regions like Tibet, it has not been unreasonably concluded
that Tantras originated in this Indian area, and foreign elements
like the cult of Tara came from Buddhism of the adjoining regions
mentioned above. From about the tenth century a composite
Tantra, drawing materials from Brahmanic, Buddhistic and Nathist
circles, grew up, and some deities, adepts, cults and practices be¬
came common to all of them, though the traditions did not always
tally among the different communities and localities. ' Denomina¬
tionally and geographically considered, Veddchdra is patronised in
Maharashtra, Vaishnavdchdra among the Ramanuja and Gauda
schools, Dakshindchara among the &ankarites of the south, &aiva~
chdr a and Vrrdchdra among the Lingayats and Vlrasaivas, and
Vdmdchdra, Siddhantdchara and Kauldchdra among the &aktas of
Kerala, Gauda, Nepala and Kamarupa. The first three disfavour
both Vlrdchdra and Bauddhachdra, while the others extol them.

Let us turn now to certain other specific beliefs and speculations
of the Tantras, and try to trace their antecedents. The &aiva Aga-
mas, the Vaishnava Samhitas and the &akta Tantras agree on one
point, namely, that a female principle representing the sakti or
energy must be associated with the ultimate reality or the source
or locus of power considered as male. This power is not only the

328

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

cause of manifestation, but is also responsible for differentiation,
and hence a diversified world in time and space, including finite in¬
dividuals, comes into being because of the association of the male
and the female, as in the generation of the world of living things.
An elaborate philosophy developed in all the Schools — Saiva, Sakta,
and Vaishnava, professing to explain the different types and stages
cf evolution, the first two approximating each other in their main
outlines and the last perhaps slightly antedating them both. This
origin of the cosmos is to be distinguished, however, from the birth
of children to the divine pair as in Puranic accounts of the birth
of Ganesa and Karttikeya, for instance, when Siva and Sakti are
considered anthropomorphically. The universe, so originated, has
a systaltic process, inasmuch as the created world returns to its
source in course of time, when Sakti comes to repose in the Lord,
either temporarily in pralaya at the end of a cosmic cycle (the philo¬
sophers of Karma and the Pauranikas mostly favouring this partial
dissolution), or finally by the efforts of finite souls who, by religious
practice, yogic concentration, contemplation and meditation realise
their oneness with God and annul their finitude. The general ten¬
dency of the Tantras is to accept the world in both its physical and
mental aspects as real, only that matter or prakriti , as such, was not
accorded independent existence as in the Sarhkhya system, but was
supposed to be under the control of the spirit and, in fact, the body
was regarded as the seat of the divine in every part thereof.

The mystery of speech is an ancient tradition in India and from
the Vedic times onwards Vach (Speech) has been a prominent god¬
dess and a revealer of wisdom. Transcendental and phenomenal
forms of speech (para, pasyantz, madhyamd f and vaikhan) and the
association of word (sabda) with meaning ( artha ) were speculated
upon; and as ages rolled on, the power of the spoken word, whether
as boons or as curses, as prayers or as incantations, grew in popular
esteem. In the Tantras and Agamas a systematic attempt was made
to relate sound (nada) to reality and its different vocal symbols or
seed-words (hija-mantra) . It was believed, in fact, that just as
intense imagination might cause a kind of visual hallucination and
bring about the perceptual presentation of concrete figure through
thinking alone, so also intense meditation on certain mystic
words, which were supposed to stand for certain deities, would
produce photic phenomena and bring before the sadhaka’s eye an
image of the divinity concerned. Starting with a single letter, the
mantra might consist of a string of such letters (mala, garland). Not
only each deity but each aspect of the deity has its own special btja-
mantra . The time and place of initiation, the initial letter of the

324

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

initiate’s name, and even the rosary for uttering the mantra have
to be suited to the chosen deity.

Once it was accepted that varnas (letters) are the stuff of reality,
a rapprochement between the worshipper and the worshipped deity
became almost inevitable. Thus the body of a deity was supposed
to be composed of the letters of the alphabet ( lipi ), the number being
generally fixed at fifty. A true worshipper would find a correspon¬
dence between the different parts of his own body and the letters
of the alphabet that make up the divine body. By the process called
nydsa (placing) a worshipper would place these letters in different
parts of his own body and consider himself to be possessed of a body
of mantras. But until the necessary purification is effected one cannot
divinise himself. So the purification of the elements that make up
the human body ( bhutasuddhi ) has to be done first. The other puri¬
fications refer to the seat ( sthcma ), the words or formulae (mantra),
the materials ( dravya ), and the image of the deity ( deva ). Sur¬
rounding himself with a circle of water, as if by a wall of fire, the
worshipper is to go through the process of identification with the
deity by meditating on the Ved antic formula of Jiva-Brahman iden¬
tity and by sending, by the way of the central of the three nadis
(nerves) — idd, snshumnd and ping ala, his finite self along with the
knlakundalini sakti through the six psychic centres ( shafchakra )
up, till she unites with the infinite Self (Siva or Paramatman) in the
thousand-pe tailed lotus (sahasrara) in the cranium and the entire
paraphernalia of finite existence is dissolved. By prdndydma (re¬
gulation of breath) the evil that is in one’s own self ( pdpapurusha )
is to be thrust out and burnt, and then alone will the body be fit to
receive the ‘mother’ letters ( mdtrikamantra ) in the various external
( bdhya ) parts of the body and in the differently numbered petals
of the various lotus-centres or chakras inside ( antar ) the bodily sys¬
tem, and thus be entirely pervaded by the deity. No wonder that
before the recognition of the fifty-one Sakti-pithas distributed all
over India, pilgrimages to sacred places should have been considered
unnecessary by Saktas, who located these symbolically within their
own body.

But while mantras are located in the body by nyasa they are
also placed outside in a y antra (diagram) which represents, as it
were, the body of the deity. The Vedic gods were invoked without
any image and on the sacred grass ( barhis , kusa) in a sacrificial field,
and the sculptured deities that followed were seated on lotuses,
perhaps through a wrong interpretation of the word padmdsana, a
bodily posture. A y antra has, like the sacrificial field, gates or doors
( dvara ) and a painted or inscribed seat; and all together or in the

325

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

various petals of the lotus, inscribed or drawn, or in the different
parts of other types of diagrams are inserted the letters of the
bijamantra of the deity worshipped. Coloured rice-powder is some¬
times used to fill in the geometrical figures created by the drawing,
just as five differently coloured substances are used to cover the
ground of a mandala (e.g. Sarvatobhadramandala). In Jainism small
images used to be put in the spaces in a y antra during worship; from
this the transition to the incision of figures there is an easy process;
and when the letters form the body of the deity, as in Tantrik belief,
the placing of letters inserted is not difficult to explain. In Buddhism
we can effectively and easily trace the process of transition from the
Sutra to the Hridaya-sutra, thence to Dhdranl , from this to mantra,
and lastly therefrom to Bija. As drawings and paintings are ephe¬
meral, it was directed that if possible a more permanent yantra
should be made. For this purpose some metal like gold, silver and
copper, or an alloy of the three metals (trilauha) , or some precious
stone like crystal, emerald, ruby, coral, etc., should be inscribed with
the yantra and care should be taken that the yantra does not get
mutilated, faded out by use, cracked, burnt or broken, in which case
it was directed to be thrown into a sacred stream or place of pilgrim¬
age or the ocean. Every deity has his or her own yantra, but the
most famous of these yantras is the Sr ly antra on which lavish praise
has been bestowed. In its various parts it is supposed to represent
the origin, maintenance and dissolution of the world of things, the
dot in the middle representing the unitary world-ground. The
hija-mantra of the &akti goddess is mentally placed in the various pro¬
jections of its constituent triangles and lotuses and in its circles and
squares. Elsewhere we are told (e.g. in the Rudraydmala) that the
six chakras represent the Bauddha, Brahmya, Vaishnava, &aiva,
Saura and &akta diagrams, the last being central; in later literature
they have been compared to the six systems of Indian philosophy.
Elaborate rules about the choice of place and the creation of a proper
atmosphere of worship have been laid down, and it has been reite¬
rated pretty frequently that external worship (puja, stava, etc.)
is less efficacious than japa (muttering) and homa (oblation or dedi¬
cation), and these less than dhydna (meditation). Here is a fine
description of Tantrik piijd from Avalon’s Principles of T contra:
“Meditation. Worship, Japa, and Homa are the four hands of the
Yajna or worship; Matrika, Shodha and other Nyasas form its body;
knowledge of the real truth as to Xshtadevata is its Atma; devotion
is its head; reverence is its heart; and the act of performing is its
eye. Knowing the body of Yajna to be composed in this manner,
a good Sadhaka should perform it in all its limbs, and not divide
and make it limbless .... It is by His union with the supreme £akti

820

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

which arises out of the effort to accomplish all those limbs that
the x ajhapurusha produces Siddhi”. And here is the culminating
ph&oe of external worship with flowers: 4 The knowing ones regard
the following as the ten flowers to be used in worship: — non-ignor¬
ance ( amayd ), non-egoitv or non-appropriation (anahamkara) , non¬
attachment ( ardga ), non-vanity ( amada) y non-delusion ( amoha ), non¬
pride ( adambha, ), non-calumniation (aninda), non-perturbation
( akshobka ), non-jealousv ( amdtsCLrya ) and non-greed ( alobha ).
But better than these are the five virtues which make up the other
group of flowers: — non-injury or non-violence ( ahimsd ), self-control
or subjugation of the senses (indr iya-nigr aha) , charity or kindness
( dayd ), forgiveness ( kshamd ) and knowledge ( jhdna ).” This surely
is religious teaching at its highest. Again and again in India when
the letter was threatening to kill the religious life, the spirit came
to the rescue. In their attempt to provide a comprehensive scheme
of social life, individual perfection, and religious devotion, the Tan-
tras failed occasionally to keep the baser elements in proper check
among a motley population of different grades of culture. But the
innate moral sense operated here as elsewhere to redeem men from
the thraldom of desire and selfishness. Perhaps we shall never re¬
capture the atmosphere in which the Pur-anas and the Tantras were
written, but we cannot afford to undervalue the devotion and thought
that went into their composition, or their ennobling influence in the
long run on the very composite population of an entire subcontinent.
They certainly brought the gods nearer the hearts and homes of men
and inspired their devotion, prompted their collective action for
charity, and gave a fillip to the building of religious edifices all over
the country.

CF) MINOR RELIGIOUS SECTS
I. POPULAR BRAHMANICAL RELIGION
1. Religious Syncretism

By the time the period opens the main elements that constitute
the religious life of India have already made their entrance into
popular faith. It is now a question of making alliances and settling
precedence among the major gods and of composing suitable reli¬
gious literature to establish the superiority, if not theL supremacy,
of the chosen deity. The days of the early Puranas are over now,
but there was still scope not only for new compositions but also for
working up the older literature and adding and altering contents.
The religious unity of India was almost achieved; and though local
tradition and patriotism were sometimes responsible for making
extravagant 'diaims on behalf of local deities and sacred spots and
rivers, the different religious communities acknowledged almost

327

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the same set of major gods and made an earnest effort to make a
rapprochement with other communities even when pushing the
claims of their own cults in distant areas and making converts. Bud¬
dhism was dying in the south but was still a living creed in the nor¬
thern part, where it became the inspirer of religious art in Bengal
and Bihar under the Palas; Jainism had still a strong following in
the south and was having a running fight primarily with £>aivism.
Brahmanism had to reckon with both, specially as the former was
developing a well organised pantheon and the latter -was trying to
win and retain popular support by absorbing theistic elements from
the contiguous Brahmanic culture.

Archaeological evidence is not wanting to show that the (hosti¬
lity of the creeds was not often quite mild arid that the appropriation
of the sanctuary of one religion by another and effacing the religious
symbols of the former by the latter were sometimes practised. As
popular instruction in religious cult extended from the scriptures .
to the temples, it became increasingly necessary for each major reli¬
gion ter possess gorgeous temples of its own to attract pilgrims and
evoke religious sentiment in the faithful; and fortunately devout
patrons were not wanting to endow places of religious worship and
build costly and spectacular houses of gods or saints. The scribes
continued their work no doubt, but the sculptor was gradually
becoming a more efficient instrument of popular edification and
education in religious matters. East, west, -north, south-^-every-
where gods and saints were decently, if not gorgeously, housed and
the carvers’ art purveyed to the hungry souls' not only delectation
of the spirit but also feasting of the eye. The high aesthetic and
spiritual banquet served must have whetted religious appetite and
excited the spirit of imitation and emulation. From the seventh
century onward temples grew in honour of different deities in
different parts of India and the rock-cut and structural temples,
which are at present the wonders of the world and of which Elura
(Ellora) and Khajumho are respectively the most prominent
examples, came into existence and often in close proximity to one
another as a trial of artistic strength among rival faiths. And no
Wonder, because during this period flourished the mighty Pratlharas,
Palas, Chandellas, Eastern Ghalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas of
Kalyani, Pallavas and Cholas who professed diverse creeds and were
zealous champions and liberal patrons of their respective creeds.

But rivalry is only one of the features of the religious life of
the times. ' Side by side there developed a syncretistic attitude in
religion — a' spirit of tolerance and mutual give-and-take. A modi¬
fied monolatry, which maintained the' supremacy of the particular
supreme' deity of the community while at the same time admitting

328

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

the existence and right to worship of other gods, made its appearance.
£>ankaracharya has been credited with the initiation of the panchd -
yo-tana pujd — the worship of the five gods Vishnu, Ssiva, Sakti or Devi,
Surya and Ganesa, the principal deity of the worshipper being plac¬
ed in the middle and the other four in the four corners of a square.

But whether it is Sankara or Kumarila or somebody else that in¬
troduced it, the fact remains that the idea caught the imagination of
the public as the best solution of the rather perplexing problem of
harmonising monotheism with polytheism and allaying communal
bitterness and religious quarrel. Was the Paliava cave-temple at Tri-
chinopoly, with Vishnu and Siva images inside in two sanctuaries
and Brahma, Surya, Ganesa and possibly Subrahmanya sculptured
outside at the entrance, an anticipation of this new cult? The
Smartas not only -followed the practice of worshipping the five gods
(and sometimes many more) but also compiled Puranic handbooks,
in the different parts of which the major gods got their due lauda¬
tions, and even an Upnishad— - the A tharvasiras— -turned up to
give the new method of worship a holy and hoary antiquity. It
appears that there was some hesitation in counting the five major
deities, for while the first four were almost constant features, Brah¬
ma sometimes displaced Ganesa, thereby indicating that the revealer
of the Vedic sruti was hard to dislodge from popular veneration and
Ganesa was still looked upon as a plebeian god. Even in the tenth-
century Chola temple of Koranganatha near Trichinopoly not only
Brahma but also his spouse Sarasvatl appears, the latter forming
with Lakshml and Dakshina Kali a trinity of divine saktis as in many
other parts of India. That Ganesa continued to figure in the door-
lintels of the temples of other gods, specially &iva, must be regarded
as a sign of his inferiority to the rest. How Karttikeya, who ap¬
peared probably earlier and more frequently in sculpture with &iva
in the Paliava Somaskanda figures and held his own against Ganesa «
in the period of the Badami and Aihole caves, failed to maintain his
position and how in the Paliava architecture Ganesa began to sup¬
plant Karttikeya from the Rajasirhha period onward in the divine
family group cannot be satisfactorily explained. It must be admit¬
ted, however, that in the Mahishamardini mandapa at Mamallapuram
it is Karttikeya or Mahasena, and not Ganesa, that is seated on Par-
yatfs knee, and in the far-off Paharpur temple in North Bengal, in
the scene of diva's drinking of poison, it is Karttikeya who clings to
the terror-stricken Burga. It stands to reason that as diva’s position
in popular reverence increased, Karttikeya and Ganesa (and also
Nandi, Rishabha or Vasava, the bull) also should receive popular
homage, and that they should be even provided with separate build-

829

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ings at a later time instead of remaining as mere ornamentations of
the temple or the aureole (prabhdvaU) of Siva, and thus become cult
objects themselves.

One of the most noticeable features of the religious develop¬
ment of the period is the place found for other divinities ( including
those supposed to be antagonistic) in the temple of a sectarian deity.
If figures of Karttikeya or Ganesa or Mahakall or Parvatl are found
in Siva temples, as in the Mahaiihgesvara and other temples near
Konur and in the Badami, Aihole and Ellora caves, ready explana¬
tion can be found for it in the fact that they are related to Siva as
son or wife. For the same reason the Gajalakshml image would be
quite appropriate in the Varaha temple at Mamallapuram (being,
according to Burgess, the first to appear in a Hindu garb though the
Buddhists had used it from the time of the stupa of Bharhut).
Similarly, Kalabhairava and Saptamatrikas (Seven Mothers) may
make their appearance in Siva temples as associated with the deity
himself or Durga. Likewise Ganesa and Karttikeya images are
quite relevant as adjuncts of Devi images, as, for example, of the
image from Mandoil or that from Nowgong in the District of Raj-
shahi. But when Vishnu and other gods appear in chaitya windows,
niches and elsewhere in a Siva temple (as, for example, in the earlier
Bhumara temple in the old Nagod State, or in the Kadaroli Temple
in Belgaum District, or Dhumar Lena Cave at Ellora) or vice versa
(as, for instance, in the Badami Caves dedicated to Vishnu), or when
in a Vishnu or Dasavatara temple appear the figures of many other
gods and goddesses, such as Surya, Brahma, Siva, Soma, Ganesa,
Ganga, Yamuna, etc. as in some mediaeval temples of Kathiawad
(e.g., at Kadvar) and Central India ( e.g at Janjgir in Bilaspur Dis¬
trict) and even in the earlier cave-temples of Badami, Aihole, Ellora,
Undavilli, etc., the motive could either be to belittle their impor¬
tance by relegating them to inferior positions or reducing them to
mere decorations or, what is more probable, to admit, like the tole¬
rant mediaeval Puranas, that they too were worshipful, the location
(whether, for instance, as a part of the deity as in Ardhanarisvara,
Trimurti, Hari-Hara and such composite figures, or by the side of
or sprouting out of the main deity, or inside the temple, or outside
it in medallions in windows, or as figures in niches, or as bas-reliefs
on door lintels or in architraves or in dados or in jambs of doors
or windows or in ceilings) and the size and the state of fullness of
the figure indicating the imoortance of the foreign deity. This
would exolain, for instance, the figures of Ganapati, Brahma. Siva,
Vishnu and Karttikeya carved in a row on the top of the nointed
stele of the two-handed Durga image hailing from Dakshina-
Muhammadnur (Tioperah) and in the slab of the four-handed Ugra-

330

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Tara figure of Sikarpur (Bakarganj), the figures of Brahma, Siva
and Vishnu on the top of the Mahesvarapasa (Khulna) Devi figure
and the different divine figures in the early Durga temple of Aihole.
The figures of Brahma, Siva and Vishnu on door lintels at Khaju-
raho, in the stele of a standing image of Vishnu of the Pala period
in the Stuart-Bridge Collection in the British Museum, and in the
panel above the door-frame in the Sandera and Ruhavi temples of
Gujarat indicate the continuation of the conventional Trimurti even
after Brahma had ceased to be a major deity. In fact, even in
Surya temples of a later time, as at Modhera and Delmal, Brahma
continued to be figured. This is because in Gujarat the cult of
Brahma continued to be a living creed at the beginning of this period,
judging by the Trimurti-temple at Kasara dedicated to Brahma,
Vishnu and Siva, and the slightly later Brahma temple at Khed-
Brahma in the old Idar State. Even now the very few Brahma
temples of North India, still used for worship, cluster in this west¬
ern area, being located mostly either in Gujarat or in Rajputana,
the other few temples being found distributed in South India.

More strange decorations are found, for instance, in the Bud¬
dhist temple of Pa harp ur (Somapura Vihara) which was destroyed
in the eleventh century. Here many Brahmanical deities — Siva
Balarama, Krishna, Ganesa, Karttikeya, Durga, Yama, Agni, Vishnu,
Brahma, etc. — get artistic representation either in stone or in terra¬
cotta plaques on the outside. In Jain temples too many Hindu gods
are to be found, but here they have been mostly adopted or adapted
from Brahmanism by the Jains themselves, which need not have
been the case with the Buddhists who had a well developed pan¬
theon of their own and were not in need of Hindu deities as decora¬
tive motifs. We must suppose, therefore, that at this period tole¬
ration of other creeds went to the length of presenting the national
religious beliefs in various works of art so that devotees visiting
any temple might be au courant with the multiple devotion of the
community at large and regaled with graphic representation of an¬
cient religious history. It is almost like a religious art exhibition
without reference to the particular deity enshrined. This will ex¬
plain display of Vaishnava and Saiva images at Badami, of
Hindu, Buddhist and Jain sculptures side by side at Ellora, the
co-existence of Vaishnava, Saiva, Saura, Bauddha and Jain temples
at Khajuraho, and an almost similar group of small temples at Saran-
garh in Bankura Distrct, constructed in the later part of this period.
At Khera in the old Gwalior State the principal Hindu deities are
similarly grouped together — Mahishamardinl, Ganesa, Surya, Siva
and other gods. In the temples relevant figures were naturally the
first to be utilised — in the Dasavatara temple at Ellora, for example,

331

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Vamana, Trivikrama, Varaha and Narasimha fill niches in the Vaish-
iiava temple. Sometimes these forms started minor religious cults
—the cult of Dattatreya (the Trinity in fusion) is one such; at other
times a particular form of the god was accepted as the patron deity
of this or that royal family.

But composite and fused deities also made their appearance.
Even in the Badami and Aihole caves such fused figures are to be
found, c.g.f Ardhanarlsvara and Hari-Hara, and the practice was con¬
tinued in Elephanta, Mamallapuram and Ellora. In fact, new com¬
binations were made in later centuries, for example, Surya-Naraya-
na of Madaun, Sdrya-Brahma of Mahendra ( Dina j pur District), Mar-
tanda»Bhairava of Manda (District Rajshahi), Trimurti Surya in a
Delmal (N. Gujarat) temple, at Chidambaram and elsewhere, Tri-
niurti (Mahesa) of Elephanta and Ellora Caves, the Ekapada-Tri-
murti of later times in which Vishnu and Brahma sprout forth from
a central Siva figure, and Brahma- Vishnu-Siva-Surya of the Dula-Deo
temple at Khajuraho. Outside India, at Thaton in Burma, we have
the figure of Narayana from whose navel issues a lotus stalk which
branches out into three lotuses on which are seated Brahma, Vishnu
and Hiva, just as in the Tantras they were supposed to have come
out of ^akti and in Mahayanism they were considered to be emana¬
tions of Vairoehana. At the same time old associations were being
broken. Vasudeva and Sankarshaaia appear now as Krishna and
Baiarama; but the former gradually outdistances the latter until
Baiarama becomes either an emanation or an avatdra or one
of the twenty-four forms of Vishnu distinguished in iconography.
Dasarathi Rama and Parasurama attained some importance even
in the Mahdbharata , and the former is mentioned, along with Bali,
son of Viroehana, as a subject of cult image by Varahamihira. But
though the temporary interest in the Vyuha doctrine had exalted
Pradyumna and Aniruddha (and rarely Samba in the place of Ani-
ruddha) also, it does not appear that they ever became deified —
they represented philosophic concepts rather than religious objects
except that they began to be regarded as two out of the twenty -
four forms of Vishnu. What is more interesting is the attempt
made in the Kurraa Purana to reduce Siva and Brahma to mani¬
festations of Vishnu when in some of the other Purana s like Mar -
kandeya, Brahma, Agni and even in the Kurma Purana itself and in
the Padma Tantra the indefinite number of Vishnu’s avatdras was be¬
ing reduced to ten and distributed among the different vyuhas of
Vishnu. But while popular sentiment in favour of incarnations was
reflected in the increasing sculpturing of Varaha, Viamana (Upendra)
or Trivikrama and Narasimha, Rama and Parasurama practically

882

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

find no lithie representation in temples except in the Dasavatara
group, the latter’s devotion to Siva and defeat by the former going
heavily against his deification to the fullest extent. A standing figure
in the Kadvar temple, which was probably a Dasavatara temple car¬
rying on Gupta tradition, has been identified by Cousens as Para-
surama and by Sankalia as Rama, but the date of the image is un¬
certain. At Mamallapuram in the temple of Varaha Svami the figure
of Rama, worshipped by Maruti (Hanuman), is said to occur, but
obviously with minor importance. What interests us more is the
inscribed image of Hanuman at Khajuraho belonging to the end of
the ninth century, as that indicates not only the prevalence of the
cult of Rama but also the coming importance of the monkey-god in
popular devotion.

2. Solar Cult

Meanwhile the solar cult, of which Multan was a strong centre
in the seventh century, was slowly diffusing itself all over the coun¬
try. The Sun figure appears in the early Christian centuries in
Gandbara and Mathura regions, obviously modelled on Helios-
Mithra. It is found in early Buddhist monuments at Bhaja, Bodh-
Gaya, Khan^agiri, and Lala Bhagat near Kanpur and in &aivite and
Vishnuite monuments like Mamallapuram, Trichinopoly, etc. Again,
already in the Lankesvara cave at Ellora, Surya is sculptured among
the major gods, though not clad in the northern fashion, and he
appears again in cave No. 25 (Suresvara temple). The gift of the
Rashtrakufa king Govindaraja to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya)
at Kavi shows that princely support was not altogether lacking in
later times and even the Valahhi rulers could be occasionally found
to patronise this faith. Though the theory has been recently ques¬
tioned, Kashmir may have had some hand in popularising the wor¬
ship of the Sun in the western part of India, the early Rathiawad
temple-specimen in the Kashmirian style being the Sun-temple at
Gop. In Kashmir itself was built towards the middle of the eighth cen¬
tury the magnificent Martanda temple. The multiplicity of the Sun
temples in the southern part of Kathiawad, where tribes emigrating
from Kashmir and worshipping the Sun probably lived, indicates
that in this part of India the cult of the Sun was quite vigorous. The
temples at VisaVada, Kinderkheda, Modhera, Somanatha-Pattana,
Than, Sutrapada and other places are fairly well packed in time to
justify the conclusion that devotees to this deity continued their
allegiance and ceremonial worship in fair numbers during a fairly
long period of time in this part of India. A Sun-temple at Dholpur,
perhaps of the ninth century, a tenth century temple at Osia, a pro-

833

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

bably earlier Sun figure at Hansi Fort (District Hissar), temples in
the old Jodhpur, Sirohi, Bharatpur and other States, and temples
found or referred to as existing in the western part of the present
Uttar Pradesh indicate that the cult of the Sun was well patronised
in north-western and western India during mediaeval times. Possi¬
bly the Durga temple at Aihoie and the Papanatha temple at Patfa-
dakal were associated with Sun worship at a slightly earlier date,
and towards the close of this period the Sun temple in the Kliaju-
raho group reared its head. Judging by the increasingly accurate
reference in Indian religious literature of the time on this sub-
ject to the Persian belief, it may be presumed that the Magas,
Bhojakas or Sakadvlpl Brahmanas spread out over Northern India
within a short time and popularised the solar cult. It should be
added, however, that the southern tradition, as embodied in the
Surya figure in a shrine near Lad Khan’s temple at Aihoie and
Parasuramesvara temple at Gudimallam, was also not slow in diffus¬
ing itself, for in Bengal images of both northern and southern types
have been found and, in fact, even earlier tradition is not unrepre¬
sented as, for instance, in the Kumarpur and Niyamatpur reliefs.
Further, in Bengal we find an evolution of newrer and more
complex forms; witness, for instance, the seated character of the
deity in the octo-alloy miniature from Chauddagram (District Tip-
perah) and the twelfth century Bairhatta image in addition to the
usual standing figure, the gradually increasing number of attendants
(including Mahasveta or PrithivI), the number of hands increasing
from two (as in the eighth and early ninth century figures from
Bihar, now in the Indian Museum, and the ninth century figures in
the Rajshahi, and South Kensington Museums) to four, and from
four to six, and even coalescence wth other deities, e.g. the Mar-
tanda-Bhairava three-headed (the fourth head being invisible in
relief) figure with ten arms belonging to a later date. All this
tends to prove that the solar cult was not moribund even in Bengal
and Bihar. Orissa and adjoining regions took up the solar cult in
right earnest during the succeeding centuries, and the many tem¬
ple ruins in Orissa (e.g. Khiching and Konarak) and the settlement
of many Sakadvlpl Brahmanas (called Angirasas in Orissa and
Acharyas in Bengal), who looked after the solar temples as priests
and actively pursued the profession of astrologers and averters of
astral influences ( grdh.asa.nti , which is referred to in the
Matsya Purana), bear testimony to the vigour of the solar worship
in Eastern India. In Gujarat a Trimurti with Surya as the prin¬
cipal god is not unknown, and it appears that the ScLradatilalca Tan -
tra provides even for a four-faced and eight-handed form. In the
extreme south early temples to the Sun are rare, but in inscrip-

33 1

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

tions of the eighth and ninth centuries solar temples (Adityagrihas)
in the northern part of the old Madras Presidency are referred to*
At a later date even an attempt to establish a trinity of Surya,
Siva and Vishnu, with prominence given to the first, was made in
Traipurushadeva temples. This is in accordance with the Matsya
Purmia prescription that vows are to be made to Siva, Surya and
Vishnu.

We may well believe that some difference of opinion existed
at first about the composition of the group of major deities and
that local tradition may have had some hand in fixing the number
and personality. In the Pallava temple at Tiruttani near Arko-
nam in Madras State the deities which find a niche on the walls
or the porch are Vishnu, Siva, Brahma, Durga and Ganesa, which
shows that in that area Brahma was still holding his own against
Surya who does not appear to have been a favourite god in South
India. In the Gondesvara temple at Sinnar near Nasik, on the
other hand, Surya is included in the group and at Nalanda, Surya
is seen with Mahishamardini figure. Surya is found combined
with the other three major deities in different places- — with Vishnu
in Surya-Narayana figures (Vishnu being himself an Aditya), with
Siva in Martanda-Bhairava figures, and with Brahma in the image
of a slightly later date from Mahendra (District Dinajpur). The
Matsya Parana dictum that Brahma, Vishnu, Siva and Surya are
identical or non-different (abheda)? the Kurma Purdna statement
that it originally consisted of four Samhitas — Brahmi, Bhagavati,
Sauri and Vaishnavi, — and the division of the Skanda Purdna into
six Samhitas, namely, Sanatkumara, Suta, Vaishnavi, Brahmi, Sah-
kari and Sauri, seem to indicate that these four gods were asso¬
ciated together in some places and times. But this group was
liable to alteration, as when the Ndradlya Purdna ascribes to the
second part of the Vdmana Purdna four Samhitas, namely, Mahes-
vari, Bhagavati, Sauri and Ganesvarl, thus belittling the importance
of Brahma and extolling that of Ganesa. The Garuda Purdna re¬
serves the highest position for Vishnu but prescribes modes of
worship of Siva, Durga, Ganesa and Surya also in the full Smarta
manner, while the Bkavishya Purdna gives different groupings in
different parts and, though conceding the importance of Surya in
some parts, reserves pre-eminence for the old triad — Brahma,
Vishnu and Siva. That the solar cult was popular in Eastern India
may be inferred from the fact that in an inscribed sculpture of the
reign of Dharmapala the images of Surya, Siva and Vishnu are
found together, the first replacing Brahma. Surya replaces Vishnu
in the enormous door-lintel of the ruined tenth century Siva tem¬
ple at Tezpur in Assam with Brahma and Siva on the two sides.

335

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

He appears also in thei much earlier pre-Ahom temple at Dah
Parvatiya near by. The deliberate attempt to lower the status; pi
Brahma in Saivite literature took the form of showing him as the
officiating priest in the marriage of Siva and Parvati, as the cha¬
rioteer of Siva in Tripurantaka images, as punished for his moral
lapse by Siva who tore off one of his heads, and as cursed by Siva
for having falsely declared to have reached the top of the lihga when
Vishnu had not reached its bottom in a contest for superiority with
the latter. His origin out of the navel of Vishnu or out of the
mundane egg thrown into water by the Primal Being was exploited
by the Vaishnavas to show his inferiority. The Padma Purdna
( Srishii-Khanda ) made a belated attempt to revive the cult of
Brahma, but did not succeed in rehabilitating him in popular favour.

That Surya retained some importance in worship can be made
out from the fact that his images are widely distributed and latter¬
ly assumed a varied character according to the diverse fancies of
local potentates and sculptors, or divergent traditions of the Puraipas
and the Silpa-sastras. The old associates — wTives and attendants
— are mostly retained, and new- ones, such as the Adityas, the
planets and zodiacal signs, and even the seven Rishis (who appear,
by the way, as reliefs in a Trivikrama image recovered from Si wan
and worshipped in the Kashipuri temple at Kaithal in Kuru-
kshetra) and the seven Matrikas find their way into some of the
images. The number of hands varies from two to ten in Bengal
alone. If, as is sometimes supposed, .Don da (Dandl or Kun«Ji)
stands for Skanda and Pihgala for Agni, then the superiority of
Surya over these two is indirectly asserted by placing them as
attendants by his side. Incidentally it may be observed that Saras-
vati or Aruta-Devi, the goddess of learning as depicted in Jain¬
ism, carries symbols of both Surya and Brahma in her different
forms (Vidyadevls) and, in fact, in a Sarasvatl figure from Pin da-
wara in Sirohi not only is the lotus symbol present but the Sun is
represented above the crown; and occasionally in Jain Nava-gra-
ha slabs Sarasvati appears at one of the ends, which also shows
her solar association. But the wide prevalence of Navagraha
figures in Jain images, specially of the Tlrthankara Aantinatha .and
occasionally of Neminatha, below, round or on the sides of the
main image, and their presence below the figure of the Mahayana
goddess Dasabhuj a-sita-Marich I (Marlchi being the Buddhist female
counterpart of the Hindu male deity Surya and regarded as an
emanation or the wife of Vairochana) indicate that they were be¬
coming fashionable as temple decorations, for they are not only
found in a panel (separate images being extremely rare) on the door¬
frame on the entrance door- way and sometimes on the tor ana

836

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

of a Surya temple in Rajputana and Gujarat and elsewhere, but
also in Saiva sculptures (e.g. Vaiv-ahika or Kalyanasundara figure
in the Vangiya Sahitya Parishat Museum, Calcutta) and in the
Mother-am-child images. It has not been unreasonably surmised
that when these figures are in bold relief, as in the Khari (24-
Paraganas) Navagraha slab, the set was regarded as a cult-object
and used in grahay&ga or svastyayana to avert evil. The discovery at
Khiching of a Navagraha-chakra of a later date is therefore of
some interest in this connection. Perhaps what happened in the
case of their occasional associate, Ganesa, occurred in their case
also. To avert their wrath or evil influence people started with
placing them outside their shrines and then they began to worship
them. In this way popular devotion was canalised from the major
adoration of principal deities to the channels of minor piety.

3. Sakti Cult and the &aiva Deities

The most notable religious revival of the age centred round
Siva who practically swept the other gods off their feet. Sectarian
Purainas in laudation of this divinity did not make their appear¬
ance all at once, but came in regular succession. From Kashmir to
Cape Comorin there was a stir in the religious world and some of
the most famous cave temples of India owe their origin to con-
temporary religious fervour directed towards Siva. Ellora, Sal-
sette and Elephants bear- eloquent testimony to the excavator’s
art, while the builder's skill is manifested in the Kailasanatha tem¬
ple at Kanchl at the opening of this period, and in the Great Temple
of Tan j ore at the end of this era. In Orissa also the Bhuvanesvara
group of temples dedicated to Siva began to rear their heads in
this period. As by now the affiliations of the Saivite group of
divinities had been firmly established, the stocks of this group soar¬
ed high in popular estimation. Naturally, Siva’s consort and child¬
ren began to shine in a kind of reflected glory — -at any rate, their
importance was materially enhanced. They began to be placed
in independent charge of divine exploits and even some Upani-
sbads were written to extol their power and beneficence. By the
twelfth century the Saivite momentum spent itself and Vishnu,
who never lost support at any time even during the preceding epoch,
began to dominate sculptural representation. In the mediaeval tem¬
ples of Rajputana, however, the figure of Lakullsa on the door-way
continued to be a favourite device.

But there was a deeper reason for this emergence of family
alliance of divinities. The period synchronised with the rise of
a new philosophy and a new attitude towards divine consorts. At

337

VI.K.— 22

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

the root of the speculations of the period lay the philosophical
theory that not God as such but God as associated with his power
(sakti) is responsible for the creation, maintenance and destruction
of the universe, and hence the mysterious association of the
Supreme God with this Sakti must be admitted. Thus while in the
Vedantic school of Sankara it is the eternal Maya sakti of Brahman
that become responsible for the origin of the world of diversity, in
the theistic schools of the Vaishnavas and the Saivas this sakti got
greater personification and became the wife of the supreme
deity. Whether this conjugal ideal was preached to counteract
the ascetic tendency of Buddhism and Jainism must remain an
open question, for we find that in Jainism too the sasana-devatas
appear in pairs and Mahayana Buddhism also recognised very soon
female deities side by side with the male Buddhas and their ema¬
nations. It is difficult to establish conclusively the beginnings of
this Sakta tendency in Saivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, for
sexual esoterism is a very old phenomenon in Indian religious his¬
tory. In India of the period we are discussing, popular religion
influenced, and was in its turn reinforced by, speculation and
mythology alike. The Vaishnava Samhitas, the Saiva Agamas and
the Sakta Tantras were tumbled down upon the votaries of the
different faiths in a multitudinous heap, and for the first time
the right of the language of the people to be the medium of ex¬
pression for religious exaltation and religious devotion was reco¬
gnised in the south. The new religious sentiment, as affected by
philosophical speculations, became mellowed in temper and began
to be directed to a God of grace, united with a practically eternal
partner, conceived as a female principle, whether philosophically
as sakti or prakriti or religiously as Lakshmi, Sarasvati or Uma.
The new motif appears in gradually increasing representation of
Lakshmi-Naray ana , Brahma- Sarasvati and Siva-Parvatl in temple-
niches, as for instance in the temple at Ruhavi (and later in the
Navalakha temple at Gumli) in Gujarat and in many Haihaya
monuments, as for example in the Viratesvara temple at Sohagpur
in the old Rewa State where over the doorway an eight-handed
male figure is flanked by Brahma and his wife, and Vishnu and his
wife, and the figures of Parvatl and Ganesa also make their appear¬
ance in the architrave. In the struggle for recognition the first
bout of victory went to the Siva-Sakti cult, strongly supported in
the north by Kashmir Saivism and in the south by Tamil Agamism.
That there was keen rivalry among the warring creeds can be easily
made out from the volume of the Saiphita, Agama and Tantra lite¬
rature of the time.

888

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

In the new devotion to the Saivite household both the terrible
and the benign aspect of the deities received equal and wide atten¬
tion. The marriage of Siva with Uma and the peaceful house¬
holders’s life of Siva with Parvatl and infant Ganeia or Skanda
find, as in Pallava sculpture, equal lithic representation with Durga
killing the buffalo demon either as a decorative bas-relief or as a
principal image in Mamailapuram in the seventh century and
with Ganesa, Virabhadra and Chamunda appearing in the Sapta-
matrika slabs. One of the earliest dated pleasant images is that
of Sarvani in bronze or octo-alloy, discovered in Chauddagram
near Tipperah and belonging to an earlier period, but other benign
types of Devi images, mostly with an iguana as vehicle, are also
known in Bengal. It appears also that earlier Puranic motifs of
art were resuscitated with greater elaboration and freer reins to
fancy. Judging from images, the earlier MahishamardinI figures
seem to have had their inspiration from some other source than
the Mdrkandeya Purdna as the Devi’s leonine mount is absent from
some of the earliest images. Again, there is variation in the mode
of the presentation of both the lion and the buffalo demon. Durga
sometimes fights dismounted from the lion, sometimes she sits on
her mount with both legs on one side, and sometimes she sits ast¬
ride the lion. The demon too is sometimes half-human and half-
buffalo, sometimes he is human-bodied but buffalo-headed, and
sometimes he is wholly human in appearance but with two buffalo
horns sticking out of his forehead — a mode of representing
theriomorphic powers of which Egyptian parallels would come
readily to one’s mind. Similarly, the hands of Durga could be
two, four, six, or eight, or even ten or twelve at a later time. In
fact, the Devi with sixteen, eighteen, twenty and even thirty-two
hands has been represented in Bengal. The ten arms may re¬
present the combined ten hands of the four-handed Brahma, the
four-handed Vishnu and the two-handed Siva, seeing that Durga
was considered to be Maha -Kali, Maha-Lakshml and Maha-Sarasvatl
in one. As a matter of fact, Hemadri in his description of Katya-
yam mentions that she should imitate the three deities, by which
are obviously meant Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. He also describes
a ten-handed Durga with a slightly different set of weapons and
also a twenty-handed Chandl with many more weapons in her
hands. As he wrote his Chaturvarga-clnintdmani in the thirteenth
century, apparently he was recording later varieties of the Durga
image. But the twenty-handed image from Sirala (District Raj-
shahi), belQnging to the tenth century and now lost, has a good
deal of resemblance with Chandl described by him. In fact, the

389

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Puraaias and sculptural remains vary considerably on this point
of the number of &akti’s hands, and their attributes.

The MarkaV'deya Pumna, which grew by accretion during the
early centuries of the Christian era and is the locus classicus for
the exploits of the &akti goddess in the Chandl or Devi-nw,hdtmya
or Sdptasati chapters, includes the Mahishamardini episode in addi¬
tion to some other accounts of ^akti’s achievements as also the
promise of her periodic appearance whenever the demons would
threaten the peace of gods. It is also responsible for popularising
the cult of the Mothers, generally seven in number, who are the
energies ( &akti ) of the different major gods that came to the assis¬
tance of the Divine Mother (Ambika, Durga, Chaindika, Katyayani),
armed with the mount and vehicles and weapons of their respective
lords. Whereas the MahishasuramardinI was herself formed by the
coalescence of the Saktis of many more deities than seven and was
endowed by them all, Chandika maintained an independent posi¬
tion in her light against Sumbha and Nisumbha and even withdrew
the Seven Mothers within herself as her vihhuiis when taunted by
Sumbha for fighting with extraneous aid. In the Saptamatrika
slabs appear the saktis of the principal gods from left to right,
with occasional variations here and there, in the following order- —
Brahman! or Sarasvati, Mahesvari or RaudrI, Kaumari or Kartti-
keyani, Vaishnav! or Lakshml, Varahi, Indranl or MahendrI, and
Chamunda or Chamundl. NarasimhI replacing Chamunda ( as in the
Mdrkandeya Piirdna) or Yarn! replacing Varahi is not unknown.
To the list is sometimes added Mahalakshmi or Yogesvarl to make
the eighth. Hemadri mentions Chandika herself as the eighth
Mother; he also gives other lists of Mothers in which abstraxt quali¬
ties and concrete personalities are mixed up together. Even an
image with Vagisvar! replacing Vaishnav! has been discovered in
Bengal. The Saptamatrika figures are hanked on the left by Siva
( Virabhadra ) or Skanda and on the right by Ganesa (and occasional¬
ly by Kaia or Bhrihgi), but Ganesa is here not a young boy of diminu¬
tive size, as in Siva-Parvati images, but is of the same size as the
Mothers as befitting a leader who, alternately with &iva, some¬
times forms, in fact, the vanguard of the group of divine Saktis.
He appears as such in the Chedi country also, as in the Vaidya-
natha Mahadeva temple where not only the Saptamatrikas but also
the Navagrahas figure, as they do in some other temples, of this
area like the temple at Marai in the old Maihar State.

The Puranas and the Brihat-saihhitd had recognised the exist¬
ence and worshipfulness of the Mothers; the Kadamba and Chalukya
kings had worshipped them; and bas-reliefs in caves and temples

840

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

had presaged their coming splendour. But the growing importance
of the Sakti cult brought them into greater prominence and distri¬
buted their cult far and wide— -from the Kangra valley to Cape
Comorin and from the Jhelum to Sadiya. In Eastern India specially
they got independent representation. The colossi of the Eight Mothers
from Muktimandapa near Jaipur ( Yira j akshetra } and the Eight
Mothers with Sivaduti on the bank of the Vaitarani indicate their
popularity in this part of East India. In Bengal also some of the
Mothers have been separately sculptured and Chamunda of various
forms, such as Rupavidya, Siddha-yogesvarl and Dantura, has found
independent lithic representation. Even a Sakti of Ganesa (Gane-
sani) was subsequently conceived when Ganesa became a major
deity.

Reinforcement to the Sakti cult came from a contemporaneous
Buddhistic revival in which Tara, the Sakti of Avalokitesvara, play¬
ed a prominent part. This goddess, of whom the nearest Brahmani-
cal equivalent is Tarim and the Jain parallel is the sasanadevata
Sutaraka or Sutara, was absorbed at first as a yogini and then as a
deity along with Ekajata, Kurukulla and other Mahayana female
divinities in the north, and found early representation in the different
cave temples and also stone and metal embodiment under the Palas .
fe.g., the bronze eighteen-armed Tara found in Nalanda). The adven¬
turous mariners who carried Indian civilisation by sea to the Far
East during the Pala period invoked her as the patron of navigators
through a pardonable identification of the meanings of Tara, which
signifies both a star and a goddess. In the later Tantras, which are
products of the fusion of Buddhistic and Brahmanical beliefs, many
of the Buddhistic female deities were identified with Brahmanical
Sakti goddesses, and even the Jain pantheon, by matching each male
attendant of a Tirthankara with a female, recognised the strength
of the popular feeling in favour of pairing male principles with their
female counterparts. In Jainism not only were Vasudeva and Bala-
deva (with the snake-canopy) and Ganesa and possibly also Kartth
keya taken over from Brahmanism but also Sarasvat! and Lakshmi,
and its own cult of Padmavatl became quite vigorous at a slightly
later date.

That the Mothers hovered between lower (yogini) and higher
(dein) divinities is proved by the fact that, barring the 6akti of &iva,
none became a definite cult object, though isolated images of Lakshmi
(sometimes Ashta-Lakshml, including Gajalakshml, corresponding to
the eight Saktis of Vishnu, as in the Padma Purana), Sarasvati,
Ganga, Yamuna and other female deities are found here and there
all over India (e.g., in the Haihaya monuments). And this is natural

341

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

because the fame of most of them rested on the assistance they ren¬
dered to Durga, Chandika or Ambika in her struggles against the
demons that threatened heavenly peace. It is very likely also that
the £iva-£akti cult was a federation of two originally independent
faiths and Durga had already been so separately extolled that it was
not possible to bring her into a completely subservient relation to
Siva. This will explain why in the Mah&bhdrata she appears at one
place as the wife of Narayana and at another as the wife of Siva, and
in the Durgd-saptasatx of the Mdrkandeya Puvana she is more a Vaish-
navi Sakti than a Saivite one, though her names betoken her Saivite
association. Sarasvati and Lakshmi, though widely worshipped as
the respective patrons of learning and riches, practically remained
wives of Brahma and Vishnu in Brahmanism. It is really in the
heterodox systems of Jainism and Mahayana Buddhism that Sarasvati
attained greater independence and evolved many forms and was
surrounded by personified abstractions. In Jainism Lakshmi too
enjoyed a similar independent status. That Sarasvati should appear
both as a sasanadevata and as an independent deity may provide a
clue to the exact position of these minor goddesses. Like the
Yakshas they never rose to the highest position in any pantheon and
yet they supplied artistic models for decorating temples and even
providing loci of minor veneration. Ganesa, for instance, hovered
between a yaksha and a deity, as when Sri Vinayaka the deity
became reduced to Ganesa the yaksha door-keeper with sounding
bells, both in India and outside. Kubera also hovered between a
major deity (one of the dikpdlas) and a yaksha-chief.

The name ‘Mothers’ had apparently something to do with the
placing of children on the laps or by the side of these mother-
goddesses, who were virtually looked upon as the guardian angels
of small children. The Mahayana deity Haritl, it may be remem¬
bered, had a similar figure and function. She had ectypes in
Manasa, the serpent goddess, and also &Itala, the goddess of small¬
pox, who begins to figure towards the end of this period in temples
in Kathiawad and Gujarat (e.g. at Sejakpur and Sunak). Later on
the goddess Shashthi took over this protective function from the
Mothers. The occasional absence of a child on Sarasvati’s knee or
side may be responsible for the association of ‘six’ with the protec¬
tion of children, unless we believe that Shashthi has something to
do with the six Krittikas that suckled the infant Karttikeya.

Probably the name ‘Mothers’ was euphemistic when extended to
the Yoginls and was designed to cover up their destructive or terrible
aspect (as in the cases of &iva and Ganesa) as befitting agencies that
came into existence to aid a supreme female deity in battle and to

342

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

assist her in preventing the generation of new demons out of the
blood-drops of the slain by licking these up, as represented in the
Andhakavadha scene at Tewar. Their number was rather fluid,
but when the lesser Saktis were added to the major ones it swelled
to seven or eight, and then, by the usual process of multiplication,
it rose from eight to sixteen, and then to sixty-four or more in
Puranic and even Jain accounts, and they were then considered as
Yoginis. In the Chausant YoginI temple at Bheraghat on the Nar¬
mada near Jubbulpore, where there is a circular colonnaded en¬
closure, are to be found together not only the sixty-four Yoginis but
also the eight Saktis, three rivers, four other goddesses, Siva and
Ganesa, thus making a total of eighty-one figures together with
three more spaces at the entrances. At Khajuraho the sixty-four
Yoginis appear in an oblong temple, but in other places like Rani-
pur-Jural and Coimbatore such circular temples have been found

and in Kalahandi there occurs the Surada temple containing sixty-

five cells. Many of these are hypaethral, which shows that the dei¬
ties enshrined were of minor consideration in the devotion of men.
The Bheraghat figures have suffered, like other monuments, the fana¬
tical fury of the iconoclasts; but most of them fortunately retain their
names inscribed in the sixty-five peripheral chapels. A perusal of the
names discloses the fact that they are not all canonical Some were
obviously incorporated from popular cult obiects of the time and
the locality, and some were actual or corrupted forms of Brahmanic
originals. A comparison with the list given by Hemadri about three
centuries later shows that there was no fixity in the names of the
Yoginis though their cult was fairly wide-spread. Even the eight
Yoginis now worshipped in Bengal have titles not to be found in
Hernadri’s list; in fact, the East Indian names of the sixty-four Yoginis
do not have any terribleness about them, being mostly names of
Durga herself, as the names in Hemadri’s list have. Thus, barring
the convention that the Yoginis must be sixty-four, there is very
little common in the different lists of names. What interests us in
the Bheraghat icons is the presence of §rI-Teramva, a Mahisha-
mardinl figure with sixteen hands, and of SarvatomukhI with a
lotus under-seat containing the Tantrik emblem of crossed triangles
(shatkona), with the b:j a word H rim in the centre. Images of Brahma,
Vishnu, Surya, Ganesa, Karttikeya, some of the Divine Mothers, and
Ganga and Yamuna have been found in the ruins of the Bheraghat
temple, in the centre of which probably stood an Uma-Mahesvara
group according to Coomaraswamy. It is probably at a later period
that this Smarta method of combining the principal gods in the same
sanctuary was adopted.

343

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Once Saktism became popular it was merely a question of time
as to how exaggerated emphasis would be laid upon the diverse
modes of divine manifestation. Thus Durga might herself be con¬
ceived as many, and this gives us Nava-Durga (of which the Nava-
lihgas of Kukkanur might be considered as the late male counter¬
parts) or nine forms of the goddess known under different names.
One set of such names — Sailaputri, Erahmacharinl, Chaindaghanta,
Kushmanda, Skandamata, KatyayanI, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and
Siddhidatri— -practically sketches her career and functions. Another
better known set is composed of Ugrachanda, Praehanda, Chaodogra,
Chandanayika, Chanda, Chandavati, Chandarupa, Atichandika and
Rudrachanda— -all signifying the wrathful aspect of the deity. .A
rare image of Nava-Durga in relief with an eighteen-handed central
figure surrounded by eight sixteen-handed miniature figures was
discovered at Porsha ( Dina j pur) and is now in the Rajshahi Museum.
Nava-Durga, Kalika and Chandika have been found enshrined in
Jagesvara in Kumayun during this period- Similarly, just as Parvatl
was differentiated into Durga, Chamunda, Mahishasuramardim and
Mahalakshmi, so also Chamunda was herself viewed under the three
forms of Karali or Bhadrakali, Kalabhadra and Kali or Mahakali,
and was endowed with various numbers of arms under different
names. Reference has already been made to the diverse forms of
Chamunda in Bengal sculpture.

By the side of these major Sakti deities we have other goddesses
like Jyeshfha, the elder sister of Lakshmi but associated with mis¬
fortune (Alakshml), reference to whose temple is made in an eighth
century inscription near Madura. An inscribed four-handed Vagls-
vari image of c. A.D. 940 from Nalanda, seated on a lion and torment-
ing a demon, is now in the Indian Museum, and another figure of
the same goddess in octo-alloy, with eight hands, is in the Rajshahi
Museum. A little later than the period we are discussing came, in
the wake of Tantrik revival, the Dasa-Mahavidyas— Kali, Tara,
Shodasi, Bhuvan-esvan, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagala
Matahgi and Kamalatmika (Gaja-Lakshmi), obviously modelled on
the ten avatar as of Vishnu; but isolated deities like Kali, Ugra-Tara,
V indhy a vasini, etc. came earlier and had other associates, both
fierce and benign, like Praiyahgira, Dhumavati or Dhumrakalf,
Lalita, Tripurasundarl (often identified with Shodasi'), Kajaraje-s-
varl, etc. added at a later time.

It appears also that Karttikeya was progressively losing con¬
tact with this Sakti group even though his Sakti (Kaumari or
Karttikeyani) forms one of the Mothers and he himself occasionally
turns up in Seven-Mother slabs. Mentioned as Subrahmanya in the

844

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Manasara, he still retained considerable popularity in the South
under the titles of Velayudha, Muruga, etc., specially with non-
Brahmana classes, was assigned two wives — Valli and Devasena (or
Devayana) — and had many shrines dedicated to him. In the Gujarat
area too Karttikeya or Mahasena receives the homage of the Chaulu-
kyas and at Ellora he finds lithic representation thrice. Judging
by the Gurgi inscription, his image along with those of Uma, Uma
with Siva, Sarasvatl and Ganapati, was placed round a central image
of Siva in the area of the Gurgaj mound, where huge images of
Durga or Parvatl have also been discovered. In the torana removed
to Rewa, Karttikeya and Ganesa also figure with the Mothers, as do
the major gods (Brahma included) and the planets, in Siva’s mar¬
riage procession scene.

Ganesa, however, retains and, in fact, improves upon his posi¬
tion; he not only accompanies the Mothers but also attends and
imitates the dance of Siva in sculptural representations and acts
as a defender of the Brahmanical faith by guarding temples. Even
a five-faced Ganesa, in imitation of his five-faced ( panchanana )
father, has been unearthed both in Orissa and in the ruins of Ram-
pal (Dacca). His figure has been found on the door lintel of one
of the ruined temples at Saidabad in Kashmir. No wonder that some
terrible forms of Buddhistic deities should be represented as curb¬
ing his power in the shape of trampling upon his prostrate body
(and sometimes that of his Sakti also) — Mahakala, Aparajita and
Black Manjusri being the most noted Mahayanic oppressors of the
elephant-headed gcd of the Brahmanical pantheon. It must be
acknowledged, however, that Buddhism entertained an ambivalent
attitude towards this deity, for it itself worshipped Vinayakas of
different kinds. Similarly Baia-Ganapati and the conch-shell
symbol of some Ganesa images betrayed occasional attempts at a
rapprochement with Vaishnavism, but they did not prove a very
successful venture. His place in temples, however, was assured;
he adorns the door lintel of practically every major god in Gujarat
— Siva, Brahma, Surya, Devi, etc., — and also in Haihaya Saiva tem¬
ples, just as Gaja Lakshml did in many Chalukya temples-

Ganesa’s star of fortune became definitely ascendant towards
the close of this period, for, under the name of Ganapati, he became
a popular cult object, particularly in Western India, and had a
distinct sect, the Ganapatyas, devoted to his special worship. With
heads ranging from one to five and arms correspondingly increased,
with one, two or more tusks with the trunk variously disposed, and
with many of the ornaments, attitudes and even the shapeless linga-
form (of red stone) borrowed from Siva, Ganapati became the cen-

345

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

tre of a popular cult, open and esoteric, the rival of Siva him¬
self, and even superior to the other gods who sought his aid and ap¬
proached and placated him when in distress. When the new fervour
arose, there was a revival of the ancient number of six, of whom the
five Sakti-Ganapatis are the most prominent, namely, the red four¬
armed Uchchhishta-Ganapati, the red ten-armed Maha-Ganapati, the
yellow six-armed Urddhva-Ganapati, the tawny-coloured six-armed
Pingala-Ganapati, and the white four- or eight-armed Lakshmi
Ganapati. Haridra-Gamapati with yellow7 colour and four arms was
also regarded as the supreme deity. In Anandagiri’s enumeration
Navamta, S varna and Santana Ganapatis replace Urddhva, Pingaia
and Lakshmi Ganapatis. It is probable that some of the names owe
their origin to the materials with which the Ganapati figures were
made- — cream or butter ( navanita )9 gold (svarva), turmeric (hari-
dra), — or to the degree of their yellowness. The devotees of these six
forms formed esoteric sects. Theogonic speculations tried to give
Ganapati a mystic origin out of &iva, and Tantrikism invested him
with yantras and mantras suited to different purposes. The image
of his &akti, labelled as &rI-AinginI, as also his own image is to be
found among the Bheraghat icons and in the Indian Museum collec¬
tion, and Ganesa himself with his Ganas also finds sculptural repre¬
sentation. The five heads, as in H era mb a - Gana pa t i , sometimes get
separate forms under Buddhistic influence at a later time as in the
Nritya Ganapati of Nepal. In fact, images of Ganesa with other Bud¬
dhistic influences, e.g- Bhumisparsa-mudra, are also known from
other countries, which is not unnatural, seeing that latterly he be¬
came a Buddhistic loan deity. The ashta-siddhis came to be constru¬
ed into his &akti in Tantrik belief. In the Navagraha slabs he occu¬
pies the extreme right position — just the reverse of what he does
in the Saptamatrika slabs. His association with the Diggajas of
the four cardinal points can be made out from the Ghativala column
near Jodhpur (with four Ganesa images at the top facing the four
quarters) with a dated inscription of the ninth century A.D., while
in a slab from Sonarang (Bengal), Ganesa is found sculptured on the
right and the Saptamatrikas on the left of a Surya temple. The
Ghatiyala figure installed in a market place perhaps marks his as¬
sociation with success in trade.

The end of this period virtually closes the origin of new divini¬
ties. Henceforward local variations, elaborations and fusions cha¬
racterise the evolution of new forms. The most outstanding reli¬
gious upheaval was furnished by the Tantras which necessitated
an understanding with the deep-seated craving of the human heart
and an acceptance of the female principle in religious worship. After

346

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Mahay anism had reached its zenith and given a new pantheon, a
rapprochement with that cult was also found necessary, and when
Buddhism degenerated and declined, its elements were utilised with
suitable modifications to serve the needs of the newly absorbed
Buddhist population. There was a fusion of Buddhistic and Brah-
manical cults also and a revival of interest in the occult was res¬
ponsible for the popularity of Gorakshanatha and other Siddhas. A
new esoteric literature was born as a result of this new type of
interest.

II. ICONOGRAPHY
1. Sdkti

Images of Devi or &akti, both of Ugm and Saumya types,130 are
met with in large numbers. Numerous eight- or ten-armed images
of the MahishasuramardinI have been discovered in different parts
of eastern India, and their principal type, with certain additional
features, came to be the accepted iconic model of the composite
clay image in the autumnal Durga worship in Bengal. An image,
unique of its kind, retrieved from a north Bengal village in the
Dinajpur District, portrays in a very interesting manner the nine
Burgas (Nava-Durga) ;m the central figure of MahishasuramardinI
is eighteen-armed with eight other sixteen-armed miniature figures
of the same type grouped round it. The all-powerful and all-
embracing character of the Divine Sakti is further emphasised by
another unique stone image of the thirty-two-armed Devi engaged
in combat with demons (not the buffalo-demon in particular), found
in the said district; on the top part of its prabhdvali are shown the
miniature figures of Ganapati, Surya, &iva, Vishnu, and Brahma.132

A four-armed standing figure of the goddess, of the saumya
type, found in one of the rock-cut shrines of Ellora, exactly corres¬
ponds to the description of Parvatl, one of the six varieties of Gaurl,
viz., Uma, Parvatl, Sri, Rambha, To tala and Tripura, as described
in the Rupamandana. She holds in her four hands, from the lower
right onwards (i.e. lower right, upper right, upper left and lower
left), a rosary, &ivalihga, a miniature figure of Ganapati, and a water
vessel, and has two pots of fire placed on her either side.133 A com¬
parison between this rare type of Devi image from Ellora, and a
particular form of her four-armed standing figures of the mediaeval
period commonly found in Bengal, will be of interest here. The
latter shows her standing erect, with such attributes as a boon
{vara) or pomegranate, a &ivalihga, a tridandi or a trident in her

347

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

hands in the above order, and an iguana ( godhihd ) carved on the
pedestal. There are different varieties of this type which can be
dubbed Chandl on account of the godhikd on the pedestal of many
of them (this animal had particular association with the story of
Chandl and Kalaketu, current in Bengal). An inscribed stone image
of the Devi, dated in the third regnal year of Lakshmanasena, now
in the collection of the Dacca Museum, shows a couchant lion for
her vehicle; she holds vara , ankusa, padma, and kamandalu in her
hands and like Gaja-Lakshmi, is being bathed by two elephants* The
pedestal inscription describes her as Chandl; but Bhattasali de¬
nominates it as Bhuvanesvarl on the authority of the Sdraddtilaka-
tantra.134

Separate images of the Devi of the dsana variety are compara¬
tively rare, she being usually depicted sitting on the lap of her
consort Siva in such types of Saiva images as Uma-Mahesvaramurti
discussed above. Several seated images, however, have been dis¬
covered in Bengal, and a few of them can be called Aparajjita, Maha-
lakshmi, etc., on the basis of various iconographic texts. A very
interesting sculpture, found among the ruins of ancient Vikrampur
(Dacca), shows a Sivalinga, “out of which emerges the half-length
figure of a four-armed goddess, with her front hands in the dhydna-
mudrd , and the back right and left hands holding a rosary and a
manuscript respectively”; Bhattasali identifies the image as that of
Mahamaya or Tripura-Bhairavi*135 The Matrika group of images
have been found in different parts of India, but the earliest of them
does not go back to a period earlier than the Gupta. The Gangdhar
stone inscription .of Visvavarman, of the time of Kumara-gupta I,
refers to the construction of the temples of the Divine Mothers,
which are described as “terrible abodes’ (vesmdtyugram) . The ex¬
tant images of the Matrikas, however, with the exception of that
of Chamunda, do not indicate anything fierce or terrific; most of
them are shown as exact female counterparts of their corresponding
male divinities with the complete cognizances and attributes of the
latter. Varahi and Chamundi alone are different; the former, a
sow-faced female seated on a buffalo, and the latter, an extremely
emaciated figure with a scorpion mark on her shrunken belly, seat¬
ed on a corpse ( pretdsand ). To emphasise the mother-aspect, these
goddesses are sometimes shown as carrying a suckling baby on
their laps, and the Ellora Saptamatrika panel is a striking example
of this type of Matrika images. Figures of Vlrabhadra and Ganesa
are usually carved on either side of the row of the Mothers, for the
myths describe them as their guardians. Chamunda seems to have
been one of the most important cult-goddesses in the Tantrik pan-

348

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

theon, and this is proved by her several peculiar forms, such as
Rupavidya, Siddha-Yogesvari and Dantura, whose images have been
discovered in Bengal. An image of the last-mentioned aspect of
Chamunda, showing a two-armed goddess sitting on her haunches,
found originally in a Burdwan village and now in the collection of
the Vangiya Sahitya Parishat Museum, Calcutta, strikingly portrays
the weird and the uncanny “with its bare canine teeth, rounded eyes,
ghastly smile, emaciated body, lean and pendulous breasts, sunken
belly, and peculiar sitting posture”.136

2. Ganesa

Reference has been made above137 to the different varieties of
the images of Ganesa. His standing and seated figures are usually
four-armed, but when he is shown dancing, he is endowed with
more hands. An eleventh century six-armed stone image of the
god, hailing from north Bengal and now in the collection of the
Indian Museum, shows him dancing on the back of his mount, at¬
tended by two other dancing figures, one on each side, playing
on musical instruments; objects like the tusk, hatchet, rosary, blue
lotus, pot of sweetmeat, etc- are displayed in his hands, and there
is a bunch of mangoes carved on the top centre of the pointed stele.
It is a finely carved sculpture, and the artist has handled the theme
of a grotesque nature with great balance and sense of proportion.133
Another rare type of Ganesa is that with five heads and ten arms
seated on the back of a roaring lion; this variety is described in
the text as Heramba Ganapati. Several such figures of the late
mediaeval period have been found in India, and one unearthed
from the ruins of Rampal (Dacca), contains on the upper part of
its stele six other miniature figures of Ganesa, perhaps the cult
pictures of the six sub-divisions of the Ganapatya sect.139 Another
type of Ganesa, mostly found in southern India, is the Unmatta-
Uchchhishta variety in which the god is shown in company with
his consort in a suggestive pose; several of its extant specimens are
rather of an indelicate character.140

3. Kdrttikeya

The South Indian images of Subrahmanya display a multipli¬
city of forms which are given various names in the Tantrik and
Agamic texts; but most of these are late in point of date. The
Ellora stone panel shows a four-armed figure of the god with a cock
placed in his front left hand, and two goat-headed attendants, one
standing on either side of him. The latter evidently stand for such
mythological personalities as Negamesa or Harinigamesi. A late

849

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

relief from Tirupparankunram temple in southern India represents
a unique variety of Karttikeya figure, viz . Devasena-Kalyanasun-
dara-murti, the theme of which is the marriage of Devasena and
Karttikeya; it is evidently based on the Kalyanasundara-murti of
Siva, as the Nritya-Ganapati figures are modelled on his dancing
types.141

4. Surya

The iconographic representation of Surya came to be far more
elaborate in course of time and several accessories were added. The
figures of Kundl bearing pen and ink-pot, on the proper right and
of Daridi holding a staff on the proper left, are already present
in some late Gupta reliefs of Surya ; the figures of several spouses
of the god, such as Nikshubha, Chhaya, Sarhjna or Rajhi, Suvarna
and Suvarchasa, with the goddess Mahasveta and other attendants,
are now depicted crowding round the main deity. The legs of not
only the central figure but also of those of the various attendants,
both male and female, are shown encased in some sort of leggings;
but the long coat has completely disappeared, and the close cover¬
ing of the upper part of the body is just suggested by some delicate¬
ly carved lines on the torso and the arms. The lotus flowers held
in the hands are not mere buds but fully blossomed ones shown
parallel to the ears, and the seven horses are almost invariably re¬
presented on the chariot. The Surya image, found at Kotalipada
(Faridpur) and now in the Vangiya Sahitya Parishat Museum, Cal¬
cutta, dated in the eleventh ventury A D., is a representative speci¬
men of such icons of northern India; but it contains such addi¬
tional features as agm-kundas carved on the saptaratha pedestal,
from which issue lotus-flowers whereon the god and his principal
attendants are standing. Another eleventh century stone relief of
the god, procured from a Dinajpur village for the Rajshahi Museum,
shows a unique mode of representation; he is depicted six-armed,
his natural hands hold two fully blossomed lotus flowers, the four
added ones showing vara , akshamala , abhaya and kamandalu . The
Visvakarmavatdra Sdstra description of Dhatri, the first of the Adil¬
yas in the Dvadasaditya group of divinities, partially corresponds
to this type; the former, however, is four-armed, the third pair of
arms showing the vara - and abhaya-mudras being omitted. Four¬
armed standing and seated Surya images, though rare, are not abso¬
lutely unknown in northern India. If a comparison is made bet¬
ween the normal two-armed Surya figure of the north with the same
of the south, both belonging to the mediaeval period, some remark¬
able differences may be noticed; the nature of the most important

850

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

among them seems to prove that the southern Bury a figures did not
come under any foreign influence, for their legs are always left
bare- 142 Seated Sun images of the mediaeval period are compara-
lively rare, and an inscribed one, acquired from a Dinajpur village,
is ail the more interesting, for the pedestal inscription of the ele¬
venth-twelfth century A.D. refers to the god as samasta-rogdiidm
hartta (remover of ail diseases). Composite reliefs of the Sun-god
from northern as well as southern India, combining in them
the features of several members of the orthodox Brahmanica! triad,
are known. These sometimes are joint representations of Surya
and Narayana, or Surya and Siva, and very rarely the attributes of
Surya, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are all combined in a single mono¬
graphic motif. The eight-armed and three-headed figure in the
Chidambaram temple, with Arixna and the seven horses carved on
the pedestal, and his hands carrying such attributes as a conch-
shell, a discus, a pair of lotus-buds, etc. evidently represents the last.
The so-called Trimurti figures found in Bundelkhand region are
really typical combinations of Surya and Vishnu, and are even
sometimes described as Surya-Narayana. A unique three-headed
and ten-armed sculpture of the twelfth century A.D., found at a
Rajshahi village, typifies in a very characteristic manner the combin¬
ed form of Surya and Siva; its three faces — the central one placid,
and the side ones terrific — , its ten hands holding such attributes as
sakti f khatvdnga, nilotpala f darnaru and the usual lotuses, and other
iconographic traits closely correspond to the description of Mart-
tanda-Bhairava given in the &draddtilaka-iantra.uz All these compo¬
site types of images perhaps show indirectly the part which the
Sun-god played in the evolution of many of the god-concepts con¬
nected with several of the important Brahmanical cults-

Several mediaeval sculptures of eastern India, showing a rider
with a drinking cup in his hand and accompanied by a host of fol¬
lowers, were at first wrongly described as those of Kalki. But they
have now been correctly identified as those of Revanta, the son
of Surya. Both of them are shown riding on horseback, but the
distinctive feature of Revanta is that, he should be shown a-hunting
accompanied by a host of attendants. The Brihat-samhita descrip¬
tion of the god (Revanto-svdrudho mrigaya-kri<Mdi~parivdrah) gives
us the correct clue to his identity, and several stone reliefs depicting
him have been found in eastern India, mostly in Bengal. These re¬
present him as a rider in company with male and female followers,
two-armed, booted, holding in his left hand the reins of the horse and
a drinking cup in his right hand; the artists even include among the
accessories a retriever dog. The late mediaeval Ghatnagar (Dinaj-

351

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

pur) basalt image of Revanta, however, does not follow the above
description in all its details, and presents the god in a novel manner.
The M&rkandeya Puruna144 says that Revanta was made the lord of
the Guhyakas by his father, and his special task was to deliver mor¬
tals in distress “amid the terrors of forests and other lonely places,
of great conflagrations, of enemies and robbers”; the Ghatnagar re¬
lief shows the god engaged in combat with a band of robbers who
were about to disturb the peaceful pursuits of the village people-145

5. Navagrahas

The worship of the Navagrahas was also of special importance
in times of danger, and they were duly propitiated by means of
grahayaga and svastyayana by different Hindu sectaries. So their
images were in great demand throughout India and they were usually
carved in a row on the lintel of the main sanctum of a Vaishnava
or a &aiva temple. The Siva temples of Bhu vanes vara (Orissa) bear
this feature- Sometimes these are also shown on the prabhti of
other cult divinities. Separate representations of these deities are,
however, very rare, and the presence of two of them, Chandra and
Rrihaspati, among the basement reliefs on the main mound at Pahar-
pur, are of great iconographic value.146 The Navagraha slab in the
collection of the Asutosh Museum, Calcutta University, is a very fine
sculpture; it shows the nine so-called planets: Ravi, Soma, Mangala,
Budha, Brihaspati, Sukra, £ani, Rahu, and Ketu, standing side by
side on lotus pedestals, holding their respective attributes in their
hands with Ganesa in the front of the row, and their respective Hn-
chchhanas carved below.147 The big Navagraha slab, which served
originally as the lintel piece of the Sun temple at Konarak (Orissa),
shows the deities as seated ones.

(G) THE PARSIS147a

Numerically, the Parsi Community forms an almost insignificant
element in the Indian population. But it deserves an honoured place
in Indian history, chiefly for two reasons. In the first place, it is the
only living remnant of Zoroastrianism,— a splendid culture and civi¬
lisation of ancient times, which has very nearly vanished from its
homeland, and is to be found almost exclusively in Western India
and the Bombay State. The importance of this point is further en¬
hanced by the fact that Zoroastrianism is closely associated with the
Vedic Culture of India to which detailed reference has been made
in Vol. I.148 Secondly, the Parsi Community has furnished quite a
large number of eminent men— leaders in politics, and captains of

352

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

trade, industry, and commerce — who have played a prominent role
in the making of modern India.

Though the Parsis have made India their homeland, they have,
like the Muslims, carefully preserved their separate entity. But
unlike the Muslims they have not increased their ranks by local con¬
version and have no association — ideological or spiritual — with any
community outside the boundaries of their adopted land.

The Iranians — as the Parsis were known in old days — must have
settled in India in small or large bands from time immemorial. But
they were thoroughly absorbed by the Indian population, and have
left no trace of their existence save in such elements of culture
which India might have borrowed from them. The present Parsi
Community, in India represents one or more of the last waves of
migration from Iran (Persia) after the conquest of the country by
the Muslim Arabs.

The Sasanid King of Iran, Yazdagird III, was first defeated at
Qadisiyya in A.D. 637 and his power was finally shattered in the
battle of Nehawand in A.D. 641. That the Muslim occupation of
their country, which followed this conquest, forced colonies of
Zoroastrian Iranians to seek refuge in India, admits of no doubt.
There is also a general agreement that the first batch of these emi¬
grants settled at a town called Sanjan, situated some 90 miles to
the north of Bombay- But considerable difference of opinion exists
about the date of their arrival.

A Persian poem, Qissa-i- Sanjan , composed by Bahman Kaykobad
Sanjana about the year A.D. 1600, recounts the tale of the wandering
of the band of Iranians who ultimately settled at Sanjan. The author
does not give any specific date, but mentions the duration of the stay
of the emigrants in different places, mostly in round numbers. It
would follow from this that the emigrants arrived at Diu in Kathia-
wad about A.D. 806, and after staying there for 19 years, settled at
Sanjan in A.D. 825. But most scholars refuse to take the poem as
historical and regard it as merely a figment of fancy.149

Dastur Aspandiarjl Kamdin, in a small book, published in A-D.
1826, gives a specific date, Samvat 772 (= A.D. 716), for the settle¬
ment of the Iranians at Sanjan. It is possible that he relied upon a
much older tradition. Unfortunately the details about month and
tithi , given along with the date, do not fit this year. Besides, the date
A.D. 716 seems to be too early, if we are to believe in the Iranian
tradition that the emigrants wandered for a considerable period in
Iran before leaving for India- Hodivala, who has considered the

353

A.I.K. — 23

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

whole question in great detail, suggests that the figure for the year
is really 992, and as 9 and 7 were written very much alike such a
confusion may be easily explained. The main support of his argu¬
ment is that the details of the date given fit in with the year 992. 150
So it would appear that Hodivala’s suggestion might be accepted and
the date of the first Pars! settlement in India (at San j an) may, there¬
fore, be provisionally fixed at Samvat 992 (— A D. 936).

The earliest positive date for the settlement of these Iranian
emigrants in India is furnished by two inscriptions found in Kanheri
caves.151 These record the names of two parties of Iranian tourists
who had visited the caves, and like many modern visitors, chiselled
their names on the rocks. The first inscription gives the names of
seventeen men, and the second, of ten men, including four of the
first; and these are dated respectively in A.D. 999 and 1021. The
script as well as the language of both the inscriptions is Pahlavi and
the personal names are, without exception, purely Iranian. As the
Farsis in India freely adopted Hindu names, it has been argued that
the arrival of the Iranians in India could not have been very old
at the time the inscriptions were engraved. This in a way supports
the date A.D. 936 suggested above.

The Pars! tradition mentions that the ruler who gave permission
to the first emigrants to settle at San j an was named Jadi Rana.
According to the Qissa-i-S&njan, he belonged to the race of the ‘Shah-
rayas\ Neither the name nor the race is otherwise known. But here,
again, Hodivala152 suggests that the original word Shdhrdydn is a
misreading or mistake for Shilharayan, which denotes the Silaharas.
This is quite plausible. In that case we may also accept his other
suggestion that the king referred to was Vajjada-deva. Vajja^a
might easily become Jadi, and as the emigrants, fresh from Iran,
would not like to address their benefactor as ‘deva’, which had in
the Zoroastrian literature a meaning entirely the reverse of that
which it bears in Saqskrit, they added the epithet ‘Rand’.

The Silahara king Anantadeva made a grant to ‘Kharasan-
Mandalf in A.D. 1081. Hodivala suggests that this refers to the
Parsi Community.153 As the Pars! records always speak of the first
emigrants as having ‘‘come from Khorasan”, it is a reasonable pre¬
sumption that for some time after their arrival they were known
as “Khorasan-Mandair ’ .

Hardly anything is known of the Parsis in India during the period
under review. Their later history will be dealt with in a subsequent
volume.

354

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

H. GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY

1. The Bhdshyas

We have traced in the preceding volumes the rise of heterodox
religions which crystallised into Jainism and Buddhism, their deve¬
lopment as great and powerful sects challenging the supremacy of
the orthodox Brahmanical religion, their reaction upon the latter,
and the resulting contest between various schools in the arena of
philosophy. This battle of wits became acute between A.D, 600 and
A.D. 1000. As Winternitz remarks:154 “The second half of the seventh
and the first half of the eighth century A.D. was a period of lively
philosophical disputes. Kumarila, the great Mimaihsa philosopher
and representative of Brahmanical orthodoxy, attacked the Buddhist
and Jinistic logicians, including among the last-named the promi¬
nent teachers Samantabhadra and Aka lank a, whilst Prabhachandra
and Vidyananda defended their co-religionists against Kumarila.”

The intellectual war that was waged found expression not so
much in new writings as in exegeses on old ones. It was now the
period of bhashyas or expositions of the sutras. Less important
commentaries and expository summaries were also written and bore
the titles of vrittis t kdrikds, etc., besides the general name of tt?oa-155

2. Orthodox and Heterodox Schools

Much of the philosophical discussion turned on the two main
points at issue between the orthodox and heterodox schools. Hetero¬
doxy challenged the authority of the Vedas as a source of knowledge.

I But, asked orthodoxy, what was its own position? The word of
Buddha or of Mahavlra was regarded as infallible and sacrosanct.
But if the word of human teachers can be invested with such sanctity
and infallibility, the Vedas, which are not attributed to any human
authorship, must be regarded as a more authoritative source
of knowledge. In popular debates and in sober arguments, this point
was hammered into the minds of men with continued application
and vigour.

Not only in epistemology, but in ontology also, heterodoxy
had its weak points. Buddhism denied, in some form or other, a per¬
manent soul and a permanent world. If everything was momentary
as the Buddhists asserted, then what are we to deal with? And
if the soul was but a stream of consciousness, if there was no per¬
manent substance behind the changing states and processes of con¬
sciousness, whose salvation is philosophy to think of? And if, again,

355

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

no definite statement — no definite affirmation or denial — about
anything could be made, as the Jains said, then also how was a
philosophy possible at all? Again, the Buddhist theory of the im-
permanance of the soul and the theory of karma (action) and trans¬
migration conflicted with each other. If there was no soul that
endures, to whom does karma cling and who is it that migrates
from body to body and is bom again and again? Thus the affirma¬
tions and denials of heterodoxy both contained weak points; and
the battery of orthodox arguments continued to be directed against
them for centuries after Buddha.

That orthodoxy eventually overcame its enemy on these points
is a fact. But the heterodox thinkers developed a powerful logic —
an organon of thought and debate — which could not be brushed
aside. It was assimilated by those who opposed its discoverers.
The development of logic in orthodox schools was considerably in¬
fluenced by Jain and Buddhist writers on the subject.

It was not in logic alone that heterodoxy vanquished its victor.
In metaphysics, too, its gifts were very great and largely accepted
by its victor, though in a modified form. The Buddhist theory of
extreme idealism and the doctrine that all is ultimately a void
(sunya) influenced the philosophy of the great Vedantist, Sankara,
to such an extent that later critics of Sankara did not hesitate to
dub him as a ‘Buddhist in disguise’, even though he had criticised
the Buddhists in his commentary on the Vedanta-sutras.

Though the germs of the theory of karma and transmigration
can be traced as early as the Upanishads, its fuller development
owes a good deal to Jain-Buddhist thinkers. And a popular, though
somewhat fanciful, shape was given to it in the Jataka stories of
Buddha.

We cannot attempt an exhaustive catalogue of the many ways
in which the Jain and Buddhist thinkers have influenced the philo¬
sophy of the land. But there is one thing which ought to be em¬
phasised. Their ethics have considerably influenced — may we add,
and improved — the ethics of the orthodox fold- The doctrine of
ahirhsa or non-injury (non-violence) to the animal world is speci¬
fically a Jain-Buddhist doctrine though the Yoga system also accepts
it as one of the forbearances. They regarded pure life and pure
thought as a higher religion and morality than mere ablutions in
water or offerings in fire. The theory of the brotherhood of man
is another of their contributions. Monastic life received a new
valuation and new impetus at their hands.

856

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

But with all its great contributions, heterodox philosophy had
to own defeat by the end of the eighth century A.D. and, though
not yet a spent force, had to be satisfied henceforth with an inferior
place assigned to it.

3. Vedanta's Bid jor Supremacy

When heterodox philosophy was a power to reckon with, all
the orthodox philosophies had a common cause to fight for and they
were allies. But when heterodoxy began to sink beneath the sur¬
face and was ousted from learned societies, these allies began to
fall out among themselves. The differences between them were
not absent before; but they were overlooked and sidetracked in face
of a common enemy. When that enemy was crushed, these diffe¬
rences came to the forefront. The Sutras of Vedanta attempted to
refute every other system, either orthodox or heterodox, including
even such minor philosophies as the doctrines of the Pancharatra
school. Sahkhya- Yoga attacked Nyaya-Vaiseshika and vice versa .
The quarrel was mainly over the fundamentals of metaphysics.
The Sahkhya theory of unconscious prakriti was assailed and its
apparent or real godlessness received no less attention. On the
other hand, the Nyaya-Vaiseshika theory of atoms was equally
castigated. The Sahkhya believed in what was called satkdryavada
or the theory that the effect was latent in the cause and was only
a metamorphosis of it. The Nyaya opposed it with the theory that
the effect was something new (drambhavdda) , not present in the
cause. These disputes have been carried on till quite recent times.

While the different systems carried on their disputes in this
way, the Mimamsas made a bid for supremacy over all. They —
the two Mimamsas — had this advantage that they were more really
loyal to the Vedas than the other systems; and the Vedas had esta¬
blished their right to be heard. The loyalty of Sahkhya -Yoga and
Nyaya-Vaiseshika to the Vedas was after all a lip-loyalty; for they
did not squeeze their conclusions out of the Vedas. The Mimamsas,
both of them, on the other hand, were more thoroughly dependent
on the Vedas, drew all their inspiration from that source and did
not utter a line that was not supported by some text or other of the
Vedas. This was a great advantage, specially when the Vedas,
after the battle with heterodoxy, were again rehabilitated in popu¬
lar esteem. To this must be added the fact that able and famous
professors of these philosophies like Kumarila and Sankara toured
the whole country, from east to west and north to south, threw out
a general challenge to all scholars of rival schools to meet them in
open debate and either to vanquish them or own defeat and accept

357

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

their philosophy. Half historical and half mythical accounts of
these peregrinations have been preserved, and these tend to show
how the philosophies emanating from the Vedas eventually trium¬
phed over all other philosophies and conquered the whole country.
Of course, it was never a complete victory, for the rival systems of
thought are still alive. But the Mimamsas and their source, the Ve¬
das, had won a great position and an immense prestige in the thought
of the country.

Originally the two Mimamsas, as we have seen before, spoke
and preached like one philosophy and with one voice. But gradu¬
ally there was a split between them over an issue which was accen¬
tuated in the philosophy of Sankara. The Vedas speak of two
things — -action (karma) and meditation (jntina) — and accordingly
there are two distinguishable parts of the Vedas, The Upanishads
(or Vedanta, i-e. the concluding portion of the Vedas) speak of medi¬
tation more than anything else. The question arose: were the
works enjoined in the earlier part of the Vedas — the rites and cere¬
monies — necessary for all and at all times? Two extreme views
were advocated. One was that they could never be avoided; so long
as a man was in his body, Le. until death, the duties enjoined upon
a man according to his caste (varna) and the stage of life (airama)
in which he was, must continue to be performed. The other view
was that these duties were only hypothetically imperative, and were
indicated as means to an end. If a man wanted to live a life of
happiness here and of bliss hereafter, the works should be done.
But if one felt no interest in these things, if he rather desired salva¬
tion from all bondage (or moksha), these duties were not binding
on him. Such a man should renounce the world forthwith, cut off
all earthly bonds, give up all works, and live the life of contem¬
plation and of a hermit. There was also a third view according to
which it was only in the last two of the four asrarrms (stages of life),
that meditation could exclude works. The duties prescribed in the
Sastras, rightly performed, cleansed the soul and prepared it for
proper meditation and intimate illumination. The beauty of the
whole thing was that texts from the Vedas could be cited for each
one of the extreme views; and for the third also there were authori¬
tative sources. It was not really a philosophical question; but it
meant a difference and provoked a quarrel; and separated the Uttar a
Mimdm&d or Vedanta from its erstwhile ally, the Purva Mlrnamsd .

The Purva Mimamsd claimed that the essence of the Vedas was
directions for works. As the Upanishads did not contain such
directions (vidhis), or very few of them, they had only a secondary
importance and the philosophy based on them was of inferior value.

358

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

But the Vedanta in some of its forms brought the quarrel to a head
by professing a total disregard for the works of religion which the
Mlmamsa supported. The cleavage between the two is nowhere so
sharp as in the life and teachings of Sankara, the author of a cele¬
brated commentary (bhdshya) on the Vedanta-sutras.

4. The Philosophy of Sankara ; ( c . A.D. 788-820) 156

There are certain points on which all Vedantists must agree.
The theory of pramdina or source of knowledge is one of them. Then,
the apparent discrepancies in the texts of the Upanishads can and
must be reconciled; and after such synthesis they yield but one
philosophy, viz. that of Brahman as the Ultimate Reality. Regard¬
ing the evolution and dissolution of the world, too, there is little
difference among Vedantists. There is yet another point in which
they are at one. It is the superiority of the Vedanta as a philo¬
sophy as against all other philosophies. But regarding the sectarian
philosophies, such as that of Vaishnavism or Saivism, all Vedan¬
tists have not agreed. If a Vedantist belonged to some such sect,
as many of the later Vedantists did, then he would urge that
Vedanta was consonant with the philosophy and worship of this sect.
If a Vedantist did not belong to any sect, he would look upon a
sectarian philosophy as hostile to Vedanta and, therefore, as one
which must not be countenanced.

On points on which all Vedantists agree, Sankara has little
original to say. The most striking feature of his philosophy, how¬
ever, as he wrings it out of the sutras of Vedanta, is his extreme
monism which makes Brahman alone real and the self and the
world of things only an appearance, an illusion of the finite mind
in its state of ignorance. All that we see around us and all that
we feel, consist of such stuff as dreams are made 'of— a stupendous
Maya or Illusion. Brahman, the one Ultimate Reality, is only an
existence, without any qualities by which it could be described.
Brahman is pure consciousness; not a subject knowing an object,
for there is nothing other than Brahman of which Brahman could
be conscious. In our ordinary knowledge there is the relation bet¬
ween a subject that knows and an object that is known. In Brah¬
man’s consciousness, however, such a relation was not possible; for,
there was nothing that could be an object of thought to Brahman.
And the Maya , by which a world of things and selves was fabri¬
cated, was neither an existence nor a non-existence and was, there¬
fore, indescribable.

Sankara stands out as a notable milestone in the progress of
Vedantic thought. His style is easy and persuasive; but his per-

359

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sonality was more persuasive and imposing. We are told by tradi¬
tion and by his admiring biographers that he travelled through the
length and breadth of the country, met all kinds of philosophers
and pseudo-philosophers — even those who practised human sacri¬
fices — and vanquished them all in debate, and thus spread his
philosophy far and wide. He established sanctuaries in distant
parts of the country, and placed some of his ablest and most devoted
disciples in charge of them to propagate his philosophy from there.
From philosophy it grew into a missionary movement which has
not yet died. There are still well-known sanctuaries associated
with the name of Sankara which continued to be centres of Vedanta
culture.

In his travels, Sankara gained many disciples, sometimes direct¬
ly by persuasion, and sometimes indirectly by defeating rivals in
debate. One of the more famous of those disciples was Mandana
Misra,157 a staunch follower of the Purva Mlmamsa. Being defeated
in a debate, at which his wife presided as judge, he took to the
monastic life, assumed the new name of Suresvara and wrote on
the Vedanta on the same lines as Sankara. How far the many anec¬
dotes current about Sankara may be regarded as historical it is,
of course, difficult to say.

Sankara’s great claim to our recognition and to a permanent
place in history lies in the fact that he created an extraordinary
position for Vedanta. This is evident from the fact that he was
followed by a number of able and distinguished writers on Vedanta;
and gradually several different schools of Advaita Vedanta arose.
What is more important is that writers belonging to established
sects of religion, such as Vaishnavism and Saivism, began to utilise
the Vedanta as the philosophical basis and background of their res¬
pective creeds. This is done by a subtle identification of the god
of their creed with the Brahman of Vedanta. Thus a Vaishnava
like Ramanuja would say that Brahman is no other than Vishnu
of his worship. Some like Vallabha would go so far as to say that
Brahman is no other than Krishna of Vrindavana. And a 6aiva
like 6rlkantha would say that Brahman is identical with 6iva of his
worship, who is called by other names also, such as Pasupati, Rudra,
etc. The actual development of these schools, however, takes us
beyond A.D. 1000. The only notable commentator on the Brahma -
sutra , other than Sankara, falling within this period, is Bhaskara
who taught the Bhedabheda doctrine ( co-existence of distinction and
unitv in intimate relation with each other in Brahman) and severely
criticised the mairavada of Advaita Vedanta. The period also saw
the origin and development of the important philosophical School of

360

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Kashmir Saivism, known as the Trika system, which, in spite of
its theistic tendency, gradually leaned towards Advaitism.

1. Vol. Ill, Ch. XVIII— A.

la. Taranatha surveys the career of the religion in these words: There appeared
more than half of the eighty-four famous Buddhist Acharyas who had gained
the Siddhi, after the time of Dharmaklrti down to the time of king Chanaka.
At the time when the six jewels (Hiuen Tsang speaks of four luminaries, viz.
Asvaghosha, Aryadeva, Nagarjuna and Kumaralabdha, see Watters, I, p. 245;
Taranatha . perhaps added Asanga and Vasubandhu) stayed on earth, the
Mahayana Acharyas were very scholarly and apart from the fact that the
monks were excellent, the number of 6ravakayanists was much higher. Starting
from this time on, the teachings growing weaker and weaker went down in a
short time in the south, although in other countries it declined gradually.
During the time of the seven Palas, the religion was widely spread in Magadha,
Bengal, Odivisa and the other border countries and in Kashmir. In other
countries, except a few, it did not exist; in Nepal it was much spread. In
these countries the Mantrayana and Mahayana were much spread; there also
existed a great many Sravaka sects. See Schiefner, Geschichte des Buddhismus,
201-2.

2. Its Sanskrit version has also been discovered in Eastern Turkestan.

3. The parittds mentioned in the Milindapanha (150-51) are Ratanasutta, Khandha-
paritta, Moraparitta, Dhajaggaparitta, Atanatiyaparitta, and Ahgulimalaparitta.

4. Taranatha, 275.

5. Lalitavistara, 2; sarva-Bodhisattva-dhdrani-pratibhdna pratilabdhaih sarva
Bodhisattva-dhdrani-pratilabdhaih.

6. Sandhinirmochanasutra, 124; Sruta-dharani. Samddhiraja-sutra (p. 531) also
calls itself a Dhdrant.

7. Kdranftavyuha, ch. vii; Tais-ch-api Tathagatair-iyam dharanim bhdsitum -

drabdhah _ Omchale chule chule svdha.

8. Suvarnaprabhdsa-sutra, Chs. XI, XII.

9. Saddharmapundarika , 396, 477.

10. Gilgit Manuscripts by Dr. N. Dutt, I. 44.

11. Very likely Mani represents Prajnd , the producer of Tathagata, placed on
Padma, the Avalokitesvara, or Mani may mean Vajra, the Bodhichitta.

12. Guhyasamdja, 2.

13. Manjusrxmulakalpa, 508.

14. Ibid, 647-48.

15. See Avalon, Principles of T antra, 324.

16. There has been some controversy over the date of composition of the Manju -
srimulakalpa between Dr. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya and Prof. Wintemitz, the
former holding the opinion that the original form of this text was much shorter
and was composed about the second century A.D., while the latter Was inclined
to the view that its composition should be placed in the sixth or seventh cen¬
tury A.D. The Manjusrxmulakalpa in its present form must have been com¬
posed about the eighth century A.D., as it gives an account of king Gopala’s
accession to the throne but does not refer to the activities of Dharmapala or
Devapala. The word “Mahlpala” occurs in two stanzas. Some provincial
dialects as also some places in Bengal and Assam which became noted at a
later period as most suitable for secret yogic practices are also mentioned in
this text.

17. Guhyasamdja , 93-4. The Guhyasamdja is mentioned by Santideva (seventh
century A.D.) in his Sikshasamuchchaya, and by Indrabhuti in his Jhdnasiddhi.
It is listed as one of the texts of the Vajra School (Pali Vajiriyas) in the Nikaya
Samgraha, a Sinhalese work of the fourteenth century.

18. It is very likely that the Bengali artists called Pa^uyas still maintain the
traditions of the Manjusrimulakalpa.

19. Guhyasamdja, 93-4.

20. Ibid , 87-8.

21. Schiefner, 20.

22. See Guhyasamdja, Intro, xiii and Text, 120.

23. See Intro, xi and Text Ch. VII.

24. See e.g., his Intro, xi; “place it (the hand of 6akti) on the hand of the dis-

361

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

ciple” The hand here is not of the Sakti but of the Guru. See 161.

25. Guhyasamdja, Ch. VII.

Sarva-kdm-opabhogaisz=cha sevyamdnair—yathechchhatah
Anena khalu yogena laghu Buddhatvam-dpnuyat

This stanza should be read in the same light as the following stanza of
the Mddhyamika-Kdrika (Ch. XXV, 19).

Na samsdrasya nimdndt kim-chid—asti viseshanam
Na nirvdnasya samsdrat him- chid— asii viseshanam

In other words a Bodhisattva should try to realise that there is not the
slightest difference between nirvana and samsdra ( phenomenal world) as the
latter is only an imaginary superimposition on the former. This superimposi¬
tion appears only to the unwise and not to the fully enlightened, the Buddha.
The Guhyasamdja, on the basis of this identity of nirvana and samsdra, regards
the enjoyment of samsdra as not harmful so long as one does not distinguish
samsdra from the nirvana .

26. Guhyasamdja, 37.

27. Ibid, 6.

28. Ibid, 129.

29. Ibid, 137.

30. Sddhanamdld, II, Intro., xli.

31. Guhyasamdja, 2-3.

32. Ibid, 137.

33. See Indrabhuti, J fumasiddhi, Ch. II.

34. Vidyabhusana, Indian Logic, 321-22.

35. Tdrandtha, 275.

36. Mystic Tales of Lama Taranatha, 11.

37. There were more than one Darika, and the Darika initiated by Lui-Pa was
different from the Darika of Dohdkosha.

38. Cf. B. C. Sen, Some Hist. Aspects of the Ins. of Bengal, 201; Sircar, Set. Ins., 377:
Mandasor stone ins. of the time of Nara-varman (A.D. 404).

39. See Sddhanamdld , Intro, xlviii.

40. G.O.S. No. XLIV.

41. G.O.S. No. XLTV.

42. Sddhanamdld, 353.

43. See Sddhanamdld, II, Intro. 60.

44. This LUavajra should be distinguished from Lalitavajra’s disciple Lilavajra
(Taranatha, 191) who lived about the seventh or eighth century.

45. See above, p. 43f.

46. Cf. Manjusnmulakalpa, 631.

47. Cf. Pag-sam-jon-zang, 111.

48. Waddell, Buddhism of Tibet, 31.

49. Tativa-samyraha, (G.O.S. Nos. XXX, XXXI), 184.

50. This confirms the statement about the propagation of these texts occurring in
the Ashpisdhasrika (225).

51. His colophon to the commentary ( Aloka , 563-64, G.O.S.) corroborates the state¬
ment of TaranMha.

52. Tdrandtha, 232, 243.

53. Commentary on Sarvajnamitra’s Sragdhardstotra, 50.

54. Brihat-svayambhu-purana, 320-21.

55. Tsranatha, 229.

56. Taranatha, 211.

57. Cf. Ch. XII.

58. El, XXI. 97.

59. See p. 51.

60. See Waddell, op. c it., 33.

61. Tlranatha, 221.

62. The formula is *Ye dharmd hetu-prabhava hetum teshdrh tathdgato hyavadat,
teshdrh c ha yo nirodha evarh vddt rnahdsramaiiah* . It contains one of the prin¬
cipal maxims of Buddhism and is very frequently found engraved on different
parts of the mediaeval Buddha and Bodhisattva reliefs.

63. R. D. Banerji, EISMS, PI. XXIX (a); B. M. Barua, Bharhut. Ill, PI. XLVII.

64. Sddhanamdld, I, Nos. 3-5, pp. 18-25; H, PI. I.

65. For these crowned Buddhas, cf. R. D. Banerji, op. cit.. Pis. XVH (b). XXI (c).
XXXI (b) & (c), XXIII (b), XXIV (c), XXVI (d) etc.

N. G. Majumdar identified them as Adi-Buddha figures, VJLS. Annual Report

362

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

1926-27; but A. K. Coomaraswamy challenged this interpretation, JRAS, 1928,
837, PI. V, fig. 8.

66. See above, Vol. Ill, 393.

67. B. T. Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, 34, PI. XVIII a.

68. R. D. Banerji, op. cit ., PI. XXXTV, fig. (a); for the four and six-armed figures
of Lokesvara, cf. ibid, pis. XII (a) VIII (a) and (d). The four-armed types
in the collection of the Patna Museum hail from the interior of the Cuttack
district of Orissa.

69. DHI, 116, 370-71; the ashtanidhis are the concrete manifestations of the
Padrninl-vidya, of which Sri or Lakshml was the presiding deity.

70. The description of the Brahmanical goddess Tara as given in Brahmananda’s
Tdrarahasya and Krishnananda Agamavaglsa’s Tantrasdra exactly corresponds
to the above; B. T. Bhattacharyya, op. cit., 77.

71. B. T. Bhattacharyya, op. cit., 107, pi. XXXII (e).

72. These great fears as can be seen from this relief are majjana-bhaya, dasyu -
bhaya, simha-bhaya, sarpa-bhaya, agni-bhaya, yaksha-bhaya, bandhana-bhaya,
hasti-bhaya; these are depicted by miniature scenes in which the person in
danger in each case is shown praying to the miniature replica of the goddess
shown above.

73. B. T. Bhattacharyya, op. cit., 123-26; 129-30, pi. XXXVI b; Bhattasali, Icono¬
graphy of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, 45-53,
pi. XV-XVII.

74. Bhattacharyya, op. cit., 90-2, pi. XXX (a).

75. R. D. Banerji, EISMS, pi. XXXIX, (b).

76. E. B. Havell, Indian Sculpture and Painting, pi. XIV.

77. B. T. Bhattacharyya, op. cit., 97, pi. XXXI a.

78. For Bhattacharyya^ refutation of the view that Vajravarahl and Marlchl
were the two aspects of the same deity, cf. op. cit., 93-4.

79. AR. 313.

80. Cf. Farquhar, ORLI. 218,

81. Buhler, Indian sect of the Jainas, 77. List of the Gachchhas is given on pp.
78 f.

82. ORLI, 213.

83. AR. 272.

84. See above, pp. 101 if.

85. Above, pp. 19 ff; cf. also “Bappabhattisuricharita” in Prabhdvakacharita (SJS)
pp. 85 ft.

86. Cf. Jain, Jaina Siddhdnta Bhdskara, IX, No. 1, on Amoghavarsha.

' 87. See above, p. 15 ff.

-88. Cf. Vaidya, History of Medieval Hindu India, HI. 403; Sharma, Jainism and
Kamatak Culture, 25.

89. Sale tore, Medieval Jainism, 42 ff.

90 Fleet IA VI. 34.

91 ! Upadhye,* NIA, II. 132 f; Saletore, JBHS, VI. 10-33.

92. See above, p. 181.

93. Some writers have taken these Jinasenas to be identical. But the names of
their patrons and the different dates of composition prove them to be distinct
persons separated by years.

94. This and the following two paragraphs are based on Dr. Handiqui’s excellent
monograph, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture , especially Chs. 1, 6, 9, 10 and 13.

95. Cf. I A, Vlll. 106; Rice, Mysore and Coorg from inscriptions, 203.

96. I A, ,XI. 248.

97. Nahar, Jaina-lekha-samgraha, III. 164.

98. The writer is indebted to Dr. A. N. Upadhye and Prof. H. D. Velankar for
having gone through the section on Jainism and making a number of suggestions.

99. Vol. II, p. 420.

100. See pp. 28, 61, 89, 122, 138, 146, etc.

101. There are other names also such as Shatfardha-sastra.

102. According to Rdjatarangini Bhat^a Kalla$a, a pupil of Vasugupta, was a con¬
temporary of Avantivarman who ruled from A.D. 855 to 883.

103. Abhina vagupta ’s Paramdrthasara , w. 12-13; cf. JRAS, 1910. 723.

104. Ibid, 728.

105. Cf. Sarva-darsana-samgraha of Madhavacharya. Tr. by Cowell and Gough,
p. 136.

106. Paramdrthasdra, w. 51-52; JRAS, 1910. 734.

368

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

107. For the philosophy of &ankara, see below, section H. 4.

108. Vol. Ill, p. 435.

109. HBR , I. 436.

110. For such south Indian icons, cf. Rao, op. cit., II. 273-92 & Pis.

111. These are described and illustrated by Rao, EHI, II. 108 kinds of dances
carved on either side of a gopura in the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram cor¬
respond with 108 modes of dance as described in the Bharata-Ndtyasdstra. A
book named Tdndavalakshanam , published some years ago, contains a full
idea about them.

112. Rao, op. cit., II. 229.

113. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Dance of £iva. Rao, op. cit, II. 231-52,

114. HBR, I. 443-44; N. K. Bhattasali, Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical
Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, 112-13, pi. XLII. 2.

115. E. B. Havell, Indian Sculpture and Painting, 49-52, pi. XXII.

116. R. D. Banerji, ASI, 1911-12.

117. J1SOA, XVIII. 54 ff.

118. Rao, op. cit., II. 181-82, pi. XLIII.

119. N. K. Bhattasali, op. cit., 118-20, pi. XLVII (a). HBR, I. 447.

120. For an elaborate description of the Kankala- and Bhikshatana-murtis of Siva
cf. Rao, op. cit., II. 295-309, and pis.

121. For these types of images refer to Rao, op. cit., I. Introduction, 44 pi. E.

122. See above, Vol. III. pp. 328 ff, 428 ff.

123. JISOA , I. 99-100, 103, pi. XXX.

124. For this ideology and the description of the image, see Rao, op. cit., I. 248-49.
Krishna Sastri who reproduces the Conjeevarajn relief, is wrong in his des¬
cription of this figure as Agni; South Indian Gods and Goddesses, 242-3,
fig. 147.

125. Rao, op: cit., I. 251-56, & pi. LXXII, fig. 2 and pi. LXX1H. Dattatreya concept
of the god refers indirectly to a conscious attempt of harmonising the different
cults.

126. HBR , I. 437, pi. Ill, fig. 12.

127. Van Guliq in his monograph on ‘Hayagrlva’ shows the migration of this divi¬
nity outside India.

128. For two interesting east Indian reliefs illustrative of this god, cf. HBR, I. 438,
pis. V, 14 and 15.

129. Is a clue to this peculiar cognizance to be found in the Satapatha Brdhmana
passages (XII. 7.1.3 and 14; XII. 7.2.3 and 7) which closely associate rams
and ewes with Sarasvati? N. K. Bhattasali refers to ram-fight and ram-sacri¬
fice in Bengal on the occasion of the Sarasvati-piija — Cat., 188-190, pi. LXHI.

129a. CII , HI. 74.

129b. R. C. Majumdar, Inscriptions of Kambuja, pp. 362 ff.

130. See above, Vol. Ill, 441 ff.

131. The nine Durgas are sometimes named, Ugrachanda, Rudrachanda, Prachanda,
Chandogra, Chandanayika, Chanda, Chandavati, Chandarupa, arid Atichandika.
In the Devikavacha of the Devxmahatmya their names are Sailaputri, Brahma-
char ini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, KatyayanI Kfilaratri, MahS-
gaurl and Siddhidatri.

132. For these two Devi icons, cf. HBR, I. 453-54, pis. XIII, 35 and I, 5.

133. The Rupamandana verse reads, — Akshasutram Sivam devam ganddhyaksham
kamandalum, Pakshadvaye ’gnikunde cha murtissa Pdrvatx smrita. Rao, op. cit.,
I, pi. CVI1I (fig. 1). App. C., Praiimdlakshanam, p. 120.

134. N. K. Bhattasali, Icon. Dacca Museum, 202-3, pi. LXIX. HBR, I. 451. pi. LXXVTI:
180.

135 . HBR, I. 452, pi. VI. 19.

136. HBR, I. 455, PI. XTV. 36. Several other figures of Dantura have been found
in north Bengal.

137. See Vol. HI, 444 f.

138. ASI, 1934-35, pi. XXIV (a).

139. Bhattasali, op. cit. 146-47, pi. LVT (b).

140. Rao, Iconography, 53-5, PI. XI (fig. 2) & PI. XII.

141. For the Ellora and Tirupparankunram reliefs of Karttikeya, cf. Rao. oo cit

I. 445, 448, PI. CXXIV & CXXIX. '

142. These differences have been enumerated by T.A.G. Rao, op. cit., I. 311-12.
Several South Indian Surya figures of late mediaeval period are illustrated by

364

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

him in Plates LXXXVII— LXXVIH, XCI, XCII & XCIV etc. of the same
volume.

143. Sdraddtilaka-tantra, patella xiv. For the Chidambaram relief, cf. H. Krishna
Sastri, South Indian Gods and Goddesses, p. 236, fig. 144; for the Surya-
Narayana images cf. I A, 1918, 136 ff.; for the Marttanda-Bhairava relief now
in the Rajshahi Museum, cf. VRS — Rep, 1929-30, 9-10, fig. 2.

144. Markandeya Purdna, CVHI, vv. 22-3.

145. VJRS-Rep., 1927-28, 1, fig. 2. HER, I. 459, pi. XVI. 42.

146. S. K. Saraswati, Early Sculpture of Bengal, 65-7, fig. 17; MASI, No. 55, 53-4,
pi. XXX (b) and (c); Dikshit’s identification of these two reliefs as Siva and
Brahma is unacceptable.

147. HER, I. 459, pi. XVII. 43.

147a. General references.

S. H. Hodivala, Studies in Parsi History . Bombay, 1920.

I. J. S. Taraporewala, The Exact Date of the Arrival of the Parsis in India

( Kane Festschrift, pp. 506-514).

148. Ch. XI: “Indo-Iranian Relations”.

149. Hodivala, Studies in Parsi History, 1-36.

150. Ibid, 70 ff.

151. The inscriptions have been translated in the Zarathoshti Abhydsa, HI. 160;
TV 212

152. Op. tit', 74 ff.

153. Parsi Prakdsa, X. 80.

154. HIL, II. 478.

155. Some writers of the period are: —

Buddhism: Santarakshita, Kamalaslla, Dharmottara.

Jainism: Akalanka, Vidyananda, Manikyanandl, Prabhachandra.

Nyaya-Vaiseshika: Vachaspati, Jayanta, Udayana, and Srldhara.

Sankhya: Probably the Sutras themselves were finally redacted during this
period. Gaudapada, the commentator of Sankhya-Karika, belongs to this
period.

Yoga: Vachaspati, who wrote on other systems also.

MImarhsa: Mandanamisra. Parthasarathi, according to Dr. S. N. Das Gupta,
flourished during this period.

Vedanta: Sankara, Suresvara (see footnote 157 below), Padmapada, Ananda-
giri, Sarvajnatmamuni, Bhaskara.

156. For various views about the date of Sankaracharya placing him between sixth
and ninth century AX)., cf. GIL, III, 434, fn. 1. An inscription in Cambodia
mentions the very interesting fact that Sivasoma, the guru of king Indra-varman,
was a disciple of Bhagavan Sankara who is presumably no other than Sankara-
charya. As king Indra-varman ascended the throne in Saka 799, Sankara-
charya cannot be placed much earlier than the beginning of the ninth century
AX). Attention to this passage was drawn many years ago by Dr. R. C.
Majumdar in a short note in Indian Review (Madras) and also by Prof.
K. A. N. Sastri in JOR, XI. 285. But it has not yet received much attention
from students of Indian Philosophy. The question has been recently discussed
by Pandit B. Upadhyaya in his Hindi work entitled "Sri Sahkardcharya”
(Ch. IV) (Hindustani Academy, Allahabad, 1950). But his arguments against
the evidence of the Kambuja Ins. are unconvincing.

157. Among the disciples of Sankara the most prominent are Suresvara, the author
of the famous Vdrttika, and the Naishkarmyasiddhi; and Padmapada, the
author of the Panchapadika which has been commented upon by Prakasatman
about A.D. 1200.

Scholars hold different views regarding the identity of Suresvara and
Manqlana.

365

CHAPTER XII

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

L EDUCATION
1. Courses of Study

The old Smritis are completely silent about the methods and
processes of primary education. But the later Smriti authorities
introduce us to a new sacrament, significantly called vidyarambha
(commencement of education), and alternatively aksharasvtkriti or
akshardbhydsa (training in the alphabet). According to them the
initiation is to take place in the boy’s fifth year, or at any rate
before his investiture with the sacred thread. On an auspicious
day, during the prescribed season, various deities and sages are
to be worshipped to the accompaniment of offerings to the sacred
fire, and honour shown to Brahmanas. Then the teacher, seated
facing the boy, is to give him his first lesson. According to an un¬
named Smriti authority the curriculum is to consist of a primer
( mdtrikanyasa ) and arithmetic ( ganita ).1

The ancient Brahmanical sacred law laid down a comprehen¬
sive scheme of Vedic education for students belonging to the first
three classes of the Hindu social system. This is supplemented and
modified in some important points by the later Smriti authorities
who, however, often differ from one another. Thus as regards
periods of study, perpetual studenthood is included by Ndradiya
Pur ana2 and long-term studentship by Aditya Purdna 3 among prac¬
tices to be eschewed in the Kali Age. On the other hand Medha-
tithi,4 following the authority of Manu,5 recognises two kinds of
religious students, viz. the life-long student (naishphika) , and the
student who offers some return to his teacher at the end of his train¬
ing term (upakiCrvana) .

As for the courses of study, it is strange to find the metrical
Vasishtha~, Ktitydyana-, and the Laugdkshi- Smritis6 strongly con¬
demning the study of a Vedic recension other than one's own. This
is quite unlike the catholic attitude of Medhatithi who requires7
the pupil to study three, two, or one recensions of each of the three
Vedas instead of an equal number of recensions of one single Veda.
In the same context Medhatithi asks the student to undertake, in
the interval between the end of his training-term and his marriage,

366

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

a course of study in grammar and the like for helping him to under¬
stand the meaning of the Vedas. Turning to another point, we find
Parasara, Vyasa, and Laghu-Vyasa8 insisting upon the comprehen¬
sion of meaning of the Veda in place of mere reading of the text.
Medhatithi,9 however, argues that the comprehension of meaning
follows naturally after hearing the text.

The Smriti authorities of this period, unlike those of the Gupta
and preceding ages, seldom refer to technical education.10 We
have a concrete account of the training of a young merchant in the
Bhdvisayattakahd f a tenth-century Jain prose romance, but it is too
exaggerated to be of much practical value. We leam from it, how¬
ever, that young merchants of rich families used to be sent for resi¬
dence at the teacher’s house, and that not merely intellectual train¬
ing but also the development of character was aimed at by the
teacher.11 We may refer likewise to Medhatithi’s vivid and obvious¬
ly authentic account12 of the high technical equipment expected from
a Vaisya, the rudiments of which at least must have been acquired
in boyhood from a master of the craft.13

Medhatithi14 recommends the Vedic student, even after mar¬
riage, to go abroad for acquiring further proficiency in sciences
(sdstra). The value of foreign travel as a means of general edu^
cation is indicated by an expressive simile in Kuttanimatam.15 Here
it is averred that those who do not learn the dress, manners, and
speech of other lands are like oxen without horns.

2. Student Life

Medhatithi insists upon the strict enforcement of the old Smriti
law requiring a Vedic student to beg daily for his alms. The student,
he says,16 must not beg alms one day and live by them next day
after mixing the same with butter and so forth; on the contrary, he
is to beg for alms and partake of them the same day. For the period
intervening between the end of his studentship-term and his
marriage, the student, according to him,17 shall continue to observe
the vow of continence, though he need not observe other vows about
abstaining from honey, meat, and so forth. A curious rule in the
palak&pyasamhitd 18 which recalls the Smriti law relating to inter¬
marriage between the varnas, requires the Brahmana to teach three,
the Kshatriya two, and the Vaisya one varna, but forbids teaching
even a virtuous Sudra. A text of Yama19 and Kurma Purdna20 con¬
demn a teacher putting off instruction to a pupil who has lived with
him for a year. As to the relations between the Vedic teacher and
his pupil, the teacher’s duty of using persuasion in the first instance

867

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

and of applying the rod only in a mild form and in the last resort is
inculcated by Medhatithi.21 On the admissibility of receiving fees
from pupils the Smriti authorities of this period are sharply divided
in their views. Following the authority of Manu and Yajnavalkya,
Vartiha Pur ana22 includes the Brahmana teaching for a stipulated fee
(bhritakadhyapaka) among those who must not be invited at a fune¬
ral repast. On the other hand, Matsya Purdna 23 clearly sanctions
the acceptance of a fee from a pupil beforehand by his teacher, for
it says that one who does not teach a science ( vidyd ) or a craft
{ silpa ) after taking a fee (mulya) shall be fined the whole of this
sum by a just king. Medhatithi carefully distinguishes between the
cases where teaching for a fee is allowable and those where it is not
permitted. According to his view24 teaching in return for a fee is
blameworthy only when the payment is made a condition precedent
for the teaching, while receiving instruction from a paid teacher is
to be condemned only when the fee is paid by the student himself.25
Elsewhere26 Medhatithi declares that the conferring of some benefit
upon the teacher by the pupil, prior to his return home after finish¬
ing his course of study (samdvartana) , is not precluded by the text
of Manu 27

As regards the service to be done by the Vedic pupil, Medha¬
tithi28 gives in different places examples of the kinds of household
work to be performed by him as well as those forbidden to him.29

3. Female Education

Long before the present period the Smritis had denied the right
or privilege of Vedic study to women. By progressively sanctioning
early marriage of girls, they further destroyed the chances of higher
education of women. How backward was the state of higher studies
among girls in general during the present age is proved by the signi¬
ficant omission of all references to women teachers in the contem¬
porary lexicographical works, and still more by the testimony of
Medhatithi30 to the general ignorance of the Sanskrit language among
women. Nevertheless we have reasons to believe that women, in¬
cluding those not belonging to the higher classes, had some opportu¬
nities, as in the preceding Age, for liberal education as well as train¬
ing in the fine arts. Rajasekhara31 refers, in justification of women’s
competence in poetical skill, to examples of princesses, of daughters
of high officials ( mahdmdtra)1 of courtezans, and of concubines, who
were poetesses as well as adepts in sciences ( sdstra ) 9 In Avanti-
sundarl, the accomplished wife of Rajasekhara, we have a striking
illustration of a lady deeply learned in Sanskrit lore.33 The dramas
and prose romances of this Age also illustrate the contemporary state

868

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

of learning among women. In the plays of Rajasekhara,33a we find
that court-ladies and even the queen’s maids-in-waiting are capable
of composing excellent Sanskrit and Prakrit verses. Again, we have
a number of stories pointing to the skill of princesses in the fine
arts, specially those of painting, music and versification.34

4. Some Educational Centres and Establishments

In Vikramasila monastery, referred to above, we have an out¬
standing example of an advanced centre of learning like Nalanda and
Valabhi in the seventh century A.D. We have also sufficient evidence
to prove that there existed at this Age organised educational institu¬
tions which were founded and maintained by the people from the
king down to humble individuals. To begin with Northern India,
king Avantiyarman of Kashmir (A.D. 855/6-883) appointed a certain
well-known r teacher to expound grammar in a Vaishnava temple
.founded by himself, while another ruler Yasaskara (A.D. 939-948)
founded a hostelry ( matha ) for the residence of students hailing from
Aryadesa for education.35 Turning to Western India, we find a
village-chief ( grdmapati ) in A.EL 945 granting lands to a community
of scholars ( vidydrthisamgha ) and a dwelling house to the teacher
of a school (said) which had been founded by a minister of the
Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. It was further agreed that the Brah-
manas of this village were to contribute to the same scholarly body
sums at stipulated rates on occasions of tonsure, investiture with the
sacred thread and marriage, while the Parishat was to feast the same
body whenever a feast was given to Brahmanas. The school was
afterwards rebuilt by another chief.36 In South India the documents
as usual are fuller than those of any other part of the country. A
college -(vidyasthdna) at Bahugrama (modem Bahur near Pondi¬
cherry) received an endowment of three villages from the Chief
Minister of the Ganga-Pallava king Vijaya-Nripatungavarman. At
the time of the grant it was being continued by the residents of the
village and it provided for the teaching of fourteen branches^of
learning.37 At Kanchlpuram there lay to the east of Rajasimhes-
vara temple a college (kalluri) which is referred to in an inscrip¬
tion of Rajendra Chola I.38

II. SOCIAL LIFE

1. Social Divisions and Sub-divisions

The old spirit of caste segregation is reflected in a passage of
Medhatithi39 which requires the dead bodies of Sudras, Vaisyas,
Kshatriyas, and Brahmanas to be carried out of the city by the

369

A.I.K. — 24

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

south, west, north, and east gates respectively. As regards Brah-
manical privileges, Matsya Purdna prescribes for a Brahmana
guilty of serious offences, banishment and branding with distinctive
signs instead of the death penalty. Going a step further Medha-
tithi41 forbids not only corporal punishment, but even a money-
fine, to be inflicted upon a guilty Brahmana. From this he draws
the corollary that if a Brahmana of learning, good conduct, and
noble birth casually commits a crime, he should not be punished
even with a fine for the first offence. Like Brihaspati and Katya-
yana before their time, Sumantu42 forbids slaying of an dtatayi
(desperado) in the case of his being a Brahmana, while an un-named
Smriti authority43 includes the killing of dtatayi Brahmanas in
righteous warfare among forbidden acts. Finally Skanda Purdna,44
developing a line of thought in Manu45 observes that he who makes
a gift in a straightforward fashion, without scrutiny (into the quali¬
ties of the Brahmana donee), satisfies the manes as well as the gods.
While thus following the older precedent relating to Brahmanical
immunities and privileges, the Smritis of this period equally pursue
the older tradition in condemning Brahmanas of particular types.
Like Manu and Yajhavalkya, Vardha Purdna46 gives long lists of
Brahmanas wdio, because of their physical appearance or occupa¬
tion or conduct, must not be invited to a funeral repast. Among
these is the devalaka (defined as a Brahmana worshipping a deity
for money for three years) who, according to an un-named Smriti
authority,47 is so impure that a man touching him must purify him¬
self by bathing with his clothes on. A list of six classes of Brah¬
manas who, though born as such, are not Brahmanas at all, occurs in
Sdtdtapa quoted by Apararka.48 The Brahmanas, again were de¬
graded by residence in various foreign lands. As Matsya Purdna 49
says, Brahmanas living in the mlechchha countries of Trisahku,
Barbara, G$ra (Orissa), Andhra (Telugu country), Takka (Punjab),
Dravida (Tamil country), and Konkana must not be invited to a
funeral repast. What is more singular still, some Smriti authorities
of this period do not exempt the dtatayi Brahmana from being execut¬
ed. Thus Vriddha-Hdrita and Matsya Purdna repeat Manu’s famous
text50 condoning, if not enjoining, the killing even of a learned
Brahmana who is an dtatayi. More radical is the view of Visva-
rupa6 1 who allows immunity not only to the slayer of an dtatayi
Brahmana, but also to one who has killed a Brahmana in battle, and
one who has done so for money at the instigation of another.

We now turn to the class of 6udras who stand at the other end
of the social scale. The later Smritis follow and even surpass their
predecessors in emphasising the social and religious disabilities of
this class. Thus, according to a text of Pa rasa r a, 5 2 eating a gudra’s

870

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

food, association with a Sudra, sitting on the same seat with a
Sudra, and taking lessons from a Sudra are acts dragging down even
a ‘blazing’ person. An un-named* Smriti63 includes a Sudra’s cook¬
ing of food for Brahmanas and the like in the list of practices
forbidden by the consensus of virtuous men at the beginning of
the Kali Age. A new departure is marked by a few texts which
go to the length of declaring the touch or even sight of a Sudra
to be an act of pollution. Thus, according to an un-named Smriti,64
a twice-born man, on seeing a Sudra, must stop performance of his
rite, while one touching him must take a bath. According to
Gargya, a twice-born man, on touching a Sudra or a Nisbada, must
purify himself by ceremonial sipping of water.64a With these rules
may be contrasted the texts of the ancient Grihya-sutras and Dharma-
sutras which, by requiring the feet of Brahmana and other guests
to be washed by Sudras, do not at least contemplate the Sudra to be
an untouchable.65 The old Smriti ban on Vedic teaching to Sudras
is repeated during this period by Laghu- Vyasa 6 6 who forbids the
Veda to be taught in the vicinity of Sudras. Similarly according to
K&sikhanda,67 a Brahmana must not let a Sudra hear a Vedic mantra.

We may now turn to the views of Medhatithi which are suffi¬
ciently important and distinctive to be considered separately. Thus,
as regards the Sudra’s social status, Medhatithi68 observes that
Manu’s text, inculcating the Sudra’s divinely ordained duty of servi¬
tude and his incapacity for emancipation, is a pure declaration
(arthavada) , since another text of Manu declares the Sudra eligible
to release from servitude under special circumstances. Slavery, con¬
tinues Medhatithi,59 instead of being innate in the Sudra, is voluntary
with him, for he acquiesces in it only with a view to acquiring merit
and, even then, he cannot be given away or pledged, unlike a bought
or house-born slave. In fact, concludes Medhatithi, a Sudra does
nothing wrong if, being in possession of wealth, he lives without
dependence upon a Brahmana. This discussion clearly shows that
Medhatithi recognises the Sudra’s absolute right to personal freedom.
What is more, Medhatithi60 explains Manu’s term gudrasishya (pujpil
of a Sudra) to mean that Sudras were sometimes teachers of gram¬
mar and other sciences. Dealing with the Sudra’s religious rights,
Medhatithi, in the fashion of the Makdbhdrata ,61 excludes the Sudras
from stages of life other than that of the householder. As he obser¬
ves,62 the Sudra, by serving Brahmanas and living as a householder,
attains through service of Brahmanas the fruit of all dsramas except
salvation, which is the fruit of the fourth dsrama alone. As a house¬
holder the Sudra is not entitled to perform Smdrta rites of marriage,

371

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

but he is not prohibited from uttering the name of a deity according
to the views of revered teachers.63 Again, according to Medhatithi,64
while Srauta rites are not open to a Sudra, because of his ineligi¬
bility for initiation, there is no prohibition against his performing
those that are prescribed for all in the Smritis. Referring to
Manu, who censures a Brahmana for performing the Agnihotra
rite with money obtained from a Sudra, Medhatithi65 observes that
this does not apply to cases of compulsory rites already under¬
taken, and that it applies in fact only to the Fire-laying ceremony
(agnyadheya) mentioned in the text. Similarly Visvarupa66 ob¬
serves that; the naming ceremony and other sacraments are to be
performed for Sudras, but without mantras. In short, the Sudra,
according to Medhatithi, has limited duties corresponding to his
limited rights. As he observes,67 the Sudra incurs sin only if he
commits acts that are expressly prohibited to him; the Sudra is not
entitled to initiation and similar sacraments, and he incurs no sin
for failure to bathe and fast and worship the deities.

The Smriti authors of this period deal also with various ethnic
and professional groups known to the Brahmanical sacred law from
ancient times as mixed castes. According to Medhatithi68 sons
of twice-born classes, born out of women of lower varnas other
than Sudras, are entitled to the ceremony of initiation, and thence
to all the privileges of a twice-born man. Among individual caste-
groups the Ambashthas are declared by Usanas and Vaikhdnasa -
Smartasutra, after Manu,69 to be descended from the union of
Brahmana males with Vaisya females, and to have various occupa¬
tions including agriculture and perhaps surgery. The Ambashthas
are definitely included among Sudra castes in Brihaddharma Purdna.10
Usanas71 mentions a similar caste-group called Bhishak, which is sup¬
posed to be the offspring of Brahmana males and Kshatriya females,
and to be occupied with the study of medicine, astronomy, astrology,
and mathematics. The caste of Karana, derived in the older
Smritis72 from the union of Vaisya males with Sudra women or in
similar ways, is included among Sudra castes in the Brihaddharma
Purdna passage just cited. Again, the term Kayastha, signifying a
royal official in the earlier Smritis, inscriptions, and general litera¬
ture,73 occurs in V edavydsa-Smriti14 in a list of Sudra castes. The
largest number of texts deals, naturally enough, with Chandalas
known to the Smriti law from early times as occupying the lowest
rank in the order of mixed castes. Reproducing the provisions of
the older law, Agni Purdna 76 declares that Chandalas shall be
employed for the execution of criminals, they shall wear the clothes
of the dead, while they must live outside the village and must not
touch others. Medhatithi76 assigns to Sopakas (supposed to be

372

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

born of Chandalas by Pukkasa women) the tasks of executing crimi¬
nals, of carrying away unclaimed corpses and taking their clothes,
of eating cakes offered to the dead and the like. Like the earlier
Smriti law, that of the present age lays down strict rules for pre¬
venting the pollution of other classes by the touch of Chandalas.77
Medhatithi, again, gives examples of the distinctive signs78 that
should be borne by Chandalas when going about their business.
Elsewhere79 Medhatithi extends the rule about untouchability of
Chandalas to other pratiloma castes such as the Suta, the Magadha,
and the Ayogava. A new question taken up for discussion by the
Smritis of this age, and testifying to an intensified spirit of caste
exclusiveness, relates to the impurity of the Chandala’s shadow
On the one hand Atri, Angiras, Satatapa, and Ausanasa-Smriti80 go
to the length of prescribing purification by bath for crossing a
Chandala’s shadow, while Vyaghrapada and Brihaspati80a would have
the Chandala kept beyond a prescribed distance. On the other
hand, £ivadharmottara8 1 says that the shadow of Chandalas or out-
castes does not pollute a man. It is to the credit of Medhatithi82
that he sides with the latter group of Smritis in declaring that the
Chandala’s shadow cannot pollute the others.

In the Smritis of this period we also catch reflections of the
Brahmanical view relating to social intercourse with various hete¬
rodox sects. It appears that not only the touch but even the
sight of these sects was regarded by some authorities as involving
pollution. Thus Brahmanda Purdna83 enjoins that one should bathe
with his clothes on after touching Saivas, Pasupatas, Lokayatikas,
and others. According to a similar text of Shattrimsanmata8A one
should do the same if he touches Bauddhas, Pasupatas, Laukayatikas
and others. Vriddha-Harita85 enjoins purification by bath on touch¬
ing Saivas and on entering a Saiva or a Buddhist temple. An un¬
named Smriti86 lays down that one should look at the Sun for puri¬
fication on seeing Jains, Pasupatas, Bauddhas, Kaulas and so forth,
and should purify himself by bath on touching them.

Such are the scattered references found in the Smriti law of
this period to the divisions and sub-divisions of the Hindu social
system. In the contemporary historical records we have some
evidence of the extent to which this law was observed in actual
practice.87 In so far as the Brahmanas are concerned, the inscrip¬
tions of this period repeatedly describe the Brahmana donees of
land as being devoted to the study of the Vedas and engaged in the
performance of their religious rites. And yet it is remarkable that
Brahmanas occasionally followed occupations permitted only in
times of distress or even positively degrading according to the

373

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Smriti law.88 Like the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas sometimes
followed occupations not allowed to them ordinarily.89 Other
records introduce us to the various sub-divisions among the four
fundamental castes. Thus as regards the Brahmanas, the Niagara
(or Sapadalaksha) section of them has been traced with the help of
inscriptions to the kingdom of the Maitrakas of Valabhi.90 Refer-
rences to various sub-divisions of the mercantile castes have been
found in the inscriptions as well as general literature of this period.9^

Among the mixed castes, certain inscriptions of the latter half
of the eighth century, belonging to the Pandya kingdom, refer to
members of a Vaidya lineage ( vaidyakula ) occupying high offices of
State.92 Again, we find in inscriptions and literary works of the
sixth century and thereafter, occasional references to individuals
of the Karan a caste who filled high governmental offices, though
the alternative sense of a scribe is not unknown down to later
times.93 Inscriptions and works of general literature from the
latter half of the ninth century onwards refer to a caste destined to
attain great importance in later times, viz. the caste of Kayasthas.94

As regards the foreign races that had settled in India in the
preceding centuries, the records of this period show that with the
exception of the Muslims they had been thoroughly assimilated with¬
in the Hindu social system. These races, to begin with, must have
adopted everywhere the indigenous language— we hear even of a
&aka poet Kapila composing a record of the Saindhavas of West
Kathiawad.95 Still more important is the fact, to be noted later,
that the inscriptions of this time have preserved for us a few exam¬
ples of Hunas and other chiefs being married into Brahmana families.

Compared with the abundant data of the pre-Gupta and Gupta
periods about slavery, we have very scanty information about this
institution in the present Age. The humane treatment of the slave
as well as of his wife and son is recommended by Medhatithi.96
In South India, under the Imperial Cholas, not only did the temples
acquire slaves by purchase, but poor people sometimes voluntarily
sold themselves into slavery to temples to escape starvation during,
times of famine.97 Finally we have a story in U pamitib hava-
prapanchakathd98 which shows that the aboriginal Bhillas traded
in slaves.

2. Marriage Rules

The Smyiti authorities of this period treat the older marriage
rules sometimes with considerable independence. As regards
inter-caste marriages, Medhatithi199 would make marriages of

874

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Brahmanas with Kshatriya and Vaisya women altogether excep¬
tional, while forbidding the marriage of a Brahmana with a Sudra
girl. Nciradiya Pitraria100 declares that marriages of twice-born
men with girls of other varnas are forbidden in the Kali Age. In
another context Medhatithi gives the general rule about the
status of sons born of inter-caste marriages. In the case of mar¬
riages in the natural ( anuloma ) order, we are told, the son takes
the caste of the mother, and in the case of marriages in the reverse
( prdtiloma ) order, he takes the caste of the father. Marriage with
the daughter of a maternal uncle is condemned both by Medhatithi
and Visvarupa.102 Among forms of marriage, the gandharva (mar¬
riage by mutual love), which was sanctioned by some old Smriti
authors and condemned by others, is definitely censured by Medha¬
tithi.103 In fact Medhatithi, following the authorities of the Gupta
Age, contemplates the girls to be given in marriage, as a general rule,
by their guardians.104 As regards the marriageable age of girls,
Medhatithi agrees with the views of the authorities of the preced¬
ing age. Girls, says he,10? should be given away in marriage when
they are eight or six years old and called nagnika. Again he says106
that the right time for giving away a girl in marriage is between
her eighth year and her attaining puberty. The relative ages of the
bridegroom and the bride laid down by Manu, says Medhatithi in
another context,107 must be taken not in a literal sense, but gene¬
rally to mean that one should marry a girl very much younger than
himself, such being the practice of cultured men.

When the guardian, for some reason or other, is unable to
bestow the girl before her marriageable age, she is allowed by the
old Smriti law to choose her own husband after waiting for a short
term. Referring to this rule Medhatithi 108 explains that a girl
should stay in her father’s house for three years after attaining
puberty (in her twelfth year), and then she may choose her husband
without fear of sin. In case the bridegroom dies after payment of the
nuptial fee, the girl, says Medhatithi,109 should be asked to choose
her own husband. In the same context110 Medhatithi lays down
appropriate rules for disposal of the fee according as the girl chooses
to marry a husband other than the younger brother of the dead
bridegroom, or else elects to remain a life-long celibate.

Medhatithi’s rule relating to the repudiation of a girl after her
betrothal reflects his view of the inviolability of the marriage
sacrament. According to him111 repudiation of a maiden suffering
from physical or mental defects, even after acceptance, is allowed
before the performance of the marriage. Writing in a prosaic
strain, he says in another context112 that while other commodities

375

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

can be returned even after ten days with mutual consent, this rule
of law does not apply to girls given away in marriage. Just as used
and worn-out clothes cannot be restored to the seller even within ten
days’ time, so a maiden who has been married cannot be abandoned.
Even when girls are given away for a fee, Medhatithi continues, they
may be treated like other commodities only before marriage, while
a girl who has been given away according to the approved forms
cannot be revoked at all. Concluding his argument, he observes
that Yajnavalkya’s rule,113 allowing a girl to be taken back for a
better bridegroom even after her betrothal, holds good before and
not after the seventh step (at the nuptial ceremony) is taken; V?hen
both parties have necessary qualifications, the betrothal cannot be
revoked even before marriage, while even a defective wife (other
than a non-virgin) cannot be abandoned after marriage.

As regards re-marriage of women, Agni Pur&na 1 1 4 repeats the
remarkable texts of Narada and Parasara permitting a woman to
take a second husband in the event of five calamities, viz . when
the husband is lost (i.e. unheard of), or is dead, or has adopted the
life of a recluse, or is impotent, or has become an outcaste. Likewise
Visvarupa115 seems to sanction remarriage of women, for he quotes
an authority permitting a father to give away his daughter, though
no longer a virgin. On the other hand, it is forbidden by Brahma
Purina and Medhatithi.1 16

As to the custom of niyoga, Visvarupa1 17 permits it in the cases
of a Sudra and a royal family without a successor. Medhatithi1 18
forbids the connection of a widow with another man for the sake
of her maintenance, or for progeny. But elsewhere119 he follows
the authoritative tradition in allowing niyoga to widows. What
is more, he amplifies the law of niyoga by saying120 that the elders
entitled to authorise the act are the mother-in-law, the father-in-law,
and other members of the husband’s family, but not those of the
wife’s own family. The process of authorisation, Medhatithi con¬
tinues, may be repeated in the event of a daughter or a blind or a
deaf son being born. The law of niyoga , he further observes,121
applies not only to a widow, but also to a woman whose husband is
impotent, and so forth.

The general literature also reflects the current ideas and prac¬
tices regarding marriage. AbhidhanaratnamdW22 contains the
words varshd and patimvara meaning a girl choosing her own hus¬
band, as also the words punarbhu and didhishu meaning a remarried
woman. We learn from a number of tales in Upamitibhava-
prapanchakathd that while love-marriages were known, they were

376

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

regularly solemnised only after approval of the girls’ guardians.
It appears, however, that marriages were often arranged by parents
or other guardians of the parties, sometimes even before the latter
were born. Sometimes girls, with the approval of their parents,
bhose their husbands at a svayamvara ceremony. No social obloquy
was attached to marriages between first cousins. But a woman took
it to be a grave misfortune to become a co-wife.123 The historical
records of this period tend to show that notwithstanding the ban of
the Smriti-iaw on this point, inter-marriages of Brahmanas with
Kshatriya women were still prevalent.1 23a

3. Law of Adultery

Medhatithi’s view124 of the law relating to adultery agrees
with the strict ideas of Gautama and Manu who would have the
guilty pair put to death with torture. He prescribes severe punish¬
ment even for those who have just begun to make approaches to
other men’s wives, while he lays down the death penalty for a non-
Brahmana committing adultery with a woman of the twice-born
caste, as well as for a man guilty of forcible connection with a
family-woman ( kulastri ) of lower caste whose husband is alive.
And yet it would appear from notices in the contemporary literature
that there were, as in former times, various classes of notoriously
frail women, while other women occasionally committed sin. The
evil reputation of women of the former type is illustrated by
AbhidhanaratnamaW25 which applies to the actor (nata) a synonym
(jayajiva) signifying his dependence upon the earnings of his
wife, as well as by Ratirahasya 126 which includes the wives of
dancers and singers (char ana) among those who are easily amenable
to seduction. Similarly Medhatithi127 mentions that the wives of
char anas, though not exactly prostitutes, admitted paramours into
their houses with the permission of their husbands. The list of
women who easily succumb to the seducer’s wiles is given in Rati~
rahasya and in Upamitibhavaprapanchdkathd ,128

The historical records support the Smriti law. In an inscrip¬
tion of A.D. 992, belonging to the reign of the Western Chalukya
king Ahavamalla,129 a list of penalties is laid down for various
offences according to which the adulterer is to be put to death,
while the adulteress shall suffer amputation of her nose. The
general application of the strict Smriti law in actual practice is
testified to by the Arab writer Abu Zaid, who says (c. A.D. 916)
that in the case of adultery both the man and the woman are put to
death, while the man alone is punished if the woman is found to
have been forced against her will.130

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

4, The Position of Women

In so far as the status of the wife is concerned, the Smriti autho¬
rities of the period, like their predecessors, emphasise the duty of
absolute obedience and devotion of wives to their husbands.
Medhatithi illustrates the wife’s duty of personal service towards
her husband by saying1 31 that she shall shampoo his feet and
render him such other service as befits a servant. But this is sub¬
ject to the all-important condition that the husband follows the
righteous path and is free from hatred as well as jealousy towards
his wife. For the husband, so runs Medhatithi’s memorable dictum,
has no dominion (prabhutva) over his wife. The husband and the
wife, says he in another connection,132 differ only in their bodies
but are entirely united in their functions. Equal right of the hus¬
band and the wife to seek legal remedy against each other in the
last resort is emphasised by Medhatithi. For he says133 that the
wife, very much persecuted by her husband, like the husband^yery
much troubled by his wife, has the remedy of appealing to the king
for decision of their disputes. Other passages deal with the wife’s
right to maintenance by her husband. According to a verse attri¬
buted to Manu and quoted by Medhatithi and Vijiianesvara134 the
virtuous wife must be maintained even by committing a hundred
bad acts. Similarly Daksha136 includes the wife in the list of those
whom one is bound to maintain. Even the wife’s fault does not
make her liable to abandonment or forfeiture of her possessions. As
Medhatithi says,136 the wife, even though guilty of grievous
sins, must not be turned out of the house. The punishment of con¬
fiscation prescribed by Manu for a wife hating her husband, Medha¬
tithi continues, is meant simply as a warning to bring her to her
senses, and it does not sanction the confiscation of all her belongings.
After this, it is not surprising that Medhatithi137 requires a husband,
when going abroad, to make provision for his wife. Indeed, according
to him, the husband must not journey abroad leaving his wife
behind except for the specific purposes mentioned by Manu. The
law on the subject of the wife’s maintenance is summed up by
Medhatithi in another context.138 Here he says that the faithful
wife must not be abandoned, even though she may be disagreeable
in look, or harsh in speech, and the like. On the other hand, the
unfaithful wife may be confined in a room when she has been guilty
of a single act of transgression, but if she repeats the offence, she is
to be abandoned. Referring to Yajnavalkya’s text139 allowing a
mere subsistence to an unfaithful wife, Medhatithi observes that it
applies when the husband is able and willing to maintain her, but
if he is not willing she may be abandoned. The wife, concludes

378

SOCIAL) CONDITIONS

Medhatithi, must be maintained even if she hates her husband, but
if she becomes an outcaste she may be abandoned.

As to the husband’s right of correcting his wife, Matsya Purina
repeats Menu’s injunction140 authorising the husband to beat his
erring wife (though not on the head or the back) with a rope or a
split bamboo. With more humanity Medhatithi141 takes Manu to
enjoin not the actual beating of the recalcitrant wife, but only a
method of putting her on the right path. From this he draws the
corollary that verbal chastisement is also to be inflicted on the wife,
while beating may be occasionally resorted to, according to . the
gravity of the offence. Going a step further Visvarupa142 says that
the guarding of wives consists in being really devoted to them and
not in beating them, and he quotes in this connection a saying of
those acquainted with worldly ways about the delicacy of Pahchala
women. That the imposition of money-fine was also one of the
methods of correction open to the husband is apparent form Medha¬
tithi.143 Here we read that the husband, being lord (prahhu) of
the wife,144 may inflict the prescribed fine (of six krishnalas) upon
the Kshatriya or other wife, and a heavier fine upon a Brahmana
wife, for drinking wine or for visiting shows, when forbidden to do
so. Medhatithi145 justifies Manu’s rule of repudiation of a wife who
is barren, or who bears only daughters, or whose children die, on
the ground that the husband would otherwise violate the injunction
about laying of the sacred fire and the begetting of sons. But he
refuses to follow Manu in sanctioning the repudiation of a wife who
is harsh of speech. In the same context146 Medhatithi extends
Manu’s two conditions of such supersession (viz. that the wife’s
consent has been obtained and that she is not disgraced) from the
case of a devoted and modest but sick wife to those of a barren wife
and a wrife bearing only daughters.

On the question of the alternatives open to a wife after she has
waited for the prescribed period for her husband’s return from
abroad, the views of the authorities of this epoch, as we learn from
Medhatithi,147 reflected their different standpoints from one of extreme
puritanism* to one of considerable latitude. After the prescribed
period the wife, according to one authority, must live by pursuing
unobjectionable occupations. Modifying this strict view, Medha¬
tithi urges that while she must live by unobjectionable occupations
before the expiry of her waiting term, she may live by objectionable
pursuits thereafter. Basing his opinion on Parasara’s text quoted
above in favour of the remarriage of women, a third authority goes
so far as to allow the stranded wife to deviate from chastity. A
fourth author, taking the vital word pati in Parasara’s text in the

879

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

sense of ‘protector,’ recommends her to accept another man’s protec¬
tion in the capacity of toilet-maid and the like. In such a case even if
the wife has entered into six month’s or one year’s contract, the
husband on his return from his travel may take her back imme¬
diately. The fifth and the last authority would allow the wife to
marry another husband according to the practice of punarhhus (re¬
married women), in which case the husband cannot interfere with
her after his return, and she continues to be the wife of the second
husband.

As regards the status of the widow, the life of strict celibacy
and self-restraint enjoined upon her by the old Smritis was sought
to be enforced during this period. As long as a widow remains faith¬
ful to her husband’s memory, says Medhatithi,147* she deserves, to
have her property looked after by the king; but in the contrary
case, she is not only to be disqualified for possessing property, but
is to be banished (in the sense of being driven out of the main build¬
ing and provided with a separate dwelling-house as wTell as separate
food and clothing).

As in the former period, the dread rite of satl at this time was
enjoined by some authorities, but condemned by others.148 Accord¬
ing to the Arab writer Sulaiman,149 wives of kings sometimes burnt
themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands, but it was for
them to exercise their option in the matter. The actual occurrence
of this grim rite is testified to by a few historical examples of queens
and other ladies of high families thus scarifying their lives.160 But
the view, that the custom was still mainly confined to royal families
and had not yet spread among the masses,161 is hardly supported
by a passage in Kuttanimatam^ 52 which recognises it as one of the
general virtues of a wife.

The custom of dedicating maidens for service in temples, which
may be traced back to older times, was continued in this period.
Reference to this class is found in Medhatithi163 as well as in
inscriptions of this period.164 Abu Zaid154a also speaks of courte¬
zans attached to Indian temples.

The class of prostitutes, known from early times, existed as a
distinct social unit in the present age. Matsya Ptirena165 lays down
a list of their duties and rights ( vesyadharma ) as well as the special
clauses of law applicable to them. The deliberate settlement of such
women in public places is hinted at by an early Arab geographer,
While others notice it as a peculiarity of Indians that they held this
profession to be lawful.166 Several passages in the literature of this
period deal with the class of accomplished courtezans (ganika)
whose virtues and vices are celebrated from the earliest Buddhist

380

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

times. In two stories of Upamitibhavaprapanchakatha'^ • we find
concrete instances of the better type of ganikas as well as of those
of the common variety. It is above all in Ku\tanxmatam that we
have the fullest notices of the life of a ganika during this period. It
relates a story168 which shows that connection of a Brahmana with
a ganika (such as was not disapproved in the times of Bhasa and
Sudraka) was now regarded as a disgraceful act. We may also refer
to a passage in Kut\anvmatam illustrating at any rate the author’s
view of the very high qualifications, both of body and mind, that a
ganika was expected to possess at this period.169

In general, the position of woman was patterned on the same
lines as in the preceding period. Amplifying the old Smriti doctrine
of the perpetual tutelage of women, Medhatithi160 observes that wo¬
men should have no freedom of action regarding the great objects of
human existence (viz. virtue, wealth, and pleasure), but should
obtain permission of their husbands or other male relations before
spending money on such acts. Women who are addicted to singing
and similar acts, Medhatithi continues, shall be restrained by their
male guardians. Arguing that a woman’s mind is not under her
control, and that she lacks the requisite strength, Medhatithi161
concludes that she shall be guarded by all her male relations at all
times. Turning to the specific disabilities of women, we find Medha¬
tithi162 justifying their general incapacity for giving evidence as
witnesses. As he observes, unlike other qualifications which are
acquired and hence liable to lapse through carelessness and so forth,
fickleness is inherent in women. But elsewhere163 he admits that
there are women who are as truthful and as steady as the best ex¬
pounders of the Vedas, and they may appear as witnesses.

On the other hand, a more humane view is taken of the hus¬
band^ authority over his wife. The wife, according to Medhatithi,
must not be forsaken unless she becomes an outcaste, and ‘forsaking’
in this case means not that she is to be deprived of food and clothing,
but that she is to be cut off from all intercourse and forbidden to
do household work. According to Matsya Parana the mother must
never be abandoned, while Medhatithi observes that the mother must
not be turned out of the house even for failure of her maternal
duties, for to the son the mother never becomes an outcaste.164
Medhatithi’s view of the law relating to female outcastes in general
follows the humane lines indicated above. Referring to Manu’s
penalty of banishment for outcaste women, he 166 explains it to mean
that they shall be provided with a separate dwelling-place as well
as food and clothes, and they may retain what they have saved.
Again he says166 that female outcastes, not performing the prescribed

381

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

expiation, are to be allowed food, drink, and clothing of an inferior
quality, and permitted to live in a separate hut close to the main
building.

As regards the custom of Purdah, Abu Zaid furnishes the very
important information that most Indian Princes, while holding
court, allowed their women to be seen unveiled by the men present,
whether natives or foreigners.

5. Some Social Types

The early Arab geographers belonging to the ninth and tenth
centuries noticed the paucity of towns as a distinctive characteristic
of India in contrast with China.167 No doubt it is because of this pre¬
ponderance of the rural element in Indian life that we miss in the
literature of this period any special reference to the type of the
city-bred man of fashion ( nagardkd ), so well described in Vatsya-
y ana’s standard work on erotics. We have on the contrary in
Kutpanimatam 1 68 a remarkably full and vivid picture, doubtless
drawn from real life, of a typical country-squire who should, accord¬
ing to this authority, be the first object of a courtezan’s attentions.

The hero of this account is a young son of an officer (bhatta)
in the king’s service, who is his own master as his father constantly
resides in the royal capital. His dress and manners are sufficiently
showy. He wears long hair with a thick tuft, which is bound with
a long-handled and sharp-toothed comb and is done up with a multi¬
coloured tassel. He wears finger-rings as well as ear-rings of a
distinctive sort, while his neck is adorned with thin golden threads.
All his limbs were dyed yellowish with saffron rubbed on his body.
He wears ornamental shoes, while his clothes have a gold border and
are dyed yellow with saffron. A very showy fellow, he makes his
public appearance in the company of a train of attendants. In the
huge dancing-hall which is crowded with guild-masters, merchants,
parasites and gamblers, he sits with his followers on specially pro¬
vided seats. He is served by a young betel-casket bearer with paint¬
ed finger-nails, with a garland of thick glass beads around his neck
and with conch-shell bangles on his wrist. He is surrounded by
five or six armed attendants accustomed to speak freely and bearing
a haughty mien. Equally conceited and foolish, he recites verses
incorrectly and intrudes upon the conversation of intelligent people
sitting by his side, while he makes known the king’s confidence in
his father. He inwardly enjoys the extravagant praise of his atten¬
dants for his knowledge of song, instrumental music and dramaturgy,
his charities and his love of hunting. He compliments, without under¬
standing, the performances of the female dancers.169

382

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

In contrast with the life-like description of the country-squire
given above is the slightly idealised picture of the life and surround¬
ings of a poet that is given by Rajasekhara1 70 — a picture which re¬
minds us in some respects of Vatsyayana’s nagdraka. The poet, we are
told, should be pure in speech, mind, and body. Purity in speech and
mind is derived from the sdstras, while for ensuring bodily purity
the nails of the feet shoul be cut, betel-leaf should be chewed, the
body should be anointed a little with unguents, the clothes should
be costly but not gaudy, and the head should be decked with flowers.
The poet’s residence should be swept clean; it should have various
sites suited to the needs of the six seasons; it should take away
sweat and fatigue; the attached garden-house should have its awn¬
ing of numerous trees. The house should have a miniature hill for
sporting; it should have tanks and ponds; it should have a collection
of tame birds and animals comprising peacocks, deer, pigeons, ruddy
geese, swrans, partridges, herons, ospreys, parrots, and starlings; it
should have a shower-house with excellent floor, a creeper-bower
as well as swings and hammocks; the poet’s male and female ser¬
vants, his scribe, his friends, and the ladies of his family should
have appropriate specified qualifications and should serve him in
the specified manner.

6. Some Groups and Associations

There are good grounds for believing that a number of groups
and associations belonging to towns and villages played an important
part in the social life of this age. Giving an instance of the co-ope¬
rative efforts of villagers, Medhatithi172 says that the people of one
village, afflicted by constant encroachment on their grazing-grounds
and their water-reserves by the people of another village, would form
a compact for defence of the ancient privileges of the village
(praktanigrdmasthiti), and any one breaking the compact and joining
the other party would be liable to the penalty of banishment, or in
the alternative, to the milder punishment of a fixed money-fine (six
nishkas or four suvarnas) as laid down by Manu. To the above we
may add that Medhatithi173, includes samghas (associations) of the
same or different castes among those whose members are liable to a
fine for breach of compact under Manu’s law. From this it follows
that not only village groups, but also associations of single and
multiple castes, were engaged in collective enterprises based on
mutual compacts recognised by law. The important functions per¬
formed by the organised village assemblies in South India in receiv¬
ing and managing trust-funds will be treated elsewhere. But a few
similar examples may be given here. From a Kannada inscription
of A.D. 978 174 we learn that a trust, then created in favour of an

883

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

)

aimshouse (sattraj} was placed under the control of thirty households
of the town. Other records speak of the activities of temple com¬
mittees (goshthi) whose history can be traced back to a few early
Sanchl inscriptions 175 and a body now mentioned for the first
time, namely, the community of goldsmiths {sauvarnnikoimahafana),
placed in charge of temple funds. Purchases of house sites on 99
years’ lease by the sauvarnnikamahdjanfis as well as the goshlhis of a
certain temple out of the temple funds are commemorated in a series
of documents bearing dates between A.D. 865 and 904 and belonging
to the region of the Upper Ganga basin.176 An inscription of
A.D. 882-83 177 mentions that the management of certain charities,
made by a few horse-dealers in Pyithudaka (Peheva in Karnal Dis¬
trict), was entrusted to the goshthikas . This involved the collection
of various self-imposed taxes from the horse-dealers and purchasers
as well as their distribution for specified purposes. An association
of weavers, entrusted with the management of a temple, is referred
to in an inscription of the reign of Uttama-Chola.178

7. Standard of Living

The high standard of living of the people prevailing generally
in earlier times seems to have been maintained during the present
period. The names of a number of professions mentioned by Medha-
tithi1 79 reveal a state of luxurious living. Such are the professions
of a bath-man (snapaka), a toilette-man ( prasddhaka)f and a pro¬
fessional cook f pachaka ) as well as a maid-in- waiting (sairandhfi).
The variety of garments and ornaments current in these times was
remarkable. Abhidhanaratnamdla^o gives the synonyms for an
upper garment ( pravarana ) and a woollen blanket ( dvika ) as well as
women’s bodice ( kurpasa ) and petticoat (chandataka) , while it
knows181 technical terms (kutha, etc.) for blankets thrown over the
backs of elephants. Similarly it refers to ear-ornaments (tatanka)t
armlet ( keyura ), neck-ornament ( graiveya)y finger-rings, waist-bands,
and women’s leg ornaments (nupura)} In a list of things delightful
to the touch found in Upamitibhavaprapanchdkathd 182 are included
couches (sayana) with soft cotton sheets, seats filled with goose
feathers, gowns (brihatikd) and other soft garments, upper garments
(prdvdra), woollen-cloth (? rdllikd or rakshikd), silks, home-grown
(patt&Thsuka) and Chinese (chtn&miuka), as well as musk, aloes,
sandal, and other unguents. Girls before marriage used to wear blue
bodices ( cholikd ), while after marriage they tied the knot (ruin) to
their garments.183 Women’s golden as well as jewelled girdles
(kanchi and rasand) and large ear-ornaments ( tatanka ) are mentioned
in verses quoted by Rajasekhara.184 Ladies of high families habi-

384

SOCIAL CONDITIONS:

tually delighted in the display of ornaments and the use of various
unguents. In Rajasekhara’s elaborate description of the heroine’s
toilette, arranged by the queen just after her bath, we are told185
that her limbs were anointed with saffron and her eyes with colly-
rium, her lovely locks well arranged, her hair was decorated with
flowers, while her person was adorned with ear-rings, rows of brace¬
lets, a ruby-encrusted girdle, and emerald-anklets. The same princess,
while on the swing, wears a pearl-necklace, bracelets ( valaya ), a
girdle with small bells attached to it, and jewelled anklets. Almost
the same ornaments are worn by the heroine in another of Raj a-
sekhara’s dramas while playing with a ball.186 The same lady at
night-time appears in a robe of Chinese silk with a pearl necklace
around her neck, camphor powder on her bosom, and sandal paste
thickly applied to her limbs, so that in the admiring sight of the king
she looks hke a goddess descended from the moon.187

The little cameos descriptive of the seasons and the nights that
we find in Rajasekhara’s dramas also reflect the contemporary style
of living. In a description of the end of the winter and the beginning
of the spring season, we are told188 that the maidens no longer put
bees’ wax on their lips, they do not anoint their braids of hair with
fragrant oil, they do not put on a bodice, and they are indifferent to
the use of thick saffron for their mouths, while they again set their
hearts on sandal-juice. Again we are told in a description of the
evening189 that the jewelled roof-terraces ( manimayavalabhi ) and
the picture galleries (bhittinivesa) are being opened for pleasure, the
couches ( paryanka ) are being hastily spread out by the attendants,
and the maids-in-waiting (sairandhrl) are incessantly moving their
fingers on the silks. At the rise of the full-moon, we read,190 aloes
are burnt as incense at the pleasure-houses ( lildgara ), where like¬
wise the lamps are lighted, the festoons of rare pearls are suspended,
the charming pleasure-couches ( kelisayana ) are being prepared, and
hundreds of female messengers (duti) are conversing together.
Among the delights of summer are mentioned191 those of rubbing
sandal-paste at mid-day, playing , in bathing-pools until night-fall,
and drinking cool liquor (surd) at evening, as well as listening to
the cooling sound of the flute. In a description of a dark night we
find192 that the girls then go out with garlands to seek their lovers
after decking their ears with peacock-plumes, their arms with
emerald-bracelets, their bosoms with sapphire necklaces and their
cheeks with musk. In summer women cooled their bodies with
sandal-juice.193 To the above, may be added the evidence of
UpamitibhavaprapanckdkatM 194 according to which quantities of
aloe-wood incense as well as woollen blankets (rallaka-kambala)
were used in winter.

385

A.I.K.— 23

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The description of the typical poet in Kavya.mimd.msd and of the
typical country-squire in Kuttanimatam , to which we have already
referred, widely as they differ from each other, illustrates at least the
prevailing view of luxury of these classes. It was, however, in the
royal palace that pomp and ostentation reached their zenith. Among
the luxuries of the palace, we find a plantain-arbour ( kadalxgriha )
with a raised emerald seat inside,135 a king’s sleeping-chamber with
perforated columns and a jewelled quadrangle,196 and a crystal-
house with picture of a king, queen, jester, betel-box bearer, chow-
rie-bearer, dwarf, and monkey painted on the wall.197 The female per¬
sonnel of the queen’s apartment in Karpuramanjarl consisted of
armed groups of five chowrie-bearers, five maids-in-waiting, five
betel-box bearers, and five bath-keepers guarding her on the four
sides, as well as a group of five overseers with golden staves in their
hands.198

To the above testimony drawn from the indigenous literature
we may add that of the contemporary Arab writers who agree in
declaring the love of ornament to be characteristic of the Indians.
According to Sulaiman, Indians, both male and female, decorated
themselves with golden bracelets and precious stones. Indians, says
Ibn al-Faklh, used to wear ear-rings, and both males and females
adorned themselves with golden bracelets. According to Abu Zaid,
Indian kings wore necklaces of precious red and green stones mount¬
ed on gold, while they held pearls in the greatest esteem. Speaking
of the tract from Kambay to Saimur (Chaul) Ibn Haukal says that
because of the extreme heat the men used fine muslin garments.199

8. Popular Amusements

The popular amusements of these times were similar to those
of the preceding period. It was the fashion for high-born girls to
play with balls (kanduka). Especially in the spring season and on
the occasion of the Swing Festival, they used to enjoy the swing from
trees in a garden. A very spectacular scene was presented by the
charchari (musical or dancing) performance. On this occasion mai¬
dens, richly adorned with pearls, performed various dances known
by appropriate technical terms, and thereafter they sprinkled one
another with water from jars sometimes adorned with jewels. Or
else, suitably attired and posed, they paraded as savage mountaineers,
or even enacted cemetery scenes with offerings of human fiesh in
their hands.200 Dancing for recreation by ladies and dramatic re¬
presentations in honour of deities are referred to in the inscriptions
of the period.201

Other amusements described in the literature of this period

886

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

remind us of the diversions of the ndgaraka described in Vatsyayana’s
Kdmasutra. In Rajasekhara’s account of a poet’s daily life*02 we
read that he is to arrange a poetical assembly ( kavyagoshthi ) after
his mid-day meal. Elsewhere reference is made to the goshthl of
persons in high life, of a queen and of other women.203 Abhidhdna-
ratnamdld gives us technical terms for drinking-parties (dpdna and
panagoshthi) as well as for drinking in company (sahapiti and saha-
pdnaka) ,204 Ratirahasya205 tells us how young pleasure-seekers used
to meet their mistresses at night in well-lighted and scented houses
amid amorous assemblies (narmagoshthi) , to the accompaniment of
sweet music. According to the same authority206 excursions to
gardens (udyanay&trd), excursions for drinking (pdnaydtra), and
water-sports ( jaldvatdra ) gave opportunities to unchaste wives to
meet their lovers. A vivid description of the spring revels in a capital
town, breathing the spirit of a true saturnalia , is found in Upamiti -
bhavaprapanchdkathd.207 Describing the scene at the mythical town
of Bhavach&kra (‘Round of re-birth’) the author tells us how the
people trooped out of the city into the garden and sported beneath
valuka, asoka, and other trees, while drunken revellers engaged
themselves in amorous sports, and gallants took up goblets of scented
wines from bejewelled drinking- vessels and placed them to the lips
of their mistresses. Amid songs and dances the revellers formed
themselves into numerous drinking bouts ( dpdnaka ). The climax
was reached when the king, mounted on a huge elephant and sur¬
rounded by a large retinue, emerged out of the town and joined in
the revelry. His appearance was greeted with music from various
instruments, sprinkling of sandal and saffron juice, song, dance,
laughter, and other exuberant manifestations. The long, having
Worshipped the goddess Chandika, strangely enough, with libations
of wine, formed a drinking party with the assembled people. The end
of the revels was marked by tragic scenes. Princess R&tilalita, wife
of the king’s brother, being pressed by her intoxicated husband,
danced much against her will in the presence of the assembly. This
excited the evil passion of the king, who tried to lay violent hands
upon her when all the others were stupefied by drink. Escaping from
his clutches the princess sought the protection of her husband who
challenged the king to a duel. In the resultant melee the king was
killed by his brother in single combat.

9. Lawful Food and Drink

On the subject of lawful food the Smriti law of thi^ period fol¬
lows, with some explanations, the traditional lines. Brahma
Purdna 208 declares a number of herbs and vegetables as well as
cereals to be forbidden food. Medhatithi208* lays down at great

387

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

length the occasions on which the eating of meat is lawful, and he
seeks to define clearly the animals whose meat is or is not lawful
food. From this it appears that notwithstanding Manu’s general
list of prohibited birds and animals, the peacock, the horse, the white
ass, the female sparrow, the wild cock and the wild pig counted
distinctly as lawful food, while certain kinds of web-footed and fish¬
eating birds were classed optionally as such. Medhatithi again
gives209 the cow, the goat and the deer as instances of animals with
one line of teeth which according to the text are fit to be eaten.

As regards the use of intoxicating drinks, we seem to mark in
the authorities of our times a distinct tendency towards relaxation
of the strict rules of their predecessors in the case of the Kshatriya
and Vaisya castes. Both ¥Ianu and Yajnavalkya forbid the three
upper classes to drink different classes of wines, and impose penances
ranging up to death upon those guilty of indulging in the same. But
Medhatithi210 and Visvarupa2 1 1 understand Manu’s text to mean
that while the three kinds of sum (viz. those made from rice-flour,
molasses, and honey or grapes or madhuka flowers) are forbidden to
Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas and the Vaisyas are permitted to drink
the last two kinds. It is the Brahmana drinker of surd alone, explains
Medhatithi,212 who is guilty of mortal sin (mahdpdtaka) , and as such
is liable to corporal punishment notwithstanding the injunctions of
the Smritis to the contrary. Summing up the settled law ( vyavasthd )
on the subject, Medhatithi213 observes that while the penance for
intentionally drinking wine made from rice-flour is death, that for
intentional drinking of other kinds of wine involves performance of
only the lunar penance (chdndrdyana) . Among original authorities
Aditya Parana2 1 3& and Brahma Purdria214 include the drinking of
wine ( madya ) among practices to be eschewed by twice-born men in
the Kali Age. On the other hand Vishnudhalrmottara 216 mentions ten
kinds of wines (including those prepared from madhuka flower, from
grape-juice, and from honey) which are forbidden to Brahmanas,
but permitted to Kshatriyas and Vaisyas.

We have so far dealt with the Smriti rules relating to food and
drink. There is every reason to believe that the old Buddhist and
Jain canonical laws on this point were still regarded as authoritative
during the present period. As an illustration of the continuance of
the Jain ban against meat-eating and drinking, we may refer to the
long and severe sermons on the evils of both put into the mouths
of some observant princes.216

The references in the general literature and the historical re¬
cords enable us to find out how far the above rules were observed in

388

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

actual practice. In Rajasekhara’s description of the six seasons,
partaking of pork along with newly husked rice by the people is
said to be common during the cold ( hemanta ) season, while the
essences of deer and quails, as also wine mixed with water, are men¬
tioned among the dainties of the summer season.217 But elsewhere
Rajasekhara mentions eating of pork among the practices of un¬
cultured people.218 The literary evidence further shows that both
men and women, other than Brahmanas, freely drank wine. Accord¬
ing to a verse quoted by Rajasekhara,219 drinking wine ( madhu ),
after partaking of pepper and betel, was the general practice among
Southern (Dramila) ladies. Medhatithi says220 that while Bhahmana
women did not drink wine at festivals, Kshatriya and other women,
to whom drinking was not forbidden, indulged in excessive drink¬
ing when they gathered together on festive occasions. In view of
these statements it is reasonable to infer that the testimony regard¬
ing abstinence from wine by Indians, which is repeated by early
Arab authors one after another,221 is a rash generalisation based
upon imperfect acquaintance with facts. On the other hand, we
may accept the testimony of Mas’udl222 about the eating of rhino¬
ceros’s flesh by the Indians to be true.

10. Toilette and Personal Hygiene

•:

The high level of personal cleanliness and comfort reached in
the preceding age was well maintained during this period. As re¬
gards personal hygiene, Agni Pur ana, 223 lays down elaborate rules
for daily observance of purification of the body (saucha), cleaning
of the teeth with twigs, and bathing by the householder. Bathing,
again, is divided into several kinds according to its object by some
Smriti authorities.224 The observant Arab writers noticed these
habits as distinctive of the Indian people. According to Suiaiman
and Ibn al-Faklh22*5 the Indians, unlike the Chinese, cleansed their
teeth with tooth-picks and bathed daily before taking meals.

As regards toilette, we have elsewhere noticed how the litera¬
ture of this period refers to the use of unguents and ornaments of
different kinds, especially by high-born ladies. Mention has also
been made of the vivid and life-like picture of the dress of coiffure
of the country-squire in Kuttanimatam.22Q We may notice here
some further references to personal adornment. Abhidhanaratna-
mala knows not only the synonyms for saffron, sandal, musk, cam¬
phor, and aloes, but also the marks ( tilaka ) made on the body with
such unguents.227 The tilaka and similar other decorations made
on the cheeks of maidens are referred to in two verses quoted by
Rajasekhara.228 We get a fairly complete list of unguents used

389

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

in different seasons in Kdvyamtmdms <i.229 From this account we
learn that sandal, agallochum, saffron and musk were used in the
rainy season, saffron with bees-wax was applied to the mouth and
fragrant oil to hair in the cold ( hemanta ) season, crushed saffron
was applied by women to their bodies in winter, and camphor powder
was used in the summer season. References are also made to the
use of other artificial aids to beauty. Thus Abhidhdnaratnamald 230
knows technical terms ( sthdnaka and hastabimba) for a particular
method of perfuming the body with unguents as well as those
( patravalli ) for decorations made on women’s bodies by experts on
beauty culture. Ratirahasya contains various recipes for removing
bad odour from the mouth and other parts of the body, and for
beautifying the complexion of men as well as women.231 A satiri¬
cal account in TJpamitibhavaprapanchdkatha shows how old men
were sometimes not above using these beauty aids. Describing the
attempts of old and decrepit men to appear young, the author says
that they used hair-dyes of various sorts, frequently cleansed their
bodies with various oils, carefully concealed the wrinkles on their
cheeks, drank the elixir of life, and constantly applied cosmetics to
their persons.232 We may refer, lastly, to Rajasekhara’s works to
illustrate how different fashions prevailed among ladies in different
parts of the country. We learn that Martha girls specially applied
saffron-paste to their cheeks and colly rium to their eyes.233 The
chewing of betel-leaf with areca-nut and camphor was the characte¬
ristic of the Kerala people.234 The Nepalese women used musk-paste
in the summer season.236 In a description of the characteristic
dress and toilette of women of different regions, we are told that
the women of Bengal ( Gauda ) painted their bosoms with wet san¬
dal and coloured their bodies like durva grass with aloe, those of ,
Kanauj ( Mahodaya ) wore large ear-ornaments and necklaces or large
pearls dangling down to their navel, those of Malabar ( Kerala ) had
their peculiar style of coiffure and method of tying up their gar¬
ment-knots, while the men of Malwa ( Avanti ) followed the style of
dress of the inhabitants of the Upper Doab (Pdnchdlas) and their
women followed the style of the Southerners.236 Rajasekhara, with
evident partiality for his adopted country, says that fashions of
dress and coiffure as well as ornaments of ladies of Kanyakubja were\
followed by fashionable ladies all over the country.237

11. Beliefs and Superstitions

The records of this period point to the continuance of the age¬
long belief in omens and portents. Basing its account upon the
older astrological works, Matsya Purdna 238 gives a long and syste¬
matic account of omens, classifying them under appropriate heads

390

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

and prescribing adequate remedies for averting their evil effects.
The same work devotes a separate chapter239 to rules for propitia¬
tion of planets. The extent of popular superstition is illustrated by
a passage of Medhatithi.240 Malevolent rites (abhichdra) , says he,
are those causing sudden death by incantations and the like, magic-
spells are those meant to bring others under control, while sorcery
(krityd) produces by means of magical incantations such conditions
as insanity and distrust against friends and relations. The abhi¬
chara, Medhatithi adds, is of two kinds, viz. the Vedic which is
illustrated by the syena and similar sacrifices, and the non- Vedic
which is exemplified by such practices as taking off the dust of one’s
feet and pricking it with a needle. Repeatedly in the literature of
this period we have concrete instances of such superstitions holding
high life in their grip. In Upamitihhavaprapahchdkathd we are re¬
minded of the steps taken by the ministers to avert the evil eye ( dur-
janachakshurdosha.) from affecting a certain king and queen.241 In
the same work242 a queen’s dream, in the last watch of the night,
of a handsome man entering her womb is interpreted by the king
as presaging the birth of an excellent son, and the prophecy is ful¬
filled in due course. In Karpiir amah j art we read how the sooth¬
sayers prophesied that the heroine’s husband would be an emperor,
and the queen herself accordingly arranged her marriage with the
king.243 In Viddhasalabhahjikd we find the king using a ghost-trick
with success not only against the queen’s maid-in-waiting, but against
the queen herself.244 After this, it is not surprising that the
restoration of the right of a village to make offering of boiled rice
to ghosts should be solemnly recorded in an inscription of A.D. 958
belonging to the modern Dharwar District.245 The Arab writer
Abu Zaid also refers to the ‘most astonishing feats’ of the diviners
and those who drew omens from the flight of crows in India.246

In conclusion we may refer to a few other beliefs of the people
mentioned in the records of this period. The ban against sea-voyage,
which is laid down by some older Smritis,247 is reported by
Ndradiyamahapurdna ,248 Suicide was resorted to both as a quasi¬
religious rite and as a relief against bodily ailments. We have an
example249 from the Kannada country of a loyal subject giving up
his head to a goddess on the birth of the king’s son in fulfilment
of his vow (c. A.D. 991). According, to Abu Zaid and Mas’udi a body
of king’s companions, who had shared in taking rice with him at
his coronation, would burn themselves to the last man after! his
death. Again, it appears from Abu Zaid and Ibn Khordadbah that
persons on getting old would often commit suicide by drowning or
by burning themselves.^50

391

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

12. Pious and Charitable Works

The Smriti law of this period, following the older tradition,
declared the gift of land as the most meritorious or all gifts,251
Again Matsya Parana, which is followed by Linga PiCrdna, describes
at great length a set of 16 great gifts ( mahaddnas ) involving the dis¬
tribution of large quantities of gold to Brahmanas.232 The Smriti
law of this period also follows the older precedent in enjoining
upon all castes (including the Madras) such pious acts as digging
of wells, ponds, and tanks, construction of temples, distribution of
food, and laying out of gardens. These are collectively called purta
by way of distinction from ishta meaning the performance of Vedic
sacrifices.253 The inscriptions and other historical records of this
period offer many instances of the observance of these rules. Apart
from numerous examples of construction of temples and donation
of lands to Brahmanas and others, we have several instances of
kings performing the ceremonies of tuldpurusha and hiranyagarbha
which are included in the list of 16 mahaddnas mentioned above.254
Other records refer to the construction of monasteries and alms¬
houses, digging of wells and similar activities. We have again
several instances of gift of land for the encouragement of learning.

13. General Estimate of Character

From the detailed survey of social conditions, it would not be
difficult for the reader to form a general estimate of the character of
the people during this period. Nevertheless, a few points which are
sure to strike the observant critic may be emphasised. We cannot
but condemn the illiberal attitude towards &udras, and particularly
towards the Chandalas and other castes; we must also censure the
illiberal treatment of women, and in particular their exclusion from
Vedic sacraments and studies and the lowering of their age of mar¬
riage. On the other hand, we may well admire such features of
the Indian character as the love of learning, the spirit of charity
and benevolence, and the high standard of fidelity and devotion main¬
tained by the wife. We may conclude with the remarkable tribute
paid to the mental as well as physical qualities of Indians by an
intelligent Arab observer whose work became, in the words of Ibn
Khaldun, ‘the prototype of all historians.’ “The Hindus,” says
Mas’udi, “are distinct from all other black people in point of intellect,
government, philosophy, strength of constitution, and purity of
colour.”

1. Cf. the quotations in Apararka on Yoj. I. 131, Sm. C., I. 26, and Saihskara-
prakdsa, pp. 321-26. A connected and complete account of the Vidydrambha
ceremony is given in the late mediaeval SaThskararatnamala (904-07) of Gopl-

302

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

natha DIkshita, which also quotes a few other authorities like Sridhara and
Garga.

2. I. 24, 13 -16,

3. Quoted in Sm. C., I. 29.

4. On Manu, III. 1.

5. Ibid, II. 108 and 243 f.

6. Quoted in Samskaraprakasa, 506-07 and Sm. C., I. 133-35.

7. On Manu , III. 2.

8. Quoted in Samskaraprakasa, 507-08.

9. On Manu, III. 1.

10. There are scattered references in literature, but these are not of much use.

11. In the story ( Bhav . II. 1-3) the young Bhavisayatta, son of Dhanapati, a
rich and virtuous merchant of Gajapura, is sent to his preceptor’s house
(ujjhdsdla) where he learns quickly the lore of the Jain canon, grammar
lexicography, astronomy, spells and charms, as well as knowledge of weapons,
archery, hand-to-hand fight, wrestling, and the ways of elephants and horses.
Returning from his preceptor’s house he was complimented by his parents
on his acquisition of knowledge and character. On the date of Dhanapala,
author of Bhav., see Jacobi (Bhav. ed., Introd. 3 f) followed on independent
grounds by C. D. Dalai and P. D, Gune (GOS ed. Introd. 3-4).

12. On Manu, IX. 329-31.

13. The Vaisya, says Medhatithi (ioe. cit.), shall know in what region and at
what season gems, pearls, corals, metals like copper, iron and bronze, woven
cloth, perfumes and condiments fetch a higher price than in another. He
shall know, Medhatithi continues, what seed is sown thickly and what sparse¬
ly, what soil is suited for a particular kind of seed, what harvest is expected
from a particular type of soil. He shall also know what commodities (skins
and the like) are spoilt if kept for a long time, in what country large sup¬
plies of grains are available, at what season barley is profuse, what is the
custom of a particular country, by using what fodder and salts cattle are
likely to improve and so forth. This implies a thorough knowledge not only
of the marketing conditions and other characteristics of various articles but
also of much miscellaneous information.

14. On Manu, IX. 76.

15. Kutt, 212.

16. On Manu , II. 182.

17. Ibid, III. 2.

18. Quoted in Samskaraprakasa, 513.

19. Quoted in Sm. C., 1. 143.

20. Quoted in Samskaraprakasa, 515.

21. Manu, II. 159. Introducing the text Medhatithi explains that the author’s
object is to prohibit excessive chastisement in the form of beating, chiding
and the like to which the teacher takes recourse on finding his pupil to be
inattentive. Addressing the pupil as his child, the teacher should, accord¬
ing to Medhatithi, ask him gently to finish his lesson quickly so that he might
afterwards play with boys of his own age. But if the boy still remains in¬
attentive, he should be beaten with a bamboo slip as mentioned in the text.
Writing elsewhere (on Manu, II. 70) in a humorous vein, Medhatithi observes
that the boy, at the time of Vedic. study, should wear light dress, because
if he were to be clad in woollen clothes he would not feel the strokes of
the rope administered by the teacher for inattention and, not feeling the
strokes, he would not study in the proper manner.

22. Manu, III. 156; Ydj, III. 230; Vardha Parana , XIY. 5.

23. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, II. 198.

24. On Manu, III. 156.

25. He who stipulates to teach the Veda, Medhatithi says (loc. cit.), in return
for a specific payment is called a bhritakddhydpaka (‘teacher for a stipulated
fee’). Such form of payment is known among bearers and others. But one
does not become such a teacher, if he teaches a pupil without first making
a verbal stipulation for payment of a specific sum for a specific teaching, and
receives the fee afterwards. In fact teaching in return for payment of an
unstipulated fee has been actually sanctioned. Similarly one is said to be
taught for a stipulated fee if he studies with his teacher after paying the
fee himself. But one does not incur blame if, in the absence of any other

393

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

teacher, his father or other guardian has paid the fee and placed him under
a teacher.

26. On Manu, II. 112.

27. Manu, II. 235.

28. On Manu, II. 108, 182, 191.

29. Commenting on Manu, II. 108, which requires a student to perform acts of
service to his teacher, Medhatithi mentions, as an example of such acts, the
fetching of water in jars for the teacher’s use. Again while explaining
Manu, II. 182, Medhatithi says that the student should do all household work
that is not degrading, but he must not be made to perform such acts as eating
remnants of food, other than that of his teacher, and sweeping the floor.
Explaining Manu, II. 191, Medhatithi observes that the student should do
unasked such acts for his teacher as fetching water in jars and massaging his
body when he is fatigued.

30. On Manu, II. 49.

31. Kdv. X, p. 53.

32. Suktimuktdvalx ( GOS Ed. 47) of Jalhana, a twelfth century anthology, con¬
tains verses written by Rajasekhara in praise of five such poetesses, viz .
6llabhattarika, Vikatanitamba, Vijayanka, PrabhudevI, and Subhadra.

33. In Kdv. (Chaps. V, IX, XI) Rajasekhara quotes no less than thrice the views
of his wife on difficult questions of rhetoric.

34. Upamiti, pp. 354, 453-59, 875-92.

35. Rdjat , V. 28^9; VI. 87.

36. El, IV. 60 f.

37. El, IV. 180-tel.

38. ARSIE, Ins. No. 240 of 1930-31.

39. On Manu, V. 91.

40. Matsyapurdna, CGXVII. 163 f.

41. On Manu, VIII. 124.

42. Quoted by Vijnanesvara on Ydj, II. 21.

43. Quoted in Sm. C., I. 30.

44. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, I. 224.

45. III. 149.

46. Manu, III. 150-67; Ydj, I. 222-24; Vardha Purdna, XIV, 4 f, CXC. 83 f.

47. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, III. 30.

48. On Ydj, I. 20. The list consists of one who has taken service with a king,
one who performs sacrifices for many persons, one who performs sacrifices
for a whole village, one who is in the service of a village or town, and
lastly, one who does not perform the twilight ceremonies ( sandhyd ) in the
morning and in the evening.

49. XVI. 16.

50. VHddha-Hdrxta, IX. 349-50; Matsya Purdna, CCXXVH. 115-17; Manu, VIII.

51. SMS* nr. aa,

52. Samskdraprakasa , 513.

53. Quoted in Sm. C ., I. 31.

54. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, III. 292.

54a. Ibid.

55. Cf. Hir. Gr.-su, I. 12, 18-20; Ap. Dh.-su, XI. 3, 6, 9-10.

56. Quoted in Samskdraprakasa, 525 and Sm. C.t I. 137.

57. Quoted in Samskdraprakasa, loc. ci£

58. On Manu, VIIL 413-14.

59. Ibid, VIII, 415.

60. Ibid, III. 156.

61. Mbh. (Cr. Ed. and B), XII. 63, 12-14.

62. On Manu, VI. 97.

63. Ibid , III. 67 and 121.

64. Ibid, X. 127.

65. Ibid, X. 42.

66. On Ydj, I. 13.

67. On Manu , X. 126.

68. Ibid , X, 41.

69. Usanas, w. 31-2; Vaikhdnasa-Sindrtasu.tr a, 10. 12; Manu, X. 47. etc.

394

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

71. Vv. 26-27.

72. Gaut. IV. 17; Manu , X. 27; Ydj, I. 92, etc.

73. Cf. Vish. VII. 3. Ydj, I. 322; Mrichchha , IX: Rdjat, V. 180-84; VIII. 23, 83;
£/, XV. 130 f.

74. I. 10-11.

75. 151. 10 f.

76. On Manu, X. 38.

77. Cf. the quotations in Apararka on Ydj, III. 292 (various penances prescribed
for touching Chan^alas); Medhatithi on Manu . V. 12 (wood and things of
wood as well as walls of houses said to be defiled by Chan<lalas* touch); ibid . on
Manu, X. 51 (vessels other than those of gold and silver in which Chan^alas
and 6vapakas have eaten to be thrown away).

78. Viz. the signs of the thunderbolt and the like fixed by the king, or else the
executioner’s axe or other weapon to be carried on their shoulders (i bid. on
Manu, X. 55).

79. On Manu, X. 13.

80. Atri 288-89; Ahgiras, quoted by Vijnanesvara on Ydj, III. 30; J^atatapa quoted
by Apararka on Ydj, III. 292; Ausanasa-smriti, IX. I. 552.

80a. Quoted by Vijhanesvara on Y£j, III. 30 and in Sm. C., 1. 17,

81. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, I, 193.

82. On Manu, V. 133.

83. Quoted by Vijhanesvara on Ydj, III. 30.

84. Quoted by Apararka on Ydj, loc. cit.

85. IX, 359, 363-64.

86. Quoted by Apararka, loc. cit.

87. For Arab accounts cf. HIED, I. 6, 16-17, 76; Hodiwala, p. 19.

88. Cf. El, I. 186 f (3 sons of a Bhatta mentioned in list of horse-dealers. Cf
El, II. 161 f (Brahmana Garga and his descendants served as ministers of
Pala kings Dharmapala and Devapala); EL V. 123 f (a Brahmana and a Vedic
scholar advised king Vijayaditya II in defeating an enemy); El. XIII. 189
(Brahmana Superintendent of buildings praised for fighting an invader); El ,
IV. 60 f (Brahmana chief minister and minister of peace and war); El, XIII.
389 (two distinguished Brahmana dandanayakas) ; El, II. 217 f (Brahmana raja -
dauvdrika or king’s door-keeper); El, XV. 58 f (a Brahmana minister); SU,
II. Nos. 31 and 39 (a Brahmana general).

89. Cf. El, I. 159 f (son of Kshatriya mentioned as cultivator of field); Ef, XIX.
58 f (Kshatriya merchant mentioned in record of A.D. 893).

90. It has been inferred ( IHQ , VI; 1A, 1932, pp. 43-46) from the occurrence
of the same name-endings and the same tutelary deity in certain ins. from
Eastern India that colonies of Nagara Brahmanas were settled in Sylhet
(c. A.D. 500), Tippera (c. A.D. 750), and Orissa (c. A.D, 795). But this theory
lacks confirmation.

91. Cf. El, XIX. 58 f (individuals of Vanik-varkkata, Lamba-kanchuka and Mathu¬
ra castes mentioned as vendors or purchasers of lands, houses and shops in
records of A.D. 864, 896 and 898). Dhanapala, author of the Bhavisayatta-
kahd, belonged to the Dhakkada-Bani caste ( GOS ed., XX. 9).

92. See 1A, 1893, 57 f; El, VIII. 317-21; 'El, XVII. 291-309.

93. For the caste significance, cf. IHQ, VI. 53 f (Karana-kdyastha mentioned as
minister of peace and war of Gupta Emperor Vainya-gupta); El, XV. 301 f
(chieftain Lokanatha described as Karana ); Ramacharita, Kaviprasasti v. 3
(poet’s father described as foremost of Karanas and as minister of peace
and war). For the professional significance, cf. Medintkosha and Vaijayantx
s.v.

94. For the earliest known epigraphical reference to Kayastha caste, see El, XVIII.
243 (writer of charter of A.D. 871 bom in Yalabha-Kayastha varhka). For
other early epigraphic and literary references, cj. El, XII. 61 (Gauda-Kayas-
tha family mentioned in record of A.D. 999); Nydya-kandali of Srldhara,
Benares ed. 269 (work written in A.D. 991 at the instance of Pantfudasa, head-
monk of Kayastha lineage).* But Kayastha in the old professional sense of
a scribe or other official is found even in later records dated A.D. 995 (El,
X. 78-79); Trikdndasesha, II. 10.2. It has been held (IHQ, VI. 60 f and I A,
LXI. 51) that the Kayasthas of Bengal are descended from Nagara Brahmanas
who had settled in Eastern India as early as in the sixth century A.D. But
this startling theory, as has been rightly pointed out (HBR, I 589), lacks con¬
firmation.

395

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

95. El. XXVI. 200 ff.

96. According to Medhatithi (Manu, VH!. 299) Manu’s rule, allowing an erring
slave, wife or son to be beaten with a rope or a split bamboo, enjoins a
method of correcting them and not the actual beating. Hence, verbal cnastise-
ment, Medhatithi continues, shall be applied to correct them, beating being
resorted to only where the fault is serious.

97. For refs. cf. ARS1E, Nos. 216-19 of 1925, 94 of 1926, etc. These records are
of uncertain dates.

98. Upamiti , 404-05. . . ,

99. On Manu, III. 14. In times of difficulty or in the event of not finding a girl of
one’s own varna, says Medhatithi, girls of two other varnas may be .married
by a Brahmana but not a 6udra girl. We learn from Kar. I that Rajasekhara,
the Brahmana guru of the Pratihara king, married a Chahamana princess.

100. I. 24. 13-16.

101. On Manu , X, 6.

102. Medhatithi on Manu, II. 18, and Visvarupa on Ydj, HI. 254.

103. On Manu , VIII. 366.

104. Medhatithi breaks new ground when he says (on Manu, V. 151) that the
father can give away the girl only with the mother’s consent, for the hus¬
band and the wife have joint title to all things, and the daughter belongs
to both.

105. On Manu, IX. 88.

106. Ibid, IX. 4.

107. Ibid , IX. 94.

108. Ibid, IX. 90-91.

109. Ibid, IX. 99.

110. Ibid, IX. 97.

111. Ibid, IX. 72.

112. Ibid , VHI. 227.

113. I. 65.

114. CUV. 5.

115. On Ydj, I. 63.

116. Brahma Purdna, quoted by Apararka on Yaj, I. 68-69; Medhatithi on Manu ,
VIII. 225.

117. On Ydj, I. 69.

118. On Manu, V. 158.

119. Ibid, V. 165.

120. Ibid, IX. 59.

121. Ibid , IX. 60.

122. II. 328.

123. Upamiti , pp. 353-64; 369-86; 400 ff; 453 ff; 872-91.

123a. I A, XXXIX, 191 (inscription of the Guhila Chieftain Saktikumara, dated
A.D. 977, stating that while the founder of his dynasty was a Brahmana, his
grandfather, great-grandfather and great-great-grandfather married respec¬
tively a Rashtrakuta, a Huna and a Chahamana princess). Rajasekhara’s
Karpuramanj ari, Act I (the author’s wife belonged to Chahamana lineage,
while he himself was a Brahmana and guru of the Gurjara Pratihara king
Mahendrapala) .

124. On Manu, VIII. 359.

125. II. 437.

126. XIII. 29-34.

127. On Manu, VIII. 362-63.

128. Rati, XL 31; Upamiti, 896.

129. SII, IX, No. 77.

130. For Arab writers quoted in this chapter reference may be made to HIED,
Ferrand and Hodivala.

131. On Manu , IX. 1.

132. Ibid, I. 32.

133. Ibid, IX. 1.

134. Respectively on Manu, IV. 25; and on Ydj, I. 224 and H. 75.

135. H. 36.

136. On Manu, IX. 77.

137. Ibid , IX. 74.

138. Ibid, IX. 95.

139. Ydj, I. 70.

396

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

140. Matsya Purdna, CCXXVII. 153-55; Manu , VIII. 299-300.

141. On Manu , VIII. 299.

142. On Ydjf X.. 80,

143. On Manu, IX. 84.

144. This contradicts Medhatithi’s dictum quoted above denying to the husband
dominion over his wife.

145. On Manu, D£ -.« 81.

146. Ibid, IX. 82.

147. Ibid , IX. 76.

147a. On Manu, VIII. 28.

148. Apararka on Ydj, I. 87; Medhatithi on Manu, V. 156.

149. HIED, I. 11.

150. Among the examples of satis during this period are a queen of king Yaias-
kara of Kashmir and a queen of his successor Kshemagupta ( Rdjat , VI. 107,
195-96); a lady probably early in the reign of the Chola King Parantaka I
(Ins. No. 376 of 1903); a queen of Sundara Chola (Ins. No. 236 of 1902 and
SII. 393 f).

151. AR. 344.

152. V. 480.

153. On Manu, IX. 135.

154. Cf. Bayana (Bharatpur State) ins. of queen Chittralekha dated A.D. 955 (El,
XXII. 122 f); Tumbagi (Bijapur District) ins. of West Chalukya king Satya-
sraya dated A.D. 1004 (El, XVII. 8 f); Ins. No. 149 of 1036-37 belonging to
the reign of Parantaka I; Ins. of Rajaraja I, recording transfer of 400 temple
women from other temple- establishments in Chola land to the king’s own
temple at Tanjore (SII. II. No. 66).

154a. HIED. 11.

155. LXX. 28 f; CC XXVIII. 144 f.

156. Cf. Abu Zaid, quoted in Hodivala , 12 (Indian custom of settling prostitutes
in inns built for travellers) ; Ibn Khordadbah, Ibn al-Faklh, and Ibn Rosteh
quoted in F&rrand, 28, 63, 73 (Indian custom of regarding prostitution as
legal). As an illustration of the kind of service performed by this class of
women in the royal household, cf. Upamiti (p. 385) which states that on the
occasion of marriage between prince Nandivardhana and princess Kanaka-
mahjarl the bridegroom was bathed by prostitutes.

157. Ibid. pp. 374 if and 618 if.

158. Kutt, vv. 256 ff.

159. In this passage (vv. 106 f) the female messenger sent by Malatl to her lover
describes not only her physical beauty in full detail, but also mentions her
thorough knowledge of the works on erotics of authors like Vatsyayana,
Dattaka, Vifaputra, and Rajaputra, as well as her exceptional skill in the dra¬
matic manuals of Bharata, Visakhila, and Dantila, in the science of medicine
for trees (v%i kshayurveda) , in the art of painting, sewing and drawing lines
on the person (patrachchhedavidhdna) , modelling ( pusia ), cooking, playing
musical instruments, dancing and singing.

160. On Manu, IX. 2,

161. Ibid, IX. 3.

162. Ibid , VIII. 77.

163. Ibid, VIU. 68.

164. Matsya P. CCXXVII. 150; Medhatithi on Manu, VIII. 389.

365. Ibid, VIII. 28.

166. Ibid, X. 188.

167. Ibn al-Faklh ( F errand, 63) observes with evident exaggeration that in India
there are no towns unlike China where there are large towns. Sulaiman
(F errand, 63 n) says more cautiously that in India, the greater part of the
country is without towns, while in China fortified and large towns are found
in every part of the country.

168. The following translation is based upon the Bengali rendering of Tridiva
Nath Ray in his work called Kuttanimatam, Calcutta, 1360 B.S., pp. 12-15.

369. We have a historical reference to Bhattaputras in ARSIE, No. 281 of 1936-37
which mentions two groups of them as recipients of a village granted by
Rashfrakuta king Krishna HI in A.D. 964.

170. Kdv . X, p.' 49.

171. On Manu, VIIL 219-20.

172. On Manu, VIII. 219-20. Medhatithi however adds the saving clause that the
compact must be such as is beneficial to the village and so forth, is in con-

397

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

formity with canon law and custom, and is not harmful to the interests of
the city and the kingdom.

173. On Manu, VIII. 221.

174. El, XVI. 2 ff.

175. El, II. 99, 100, 102,

176. El, XIX. 58.

177. El, 1.186.

178. SII, IH. No. 128.

179. On Manu, IX. 76, 143.

180. II. 321 f.

181. Ibid, II. 153.

182. Upamiti , 220.

183. Vid . I.

184. Kdv. VI, p. 27.

185. Kar, II.

186. Vid. H.

187. Ibid, III.

188. Kar. I.

189. Ibid.

190. Ibid, III.

191. Ibid. IV.

192. Vid. III.

193. Ibid, H, IV.

194. Upamiti, 584.

195. Kar. II.

196. Vid, I.

197. Ibid.

198. Kar. IV.

199. Ferrand, 63, HIED, I. 39.

200. Cf. Kar. II; Vid. II; Kdv . XVHI; Upamiti, p. 354. On the significance of
char chari see Kuttanimatam, Bengali Trans, by Tridiva Nath Ray, pp. 192-3, f.n.

201. IA, XII. 13; El, V. 23.

202. Kdv, X, p. 52.

203. Cf. Vid. I, IV ; Rati, IV. 22.

204. II. 173-75.

205. X. 1-2.

206. Ibid, XIII. 93.

207. Upamiti, 590-603.

208. Quoted by Apararka on Yd), I. 176 and in Chandesvara’s Grihastharatndkara,
359.

208a. On' Manu, V. 14 ff., 27, 41-2.

209. On Manu, V. 18.

210. Ibid, XI. 93-94.

211. On Yd), III. 222.

212. On Manu, IX. 235-36.

213. Ibid, XI. 146.

213a. Quoted in Sm . C. I. 29.

214. Quoted by Apararka p. 15; Sm. C. I. 12; Par. Mddh, I. 1. 133.

215. XXII. 83-4.

216. Upamiti, 603-04; 627-29.

217. Kdv, XVIII, pp. 102, 107.

218. Ibid, VIII, p. 39.

219. Kdv. VIII. p. 39; cf. also Kdv. XVIII, Upamiti, 590 ff.

220. On Manu, IX. 84.

221. For references, cf. Sulaiman (HIED, I. 7), Mas’udI (ibid, I. 20), Ibn Khordad-
bah (Fei'rand, 28) and Ibn Rosteh ( Ferrand , 70).

222. Ferrand, 105.

223. CLV. 1 f; CLVI, 14 f.

224. Cf. Daksha 11.48. Sahkha VIII 1-17; and Agni P.. CLV. 3-4. For fuller details
see KHDS, II. 1. 658 f.

225. Ferrand , 62 and n.

226. With the above we may compare the description in Kutf. 149 f. of the dress
and get up of a gantkd at the time of entertaining her lover. She should wear
clothes that are soft, washed, and fumigated with incense; she should put on
elegant ornaments, and she should perfume her mouth with a boiled deletion.

398

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

For the last-hamed we have a parallel in. the description of the king’s bath in
Bana’s Kadambari (cf. above, Vol. Ill, p. 571 n 5).

227. Abh. Rat. II. 386, 388-90.

228. Kav. XIII. p. 70.

229. Ibid , XVIII.

230. II. 385, 387.

231. XV. 85-92, 94-101.

232. Upamili, 545.

233. Kar, I.

234. Bala , X.

235. Kav, VIII, p. 39.

236. Ibid, III. pp. 8-9.

237. Bala , X.

238 . CCVIII-CCXXXIX.

239. XCIII.

24C. On Manu, IX. 290.

241 . Upamiti, 158.

242. Ibid, 156.

243. Kar. IV.

244. Vid. III.

245. El, IX, 6.

246. HIED, I. 10.

247. On Manu, III. 158, 166-67; and Ausanasa, IV. 525-26.

248. I. 24. 13-16.

249. EC. VIII.

250*. HIED, I. 9, 10, 164. Hodivala, 9-10.

251. Cf. the quotations in Apararka on Yaj. I. 210, 289-90; Agni Pur dim. CCIX,
23-24. The most well-known names in the list are tuldpurusha and hiranya-
garbha. The first involves the weighing of the donor on scales against gold
which is thereafter distributed among the Brahmanas, while the second in¬
volves the performance of sacraments on the donor seated in a golden vessel
which is thereafter broken and distributed among the Brahmanas. For the
complete list of the mahaddnas and summaries of their procedure, see KHDS,
II. 2. 870-77.

252. Matsya Purana, II. 274-89; Linga Purana, II. 28 f.

253. Cf. Atri, 43-46; Likhita, 6; Yama, 68-70; Agni Purana, CCIX. 2-3 (def. of
ishta and purta).

254. Cf. El, XVIII. 243 f. (Rashfrakuta Dantidurga performed hiranyagarbha) ; El,
IX. 33 f (Rashtrakuta Indra III performed tuldpurusha in A.D. 914); El, VII.
36 (Rashtrakufa Govinda IV performed tuldpurusha); El, I. 140 f ( tuldpurusha
by Chandella king Dhanga).

399

CHAPTER XIII

ECONOMIC LIFE

1. AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND TRADE

In the records of the present period we have abundant evidence
of that advanced state of agriculture which we have found to be a
characteristic of the Gupta and preceding ages, Abhidhanarat-
71a mala mentions a large variety of cereals and other food-grains
with their synonyms.1 The list comprises salt rice of three varieties,
coarse grain ( kodrava ), mustard ( sarshapa ) of two varieties, long
pepper or saffron or ‘‘Italian millet'5 ( priyamgu ), wild sesamum
( jariila ). wild rice (nlvdra), as well as pulses of four different kinds
( masura } kaldya , ralld t and ddhaka). A group of 17 articles (includ¬
ing rice and barley) is included by the Smritis in the category of
grain ( dhdnya ), according to Medhatithi.2 Again, Medhatithi3 men¬
tions sugar-candy (ikshukhanda) and sugar (sarkard) along with
sweetmeats and milk products as illustrations of the varieties of
cooked food. The excellence of Punqlra (North Bengal) sugar-cane,
which yielded juice even without a pressing instrument in contrast
to a variety of sugar-cane ( kosakdra ) with its mass of flowers, is
pointed out in a verse of K d vyamimdihsd , 4 Similarly Vishnudhar-
mottara , quoted in Mitramisra’s Paribhdshdprakdsa , gives a list of
five kinds of grains (dhdnya), viz. barley, wheat, paddy, sesamum,
and edible grains of two varieties ( kahgu or sydmaka and chinaka).5
Among other agricultural products, camphor and aguru are given
as examples of costly articles by Medhatithi.6 The gosirsha variety
of sandalwood is included in a list of specially precious products
in Upamitibhavaprapahchdkatha.1 Other evidence indicates the
knowledge of scientific agriculture. From Abhidhdnaratnamdld we
learn that soils were classified variously as fertile (urvard), barren
(iriria), fallow ( khila ), desert ( maru ), and excellent (mrit&d or
mritsnd), as well as those green with grass (sddvala) or abounding
in reeds ( nadvala ), those which were black or yellow, and those
which owed their fertility to rivers or rains.8 Abhidhdnaratnamdld .
further states that different kinds of fields were selected for different
classes of crops. It gives9 synonyms for fields producing several
varieties of rice (vrihv, sali , kodrava and a variety ripening in 60
days), of beans (mudga and masha), of oil-seeds (sesame and linseed)
as well as those producing hemp, barley, and vegetables. Machines
( yantra ) for crushing big sugar-canes are mentioned in a description

400

ECONOMIC LIFE

of*4he winter season in Upamitibhavaprapanchdkatkd .10 Fields irri¬
gated by Persian wheels (arahata) and by leather buckets are men¬
tioned in a record of A.D. 946, 11 Again, it appears from Medhatithi12
quoted above that the Vaisya {the agriculturist par excellence) was
expected to know among other things what seed was to be sown
thickly and what sparsely, what soil was fitted for a particular kind
of seed and what soil was not so fitted, and what harvest was expect¬
ed from a special variety of seed.

The early Arab writers13 of the ninth and tenth centuries refer
to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation, both of grain
and fruits, specially in Western India with which they were parti¬
cularly acquainted. Some cities in Gujarat grew mangoes, cocoa-
nuts, lemons, and rice in great quantities, and likewise produced
quantities of honey. One such city also grew canes and teak trees,
while Malabar produced pepper and bamboo.

One of the oldest Indian industries is the textile. The progress
of this industry in the Gupta epoch appears to have been continued
during this period. The records of this period131* mention a great
variety and different qualities of textiles such as woollen and hem¬
pen yarns, garments made of silk and of Ranku deer’s hair, and of
sheep’s and goat’s wool. The professions of the weaver, the tailor,
and the dyer (in three different colours, viz . red, blue, and yellow)
are mentioned in contemporary literature.131* Medhatithi14 says that
wives, left unprovided for by their husbands, are to live by such un¬
objectionable occupations as spinning ( kartana ) and lace-making
( jdlikakarana) , and widows forced to live by their own labour are
to subsist by the same occupations.

The working of metals was pursued with as much success as in
the preceding epoch. The list of metals found in contemporary
literature54"* includes copper, bell-metal (or brass), iron, lead, tin,
silver, and gold. Certain centres of metal industry were famous.
From the synonyms given in the Abhidkdnaratnamdld we learn that
Surashtra was famous for its bell-metal, while Vanga was well-
known for its tin industry.35 No less than five centres manufactur¬
ing swords are mentioned in Agni Parana16 along with the distinctive
qualities of their products. These are Khatikhattara and Rishika
(unidentified), ^urparaka (Sopara), Vanga (East Bengal), and Anga
(Monghyr and Bhagalpur Districts). Ibn Haukal17 mentions the city
of Debal in Sindh as famous for the manufacture of swords. Of the
metal- work of this period we have extant specimens in some of the
older Cho]a bronzes. Again, the inscriptions of the Great Temple
at Tanjore mention the gifts of images, ornaments and vessels of
gold, copper, and silver whose recorded weight reaches a very high

401

AJ.K— 2ri

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

figure. A colossal copper water-pot weighing 3083 palas for crown-1
ing the copper pinnacle of the same great shrine was presented by
Rajaraja L18

The art of the jeweller appears to have maintained its old level.
Lists of jewels are preserved in various texts,19 the longest being
found in Agni Purana which mentions no less than 33 kinds of gems
and analyses the good qualities of diamond, emerald, ruby, pearls,
sapphire and vciiduryci ,20 The Tanjore temple inscriptions to which
reference has been made above, distinguish betv/een numerous varie¬
ties of diamonds, rubies, and, above all, pearls, and they point out
the flaws to be found in these gems.21 The lists of presents recorded
in these inscriptions include various kinds of gems and indicate the
uses to which they were put in actual practice. The number and
weight of the objects, which are always given with scrupulous care,
occasionally reach formidable proportions.22 The list of presents
given by Rajaraja I, according to one of these records, included quite
a few nine-jewelled rings with one diamond, one sapphire, one pearl,
one topaz, one cinnamon-stone, one coral, one emerald, one lapis-
lazuli and one ruby set on each.23

On the extent and direction of Indian internal trade the records
are almost completely silent.24 Scattered references indicate that
India’s trade with the outside world was carried on both by land and
sea. To the overland routes described above25 we may add one more
from India to China through Tibet.25a As regards maritime trade, we
know that enterprising Arab merchants from Southern Arabia had
built up by this time, across the Indian Ocean, extensive trade re¬
lations not only with India, but also with the countries of the Far
East as far as China. Of the share of Indians in this trade we have
but scanty knowledge. According to Mas’udi, ships from India along
with those from Basra, Siraf and Oman, from Bjawaga and Champa,
ascended the Khanfu river to reach Khanfu (—Canton), at a distance
of six or seven days’ journey from its junction with the sea. Com¬
ing to Indian sources we find in Trikanda$esha , as explained by the
commentator, a list of names (hoda, tarandhu, and vahana) for ves¬
sels plying on the high seas.26 More important are the reminiscen¬
ces of voyages made by daring Indian merchants, apparently to the
rich lands of South-East Asia, which are found in the contemporary
prose romances.27

It is chiefly from the accounts of the early Arab geographers
that we get a list of the principal Indian sea-ports during the pre¬
sent period. On the coast of Sindh, near the mouths of the Sindhu,
lay Debal, “a large mart and the port not only of this but also of
the neighbouring regions.” On the Gujarat coast were Kambay,

402

ECONOMIC LIFE

Thana, and Sopara, and further south lay Sindan (modern Sanjan,
88 miles north of Bombay), from which was exported pepper. On
the Malabar coast lay the important port of Kaulam Malaya (mo¬
dern Quilon) where the ships sailing from Muscat took in fresh water
before crossing the sea of Harkand (Bay of Bengal) for the journey
to Kalah-bar 28

Turning next to articles of trade, it will be appropriate to begin
with a list of India’s exports. As regards agricultural products, Ibn
Khordadbah 29 writing towards the end of the ninth century, men¬
tions Indian exports consisting of diverse species of aloe-wood, san¬
dalwood, camphor and camphor-water, nutmeg, clovepink, cubele,
cocoanut, vegetable stuffs, and textures of velvety cotton. The early
Arab writers give us detailed reports of exports from different parts
of the country. Thus costus, rattan, camphor-water, indigo, and bam¬
boos were exported from Sindh. It appears that costus from the
Himalayas and indigo from Gujarat, as well as camphor and rattan,
probably from Malay and Sumatra, were brought to the ports of
Sindh for export. According to Kdvyamlmdmsd pine and deodar trees,
grapes, saffron, and jujube were products of Uttarapatha (North-
West India),30 while birch-barks are mentioned as products of the
Himalayas in a verse quoted in the same work.31 According to Ibn
Bosteh, teak was exported from the Rashfrakuta kingdom of Western
India where it was extensively grown. The pepper which was ex¬
ported from Sindan, and the sandals for which Cambay was famous,
according to Arab writers, were sent probably from South India
noted from early times as the home of these products. Kdvyamimdnhsd
mentions among products of Western India (Paschaddesa) varieties
of bamboos, palm trees, bdellium, and date trees.32 The characteris¬
tic products of Malaya Hill (Western Ghats below the Kaverl) in
South India consisted of sandalwood, pepper, cardamom and various
perfume-bearing plants.33 From the extensive reference to the use
of sandalwood which is found in the literature of this period we
can infer that a large and valuable trade in this article was carried
on by South India with the rest of the country. As regards Eastern
India, Purvadesa (defined as the land to the east of Banaras) grew,
according to Ravyamimamsa, different species of fragrant plants and
trees {lavali creeper and granthiparnaka tree) as well as aloes and
grapes.34 Again, Kamarupa, according to Abu Zaid,35 produced a
variety of aloe-wood called k&marubi which was valued sometimes
at 200 dlndras per maund. It was, he says, of the highest quality,
and was so tender as to retain the impression of the seal stamped
on it. It was brought all the way from Kamarupa to the temple of
the Sun-god at Multan, where the merchants bought it from the
priests of the deity. If Abu Zaid’s reference to Kamarupa is to be

403 ,

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

taken as correct, it would point to aloe having been the most valuable
article of export from Assam. It should, however, be mentioned
that another Arab writer Mas’udi, probably with better reason, sub¬
stitutes Khmer (Cambodia) for Kamarupa in the corresponding
passage. Of another kingdom called Rahma (or Ruhmi) by the
Arabs, we are told that it produced Indian aloe- wood and a remark¬
ably fine variety of cotton fabrics. The textiles of Rahma, accord¬
ing to Ibn Khordadbah, were of velvety cotton, while Sulaiman de¬
clared them to be so light and fine that a robe made of that cloth
could be passed through a signet ring. If the identification of
Rahma with the Pa la kingdom could be accepted as correct, it would
follow that cotton textiles of unique fineness were manufactured in
Bengal at this period and exported to other lands.36

As regards animals and animal products Kavyarntmamsd in¬
cludes skins and chowries made of chamara deer's tail among the
products of Uttarapatha, and musk among those of Purvadesa.37 In
the extreme south the Tamraparn! river in the Pandya kingdom, at
the point of its junction with the sea, was still famous for its pearl
fisheries.38 According to Medhatithi,39 precious stones and pearls
in the South, horses in the West, elephants in the East, as well as
saffron, silks, and woollens in Kashmir were royal monopolies, and
private trading in them was punished with confiscation of all the
property of the offender. We may refer, lastly, to the testimony of
two Arab writers, Sulaiman and Mas’udi, that horns of rhinoceros
were exported from the kingdom of Rahma to China for being made
into fashionable and costly girdles.40 The same writers supply the
information that the kingdom of Ruhmi produced “samara” (yak-
tail) hair from which fly-whisks were made.

As for mineral products, antimony (srotQnjana) , rock-salt ( sain -
dhava ), and beryl ( vaidurya ) are mentioned by Rajasekhara41
among the characteristic products of Uttarapatha, The rock-salt
must have come from the famous Salt Range in the Punjab. As re¬
gards precious metals, Sulaiman and Mas’udi4 1a heard reports of the
•existence of gold and silver mines in the kingdom of Gudjra (Gur-
jara-Pratihara kingdom of Kanauj), while they definitely declared
that gold and silver were found in the kingdom of Rahma (Pala
kingdom?) above mentioned. These statements, vague and incon¬
clusive as they are, lack corroboration.

We now turn to the import-trade. The paucity of horses in India
has attracted the attention of foreign observers at all times. We have
during this period the testimony of Sulaiman and Ibn al-Faklh42
that the Indians, unlike the Chinese, had few horses. The best breed
of horses known to India at this period, as in former times, came

404

ECONOMIC LIFE

from Western and Central Asia. Abhidhdnaratnamdld mentions as
examples of excellent horses those of Persia, Vanayu, Kamboja,
Bahlika (Balkh), Sindhu, and the land bordering on the Sindhu.43
Upamitibhavaprapanchdkatkd singles out Bahlika, Kamboja, and
Turushka horses as the best.44 Horses are also included among the
characteristic animals of North-West India in Kuvyamimdmsd . We
may well believe that an extensive and valuable export trade in
horses was carried on with India by the countries on her western
frontier. The importation of wine from Kapisa is hinted at by the
synonym Kapisayana given for wines in Abhidhdnaratnarndld .^5 Ibn
Said,46 an Arab writer of later date, mentions the import of dates
from Basra into Daybul in Sindh. The phrase chlndmsuka (Chinese
silk), found in the literature of this period as in former times, suggests
that this fine stuff was still being brought from China. It is per¬
missible to infer from the stories in the Upamitibhavaprapahchdka -
thd that gems came from South-East Asia. Again, if Abu Zaid and
Mas’udi are correct in their statements, it would follow that the
costly aloe-wood presented to the Sun-god at Multan was imported
from distant Cambodia.

2, THE ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRY AND TRADE

The guilds and similar associations continued to play an im¬
portant part as in the previous centuries. We learn from Medhatithi
that both industrial and mercantile guilds functioned in his time, for
he defines47 the guild ( srenl ) as consisting of people following com¬
mon professions, such as tradesmen, artisans, money-lenders, coach-
drivers, and so forth. From Medhatithi’s illustration of the laws of
guilds in the same context we find that they sometimes compounded
with the government for payment of a fixed sum in place of the
usual share of their profits; in return they took advantage of the
Smriti clause guaranteeing the inviolability of their agreement, and
cornered the market for their own profit.48 More important than
the guild as an example of mercantile organisation was the samgha.
In its generic sense samgha is defined by Medhatithi49 as a com¬
munity of persons following the same pursuit, though belonging to
different castes (jdti) and regions (desa), This is illustrated by the
example of sarhgha s of mendicants ( hhikshu ), of merchants (van ik),
and of those versed in the four Vedas. The mercantile samgha , then,
unlike the guild, was an association of traders comprising different
castes and inhabiting different regions. As Manu’s text60 imposes
the penalty of banishment upon those violating the compact made
under oath with a samgha , it follows from Medhatithi’s interpreta¬
tion just quoted that the mercantile associations, like the guilds, had
the right of making bye-laws that were binding on their members.

405

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Besides the sreni and the samgha there were associations of labour¬
ers, and doubtless of capitalists as well. Illustrating Manu’s
law on the subject Medhatithi5 1 lays down the rule that among archi¬
tects, masons, carpenters, and the like the wages shall be distributed
on the principle that he who does the most difficult part of the job
shall receive more, and he who does the easier part shall get less.

In the inscriptions of this period we have concrete examples,
not only of different classes of guilds, but also of their constitution
and functions. Among the guilds specially mentioned are those of
weavers, potters, gardeners, and artisans. Mention is made of single
as well as multiple headmen (mahattaras) who evidently formed (as
in the old Smriti law of Yajnavalkya and Narada) the executive
of these bodies. The guilds collectively made endowments for pious
objects or received them on trust to provide for such objects out
of the accruing interest. In either case they arranged for distribut¬
ing the task among themselves, evidently in accordance with the old
Smriti rule giving legal authority to the agreement of guilds.82
Sometimes the guilds, no doubt because of their proved honesty,
were entrusted with the task of auditing the accounts of temples,63
Finally we have in the inscriptions of South India evidence of the
working of two famous trading corporations. The first is the mani-
gmmam whose history can be traced from the end of the ninth down
to the thirteenth century. It was apparently a non-denominational
institution open to Hindus as well as Christian settlers, and its acti¬
vities were carried on in the coastal as well as in the inland towns of
South India. The second is the famous Nanadesa-Tisaiyayirattu-

Ainnurruvar which was destined to extend its activities to Burma
• •• •

and Sumatra in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. There is reason
to believe that it was already established by the time of the early
Imperial Cholas, Vijayalaya and Parantaka I.64

While on the subject of guilds and mercantile associations we
may notice the important role of the village-assemblies in the pub¬
lic economy of this period. Repeatedly, in the ninth and tenth cen¬
tury inscriptions of South India, we find village-assemblies called
sabhd and ur receiving deposits of money or gifts of land on trust
for pious and charitable purposes. Out of the interest accruing from
these sums, or the income derived from the land, they undertook to
provide for the objects stipulated by the donor. This implies that
like the guilds described above, the village-assemblies often acted
as bankers and public trustees.65 We have even examples of spe¬
cified markets within various town-limits functioning similarly as
bankers for pious and charitable persons.66

406

ECONOMIC LIFE

3. INTEREST AND WAGES

The old legal rate of interest, laid down in Vasishtha at 15 p.c.
per annum, had ceased to be binding, and the usage had outgrown
even the somewhat flexible rules of later Smriti texts. But
Medhatithi generally upholds the older law relating to usury against
later interpretations. As regards Manu’s higher scale of rates
(2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% per month) to be paid respectively by Brah-
manas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, Medhatithi says57 that
these alternatives are allowable to a money-lender v/ho cannot main¬
tain his family at the l\% rate, or to one who has only a small capi¬
tal, or in case of the borrower not being a specially righteous person.
To this, however, Medhatithi adds the saving clause that the above
rate must not be exceeded by even a half or a quarter. Like the
older Smriti writers Medhatithi permits a series of special rates of
maximum interest, but unlike them he makes these higher rates
dependent upon the fact (or even chance) of the debtor’s success
with his loan. If the money-lender, he says,38 has been reduced
to poverty and the debtor has grown opulent with the wealth earned
from the borrowed grain, the interest shall be five times the prin¬
cipal, but otherwise it shall only be four times the same. Even
where the creditor, continues Medhatithi,69 has reason to believe that
the debtor is about to carry on an extensive business with the capital
lent, he may take the maximum rate of 5% irrespective of the debtor’s
caste and of the articles lent.

The violations of the Smriti law, arising no doubt from the press¬
ing need for capital, were sometimes so frequent as to harden into
regular (if unauthorised) customs. For Medhatithi mentions60 that
in some countries, grains are lent out during spring and double the
quantity is realised in autumn, and sometimes a mortgaged article
is enjoyed even after the value of the produce so enjoyed is equal
to double the amount of the original debt. Such customs, Medha¬
tithi adds, violate Manu’s rule61 that the accumulated debt and
interest shall not exceed double the principal, as well as that of
Yajnavalkya62 limiting the amount of the accumulated interest to
80% of the principal.

The variations in the rate of interest are repeated in the con¬
temporary historical records. In a West India record of A.D. 854,
belonging to the reign of the Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha,63 the
donor, endowing a certain sum of money in favour of a monastery,
declares that after his death the interest (7cm) is to be fixed by com¬
petent persons. In the inscriptions of South India64 we find a
bewildering variety in the rate of interest such as 25, 20, 15, 12£ and
even 5 per cent per annum.

407

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The Smriti lav/ relating to wages can be gleaned from Medha-
tithi.64a The wages which were paid in cash or in kind were fixed
by contract according to the nature of the work to be done, the
contract sometimes extending over a period of six months or even a
year. Wilful breach of the contract rendered the labourer liable to
forfeiture of his wages as well as to payment of compensation to
his employer. Inscriptions of South India during the sway of the
Imperial Cholas give us lists of wages of different classes of skilled
as well as unskilled labourers employed in the temples. These are
specified in terms of the daily supply of paddy and the yearly allow¬
ance of coins, in the yearly supply of paddy, and so forth.65

4. INFLUENCE OF CANON LAW UPON ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT

The old Smriti attitude, viewing the pursuit of agriculture, in¬
dustry, and trade with high disfavour, is continued in the present
period. This general standpoint is reflected in a passage of Medha-
tithi66 where he takes the original text to mean, not that the Vaisya
shall be made, against his will, to perform the occupations of agri¬
culture, money-lending, trade, and cattle-breeding, but that the king
shall punish any other man who does this work except in times of
distress. Coming to particular industries, Medhatithi67 regards
handicrafts as very low occupations, and he illustrates them by the
examples of cooks and weavers. Again, with reference to Manu’s
text including the execution of great mechanical works among minor
sins (upapdtakas) , Medhatithi66 gives as illustrations the construc¬
tion of bridges and of embankments for regulating water-flow.
Medhatithi’s view of the relative status of different occupations is
similar to that of Manu.69 For he says70 that among the Vaiiya’s
occupations agriculture is the worst for a Brahmana, then comes
trade, and next the tending of cattle and so forth.

5. GENERAL ECONOMIC CONDITION

The above survey provides broad hints of the general econo¬
mic condition of the people during the present age. That the state
of agriculture, industry, and trade in these times was at least as
advanced as in the preceding centuries is borne out, as shown above,
by the joint evidence of general literature, historical records, and
foreign writings. It is worth remarking that those parts of the
country like Sindh and Gujarat, which came specially under the
observation of the Arab visitors, are specially noted for their fer¬
tility and good cultivation. The variety and excellence of Indian
textiles and metal-work, and above all of Indian jewellery, are

408

ECONOMIC LIFE

attested to by literary as well as epigraphic evidence. The sea
and land routes of Indian teachers visiting China, Central Asia, and
Tibet, as well as South-East Asia, were no doubt followed by the
Indian merchants as well, reminiscences of whose unrecorded ad¬
ventures have been partially preserved in the form of stories in
the contemporary Jain prose romances. The daring and enterprise
as well as the profit-motive of the merchants, of which we get such
vivid accounts in the Jain stories, no doubt more than compensated
for the discouragement held out by the traditional Smriti law. About
the condition of the people, it is possible to form a general opinion.
The quantity and richness of the presents in gold, silver, and jewyels
offered by Rajaraja I to the Tan j ore temple, and the fabulous wealth
of Indian temples described by Muslim writers, specially in connec¬
tion with Sultan Mahmud’s invasions, illustrate the high prosperity
not only of the Imperial courts but also of the great shrines of this
period. Some of the Imperial capitals must have attained conside¬
rable magnitude. In the reign of Rajaraja I the city of Tan j ore,
according to two contemporary inscriptions,71 contained at least 25
streets, bazaars and quarters.72 That the high level of prosperity
was a fairly general one, at least in some regions, may be proved not
only from the broad descriptions of the standard of living given
above, but also from subsidiary evidence recorded in literature.

1. Abh. Rat. , II. 425-29.

2. On Manu, VIII. 320.

3. Ibid , VIE. 326 f.

4. Kdv, XII.

5. Paribhashdprakdsa, 115.

6. On Mann, VIII. 321.

7. Upamiti . 420.

8. Abh . Rat, II. 3-6.

9. Ibid, n. 7-9.

10. Upamiti , 585.

11. El, XIV. 182..

12. On Manu, IX, 330.

13. HIED, I. 15-16, 24, 27-8, 35, 37-40; Ferrand, 117.

13a. Cf. Medhatithi on Manu, II. 98; VIII, 321; VIII. 326; Kar, I.

13b. Abh. Rat., 11.433 f; Matsya Pur ana, (quoted by Apar^rka on Yg.j, II. 289-90).

14. On Manu, IX, 75.

14a. Abh. Rat., II. 15-9; Bhavishya Purdna (quoted in Paribhashdprakdsa, 115).

15. Abh. Rat, II. 15 f.

16. CCXLV, 21 f.

17. HIED, I. 37.

18. Cf. SII, II. Nos. 1, 2, 29, 30, 32, 34, 38, 39; 42-44, 46-52, 55, 56, 79-81, 84, 91.

19. Abh. Rat, II. 20-1; Aditya Purdna (quoted in Paribhashdprakdsa, 115). UpcCmiti,
420.

20. Agni Purdna, CCXLVI. 1 f.

21 . For a convenient summary with full references, see Sll, II. Introd. 16-17 and n.

22. Thus among donations given to the temple by Rajaraja I are mentioned (SII,
II. No. 93) gold necklaces, armlets, bracelets, arm-rings etc. set with rubies,
emeralds, diamonds, sapphires, pearls, amethyst and crystals, sandalwood coat¬
ed with plates of gold and set with various kinds of jewels and so forth. The
gifts of Rajaraja I’s queens included (ibid, Nos. 34, 46, 51) ornaments on which

409

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

were strung pearls, coral, lapis lazuli, and sapphire. Ornaments sets with pearls
of three varieties, coral, lapis lazuli, and so forth were presented (ibid, No. 6)
by Rajaraja I’s elder sister. Presents given by Rajaraja I’s general comprised
(ibid, No. 3D) golden ornaments set with pearls, diamonds, crystals and so forth.
The temple manager donated to the shrine of Ganapati at the same temple a
magnificent ring made of gold and set with eight rubies, two crystals, 14
diamonds, and 119 pearls (ibid. No. 86). Among presents made to the temple
by a private donor in Rajaraja I's reign were included (ibid, No. 79) golden
ear-rings set with pearls, pearl-ornaments, a gold marriage-badge set with five
diamonds and one ruby, sacred foot-strings set with pearls, and so forth. In a
list of treasures belonging to the same temple are included (ibid, No. 59) a
diadem containing more than 343 karanju of gold, ten diamond crystals, 64
corals, and no less than 13328 pearls as well as nine golden girdles adorned with
crystals, pearls, and coral. Another list of treasures belonging to the same
temple dated in the reign of Rajaraja I includes (ibid, No. 3) sacred girdles and
bracelets of gold set with pearls, a sacred crown of gold set with diamonds,
crystals, and pearls, a sacred garland of gold set with crystals and pearls, and
a sacred outer parasol of gold set with crystals and pearls. Many of the sacred
girdles contained more than 1500 pearls each, while the outer parasol contain¬
ed 1372 pearls.

23. SII, II. No. 93.

24. Cf. however, the story in Kdv. Ill, describing the sale of a pearl, found in
S. India at Kanauj.

25. Vol II, pp. 606, 613, 617 ff, 644.

25a. Cf. Ya’kubi’s list of products imported into India (F errand, 50-52).

26. Trikandasesha, I, 19.6.

27. B hat?. Ill- VI; Upamiti, 860-904, 996-1002.

28. For references, see HIED, I. 15, 37, 441; F err and, 32, 38-40. 55, 57; 64, 95. On
the above see also Hobson-Jobson s.v. Cambay, Deul-Sind, Quilon, Saint-
John’s, Sopara and Tana.

29. F errand, 31.

30. Kdv. XVII. 94.

31. Ibid, XIV. 81.

32. Ibid, XVII, 94.

33. Abh. Ratn. II. 388; Kar . I; Kdv. XIV, XVII; Bala. 670,

34. Kdv. XVII, 93.

35 . F errand, 88.

36. Ramha identified with Pala kingdom of Bengal (HBR, I. 122) but F errand (29
and 43 n) identifies it with Pegu and Qoedes (Hisioire Ancienne des Etais
Hindouises d’Extreme-Oricnt 135 ) with Lower Burma. Probably the Arab
accounts have jumbled together the records of the two kingdoms of Bengal
and Lower Burma.

37. Kdv., XVII. 93.

38. Cf. Kdv. V. XIV; Bdla, 671; Kar. III.

29. On Manu, VIII. 399.

40. These girdles were prized so highly by Chinese royalty and grandees that they
sometimes fetched 2000 or even 4000 dindras each (Ferrand, 44, 105). To the
above we may add the curious statement of Ibn al-Faklh (Ferrand, 57), that
perfumed rats were exported from Sindh to Zabag.

41. Kdv., XVII. 94.

41a. Ferrand, 43, 104.

42. Ferrand, 62 and n.

43. II. 284.

44. Upamiti, 474.

45. II. 174.

46. Ferrand , 48 n.

47. On Manu, VIII. 41.

48. Certain principal tradesmen, says Medhatithi (loc. cit.), offer to the king his
royal dues fixed verbally by declaring before him: “We are living by this
trade, let the tax thereupon be fixed at such and such a rate, be our profits
more or less.” Now on the king agreeing to this proposal, the tradesmen join
together and" lay down certain rules among themselves tending to bring them
large profits and injure the interest of the kingdom, e.g. such and such a com¬
modity should not be sold during such and such a time. If any one among them
transgresses these rules, he shall be punished for breach of the guild-laws

49. On Manu% VIH. 219.

410

ECONOMIC LIFE

50. VIII. 219.

51. On Manu, VIII. 211.

52. Cf. EL I. 159; VI. 166; XIII. 192; XXIV. 333; S1I. III. No. 91.

53. Cf. Ins, of reign of Uttamachola SIX, III. No. 124 (local merchants join with
village-assembly as well as temple-officers in making up accounts of gifts of
gold to a temple).

54. On Manigrdmam see El, IV. 248 and ARSIE, 1926-27, pp. 93-94 giving a number
of references. On Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Aihhurruvar see K, A. Nilakanta
Sastri, The Cholas, Vol. II Part I, 419-20 and the references quoted there.

55. Cf. ARSIE , 469-70 of 1925-26; App. B. of 958 and 963 A.D.: 109 of 1932-33; 503
of 1929-30; App. B.; SII, III. No. 44 of 888 A.D.. ibid, No. 1. SII, II. Nos. 7, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 35; SII, XII. Nos. 75, 87, 90; El, XXVI. 234-35.

56. Cf.^ SII, II. Nos. 24 and 37. In El, XXI. 109 f a pious endowment of 1400
kdsus is deposited by Pandya king Varaguna Maharaja II with Brahmanical
and non-Brahmanical village assemblies ( sabha and ur ) as well as a town-
council (nagar attar) .

56a. On Manu, VIII. 151.

57. On Momt, VIII. 142.

58. Ibid, VIE. 151.

59. Ibid, VIII. 152.

60. Ibid, VIII. 3.

61. Manu, VIII. 151.

62. Ydj, HI. 37.

63. I A, Xin. 134.

64. El, IX. 89 XI. 228 XXI. 109; XXVI. 234; SII, XU Nos. 75, 87, 90; HI. Nos, 94,

103, 105, 186, 190, 128; II. Nos. 6, 9, 24, 25, 26, 28, 35, 37.

64a. On Manu, VIII. 215.

65. For a list of wages mentioned in Tanjore Temple Inscriptions, see SIX, II. Introd.
p. IB. Also see Altekar, AR, 395-98, for some calculations of equivalents of
salaries and wages figuring in Karnatak and South Indian Inscriptions of this
period.

66. On Manu, VIII. 410.

67. Ibid, X. 99.

68. Ibid, XI. 64.

69. X. 80 f.

70. Manu. X. 85.

71. S

72. F

411

CHAPTER XIV

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

I. THE SAILENDRA EMPIRE

The outstanding fact in the history of South-East Asia in the
eighth century A.D. is the rise of a great empire which comprised
Sumatra, Java, Malay Peninsula, and most of the islands of the
Indian archipelago. The rulers of this empire belonged to the 6ailen-
dra dynasty. They put an end to the supremacy of Sri-Vijaya in
Malay Peninsula,1 and occupied a large part, if not the whole, of it
by the end of the eighth century A.D. Some time before A.D. 778
they had conquered Western and Central Java. It is generally
held that they were originally rulers of &ri-Vijaya (Palembang in
Sumatra) and extended their authority gradually over Java and
Malay Peninsula; but this view rests upon a very slender basis. It
is equally likely that the Sailendras first rose to power either in
Java or in Malay Peninsula.

We do not possess sufficient data to reconstruct an outline of
the history of the &ailendras. The names of a few early kings
flourishing in the eighth century A.D. may be traced in contem¬
porary epigraphic records. One of them is probably Rajadhiraja
Vishnu. Another, king Dharanlndra, is described as “the orna¬
ment of the ^ailendra dynasty who has conquered kings in all dir¬
ections, and who has crushed the most powerful hero of the enemy.”
Another, king Sangramadhananjaya, is also mentioned in a record
of the last-mentioned king, but the relation between the two is not
specified.

The Nalanda Charter of the reign of Devapaia, mentioned
above,2 refers to three generations of ^ailendra kings. It first men¬
tions the great king of Yava-bhumi. His proper name is not men¬
tioned, but we are told that it meant ‘tormentor of brave foes\ The
original Sanskrit expression * mra-vairi-mathana. 9 immediately re¬
calls the epithet ‘va iri-iiara-vira-vimardana’ applied to the Sailendra
king Dharanlndra mentioned above, and the two may be regarded
as identical. The son and successor of Dharanlndra is named Sama-
ragravlra. This king married Tara, daughter of a king whose name
has been read both as Varma-setu and Dharma-setu. The former
reading seems preferable. Those who adopt the latter reading sug¬
gest his identification with the Emperor Dharmapala of Bengal,

412

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

The SGn of Samaragravlra and Tara was Balaputradeva, who is call¬
ed king of Suvarnadvipa, a term which denotes in a general way the
whole of Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago.

More definite information is, however, available in respect of
the extent of the empire and its wealth and grandeur. This is main¬
ly derived from the accounts of various Arab writers in the ninth
and tenth centuries A.D. They refer to the country as Zabag or
Zabaj and call its king Maharaja . According to Ibn Khordadbah
(A.D. 844-848) the daily revenue of the king amounted to two hun¬
dred mans of gold. Sulaiman (A.D. 851) says that Kalah-b^r (i.e.
the country round the Isthmus of Kra in the Malay Peninsula) is a
part of the empire of Zabag. Ibn al-Faklh (A.D. 902) adds that
there is no country in the south after Zabag and its king is very rich.
Ibn Rosteh (A.D. 903) remarks about the great king of Zabag that
4he is not regarded as the greatest among the kings of India, because
he dwells in the islands.’ But he adds: “No other king is richer
or more powerful than he and none has more revenue.”

Abu Zaid Hasan (A.D. 916) gives a more detailed account of
the kingdom of Zabag. “The area of the kingdom,” says he, “is
about 900 (square) par sang s (1 par sang = 3 miles). The king is
also overlord of a large number of islands extending over a length
of 1,000 parsangs or more. Among the kingdoms over which he
rules are the island called Sribuza (Sri Vijaya) with an area of about
400 (square) parsangs, the island called Rami with an area of about
800 (square) parsangs , and the maritime country of Kalah with an
area of 80 (square) parsangs”

Mas’udi (A.D. 943) also gives a long and interesting account of
Zabag which, he says, separates India from China and is comprised
within the former country. About the extent and wealth of Zabag
he remarks: “In the bay of Champa is the empire of Maharaja,
the king of the islands, who rules over an empire without limit and
has innumerable troops. Even the most rapid vessels could not
complete in two years a tour round the isles which are under his
possession. The territories of this king produce all sorts of spices
and aromatics, and no other sovereign of the world gets as much
wealth from the soil”.

Al-Biruni (A.D. 1030) tells us that “the eastern islands in this
ocean, which are nearer to China than to India, are the islands of
the Zabaj, called by the Hindus, Suvarna-dvlpa, i.e. the gold islands
. . . because you obtain much gold as deposit if you wash only a
little of the earth of that country.” This common geographical name
Suvama-dvipa, roughly denoting the Sailendra Empire, perhaps
owes its origin to that great historical fact.

418

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

These accounts of the Arab writers, to which others may be
added, leave no doubt that the Sailendra empire was extensive and
powerful and comprised a large part of the Malay Peninsula and
Malay Archipelago collectively known as Suvarna-dvipa. There are ,
also good grounds to believe that the ^ailendras exercised supre¬
macy over Kambuja till Jaya-varman II freed his country early in
the ninth century A.D. It is also likely that the frequent Javanese
naval raids on Annam (Champa) and Tonkin, to which reference
will be made later, were really carried out by the Sailendras who
then occupied Java. Thus the Sailendras were the leading naval
power in the East, and their influence was felt on the eastern coast
of Indo-China as far as the border of the Chinese empire.

This naval supremacy enabled the &ailendras to control the
sea-borne trade between China and the Western countries. Mas’udI
observes that formerly there was direct voyage between China and
ports like Siraf and Oman, but in his time the port of Kalah served
as the meeting place for the mercantile navies of the two countries.

As noted above, Kalah was in Malay Peninsula within the domi¬
nions of Zabag. Abu Zaid Hasan also informs us that “the town of
Kalah is the most important commercial centre for trade in aloe,
camphor, sandalwood, ivory, tin, ebony, spices, and various other
articles.” He adds that there was a regular maritime intercourse
between this port and Oman. .

The control over the vast maritime trade of those days explains
the fabulous wealth of the Maharaja of Zabag referred to by most
of the Arab writers. Several of them record a curious story which
is narrated by Abu Zaid Hasan as follows: “There is one very
extraordinary custom in Zabag. The palace of the king is connect¬
ed with the sea by a shallow lake. Into this, the king throws every
morning a brick made of solid gold. These bricks are covered by
water during tide, but are visible during ebb. When the king dies,
all these bricks are collected, counted, and weighed, and these are
entered in official records. The gold is then distributed among the
members of the royal family, generals, and royal slaves according
to their rank, and the remnant is distributed among the poor.”

The Chinese annals contain frequent references to a kingdom
called San-fo-tsi which undoubtedly stands for the Sailendra empire.

It sent embassies to China in A.D. 904 or 905, 960, 961, 962, 971,
972, 974, 975, 980 and 983.

The trade relations with China were also revived in the tenth
century. A regular shipping house was opened at Canton in A.D.

971 and two more at a later period, which were frequented by mer¬
chants from San-fo4si and other places in the East Indies.

414

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

We further learn from Chinese sources that towards the close
of the tenth century A.D. there were bitter hostilities between San-
fo-tsi and Java. About A.D. 990 Java invaded San-fo-tsi and at
first obtained some success. San-fo-tsi sought the protection of
China, for she was reduced to such a state that her envoys could not
voyage safely from China back to their country. But in A.D. 1003
San-fo-tsi recovered sufficient strength to send an embassy to China
without any hindrance from Java. Three years later Java was com¬
pletely crushed, as we shall see later, and the Sailendras were no
longer threatened by that power.

The foundation of the Sailendra empire was an epoch-making
event. For the first time in its history Malay asia, or the greater
part of it, achieved a political unity under an empire, and a common
geographical name Suvarna-dvipa was applied to it. It will appear
from what has been said above that the power of the Sailendras
reached its zenith in the latter half of the eighth century A.D. In
the ninth century both Kambuja and Java threw off their yoke as
will be described later. Nevertheless the Chinese and the Arab
accounts clearly show that the Sailendra empire continued to be a
powerful and extensive one throughout the ninth and tenth cen¬
turies A.D.

The Sailendras introduced in Java a new type of Indian alphabet
which differed considerably from the current one locally evolved
from an older form of Indian alphabet. Another significant fact
about this time is the adoption of a new name, Kalinga, for
Malayasia, at least by foreigners. These seem to indicate that the
Sailendras were fresh arrivals from India, but there is no positive
evidence in support of this view. There is, however, no doubt that
they had a close and intimate connection with India. The Sailendra
rulers were devoted followers of the Mahayana form of Buddhism
and they evidently derived it from Bengal. The Sailendra emperor,
Dharanindra-varman, who ruled in A.D. 782, had as his guru or pre¬
ceptor an inhabitant cf Gauda (a part of Bengal) named Kumara-
ghosha. About the middle of the ninth century A.D. king Balaputra-
deva of the Sailendra dynasty, mentioned above, built a monastery
at Nalanda, and requested the Pala emperor Devapaladeva of
Bengal3 to grant five villages for its upkeep. Devapala complied
with the request, and this fact is recorded in his copper-plate grant
which also gives a short account of Balaputradeva. Similarly the
Sailendras had intimate connections with the Chola rulers of South
India in the eleventh century A.D. as will be described later.

The Sailendras introduced a new type of culture, the most pro¬
minent memorials of which are the splendid monuments in Java

415

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

such as Barabudur which still excites the wonder and admiration
of the world.

II. KAMBUJA
1. Jaya-varman II and III

The mighty and extensive kingdom founded by the family of
Bhava-varman was split up into a number of states in the eighth
century A.D. Two of these are referred to by the Chinese as ‘Kam-
buja of the land’ and ‘Kambuja of the water.’ The exact limits of
these two kingdoms are not easy to determine. In all probability
the former denoted the territory , full of hills and valleys, to the
north of Cambodia proper, including a large part of Laos and touch¬
ing the Chinese province of Tonkin and the Thai kingdom of Yunnan.
This kingdom, which extended along the middle course of the Me¬
kong, sent an embassy to China in A.D. 717, but five years later sent
an army to help an Annamese chief who had revolted against China.
But friendly relations with China were restored, and in 771 the
king visited the Imperial court. The last embassy was sent to China
in A.D. 799.

The ‘Kambuja of the water’, or Kambuja proper, comprised
the lower valley of the Mekong river. A number of kingdoms
flourished in this region in the eighth century, and inscriptions refer
to three of them with capitals respectively at Sambhupura, Vyadha-
pura, and Aninditapura. The first of these is represented by modern
Sambor on the Mekong. Vyadhapura was situated most probably
at the foot of the hill called Ba Phnom, and possibly this kingdom
represented ancient Fu-nan. The site of Aninditapura is probably
to be looked for in the region east of Angkor on the northern side
of the Great Lake. No detailed account of any of these kingdoms
is known, though inscriptions have preserved the names of a number
of kings. It is interesting to note that the rulers of Aninditapura
regarded themselves as descendants of Kaundinya, the reputed foun¬
der of the Hindu kingdom of Fu-nan, and Soma, the local Naga
princess married by him.

The political disintegration of Kambuja in the eighth century
A.D. made it an easy victim of the neighbouring powers. King
San jay a of Java (A.D. 732) conquered the country, and possibly the
Sailendra Emperors of Java, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula also
exercised supremacy over it in the latter part of the eighth century
A.D.

But Kambuja threw off the foreign yoke and rose to prominence
early in the ninth century A.D. under its famous king Jaya-varman II.

416

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

This king spent his early years in Java, in what capacity we do not
know. But he came to Kambyja and became its king in A.D. 802.
He moved from one capital to another till he fixed it on the top of
the hill called Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen, to the north-west
of Angkor Thom). There he invited a Brahman a named Hiranya¬
dama from Janapada (probably in India) to perform some Tantrik
rites, so that Kambujadesa might no longer be dependent on Java
but have a paramount ruler of its own. Hiranyadama instituted
the cult of Devaraja, and initiated Sivakaivalya, the royal guru
(preceptor), into the rituals of this worship. Jaya-varman II took
a vow to employ the family of Sivakaivalya and none else to cele¬
brate the worship of Devaraja. The king then returned to his old
capital city of Hariharalaya (Lolei, 13 miles to the south-east of
Angkor) ai)d reigned there till his death.

This short account of king Jaya-varman II is derived from a
long record incised in A.D. 1052 by a descendant of Sivakaivalya,
whose family had filled the post of Royal Priest from the reign of
Jaya-varman II till that time, — a period of 250 years. It is a long
record of 340 lines containing 130 verses in Sanskrit and 146 lines
of prose text in the native Khmer language. It describes in detail
the Tantrik rites performed by Hiranyadama and proves the great
hold of Indian culture in these distant colonies.

Although we do not possess any record of the time of Jaya-
varman II, we may form a fair idea of his life and reign from scat¬
tered notices in later inscriptions and literary traditions. It is obvi¬
ous that he did not ascend the throne of Kambuja by hereditary right,
though it is very likely that he was remotely related to some royal
families of Kambuja. Why he went to Java and how he became
the ruler of Kambuja remain unknown, but there is no doubt that
he freed the country from foreign yoke. The most interesting thing
in his early career is the frequent change of capitals, no less than
five of which are mei ioned in the record referred to above.
Although the sites of all these capitals cannot be definitely deter¬
mined, it appears that Jaya-varman fixed his first capital — Indra-
pura — not far from the ancient royal seat of Sambhupura, and that
he was a native of this region. Then we find a gradual change of
the royal seat towards the west, first towards Angkor, then further
west towards Battambang, and lastly back again to Angkor. It is
generally held that these changes were either due to royal caprices
or inspired by a desire to find a suitable site for the capital of the
newly founded kingdom. But it is equally likely that the changes
indicate troubles which forced the king to take refuge in different
parts of the country at different times. Or it may be that it took

417

A.I.K. — 27

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

him many years to establish his supremacy over the country as a
whole, and the different capitals merely indicate the different stages
of political consolidation from the east to the west; ultimately, when
the whole eountr^ had been subdued, he fixed his capital finally at
Hariharalaya in the central part of the kingdom.

It is stated in an inscription of Hari-varman, king of Champa,
dated A.D. 817, that his army ravaged Kambuja and advanced up
to the very heart of the kingdom. If is not unlikely that this forced
Jaya-varman II to leave the eastern and central part of the kingdom
and betake himself to the western region.

On the whole, although we do not know of many specific events
in the reign of Jaya-varman II, there is no doubt that he played an
important part in the history of Kambuja. After a century of
political disintegration and foreign conquest he restored the freedom
and unity of the kingdom of Kambuja, and gave it a stability which
put it on the road to a splendid and glorious career for many cen¬
turies. Posterity remembered him as one of the greatest kings, and
most flattering references are made to him in inscriptions centuries
after his death. Even now the Kambuja tradition represents him
as a divine hero, the son of Indra. The sacred sword of Kambuja,
which is still used by its kings at the ceremony of coronation and
is jealously guarded by priests who claim descent from the old
Brahmanas, is believed to be a relic of Jaya-varman II, who remains
the national hero and a great landmark in Kambuja history. Popu¬
lar tradition also ascribes to him most of the' grand monuments in
ancient Kambuja, but we cannot definitely associate any of the
existing buildings with his name. The cult of Devaraja instituted by
him, which continued to be the state religion for many centuries,
was a form of Tantrik Saivism. He died in A.D. 854 and received
the name of Paramesvara after his death. Henceforth it became a
fashion to give such posthumous names to the kings, and these
were usually formed by adding the word loka or pada to a divine
name (Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, Indra, etc.). All these go to prove the
thorough-going influence of Indian culture on Kambuja.

Jaya-varman II was succeeded by his son Jaya-varman III who
ruled from A.D. 854 to 877. Except his inordinate passion for ele¬
phant-hunting, we do not know anything about him. With him ends
the direct line of Jaya-varman II. According to a Chinese chroni¬
cler, who visited his kingdom in A.D. 862, it included the whole of
Laos in the north and almost touched the frontier of Yunnan. How
much of it was acquired by him or by his father, it is difficult to say.
But it is fairly certain that under Jaya-varman II and his son the
kingdom of Kambuja had grown into a powerful empire.

418

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

The Arab writers give us a glimpse of the history and culture
of Kambuja of this period. Ya’kubI . (c. A.D. 875) describes the
Khmer kingdom as vast and powerful, the king of which receives
homage of other kings. Ibn Kosteh (A.D. 903) says that “there are
eighty judges in the Khmer country. Even if a son of the king
appears before them they would judge equitably and treat him as
an ordinary complainant.” Several Arab writers bestow high
praise on the Khmers for their abstinence from drinking and debau¬
chery in general. Ibn Khordadbah (A.D. 844-848) says: “The kings
and peoples of India abstain from drinking wine but they do not
consider adultery as an illicit act, with the sole exception of the
Khmer king who forbids both drinking and adultery.” This is
repeated by several other Arab writers. It is interesting to note
that in the passage quoted above, Khmer is included in India.

2. Dynasty of Indra-varman

King Indra-varman, who succeeded Jaya-varman III and found¬
ed a new royal line, was but very remotely related to the latter.
His queen IndradevI was connected with the royal families of the
three kingdoms of Sambhupura, Aninditapura, and Vyadhapura
mentioned above. The mother of IndradevI, named RajendradevI,
was descended from a royal family founded by Agastya, a Brahmana
from Aryadesa (i.e. India). These facts, interesting in themselves,
and indicating the importance of both Indra-varman and his queen,
do not show that they had any hereditary right of succession. It is
probable that Indra-varman was the ruler of one of the vassal states
in Kambuja, and had somehow managed to secure the throne. The
respectful terms in which the inscriptions of the new family refer
to Jaya-varman II and III preclude the idea of any open rebellion
by Indra-varman.

But the change in the royal family did not affect in any way
either the extent of the kingdom or its political importance. On
the other hand Indra-varman claims in his record that his commands
were respectfully obeyed by the rulers of China, Champa, and Yava-
dvipa. Such specific claims cannot be dismissed as mere figments
of imagination. As we have seen above, Kambuja was made to suffer
a great deal by both Champa and Java (Yava-dvipa) towards the
close of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth century A.D. It
is very likely that she turned against her old enemies and scored
some success. There are also good grounds to believe, as we shall
see later, that Indra-varman extended his sway over the province
of Yunnan, and it is evidently in this region that he came into con¬
flict with China.

419

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Indra-varman was a great builder, and the extant monuments
of his reign belong to an intermediate stage between the Primitive
and Classical art of Kambuja. His inscriptions refer in detail to
his building activities. We are told that he excavated a big tank
called Indra-ta^aka, constructed a simhdsana (royal throne) accord¬
ing to his own design, the vehicle called Indra-yana, Indra-vimanaka,
and Indra-prasadaka (probably two palaces), all made of gold, built
various temples and installed images therein.

Indra-varman died after a reign of twelve years (877-889) and
was succeeded by his son Yaso-varman who occupies a place of
honour in the history of Kambuja. He founded a new capital city
which was at first called Kambupuri and later Yasodhara-pura. For
a long time this city was believed to be the same as Angkor Thom
whose magnificent ruins still excite the admiration of the world.
But it is now generally held that the new capital was situated on
the top of the hill called Phnom Bakhen, but it extended beyond
the hill and included a large part of the present site of Angkor Thom.
This region remained the centre of Kambuja power and culture till
their decline and downfall.

Yaso-varman has left quite a large number of inscriptions,
which throw interesting light not only on his life and reign, but on
the new type of civilisation, associated with Angkor, which was
largely his own creation, and whose glory and splendour form the
most brilliant chapter in the history of Kambuja.

Yaso-varman is credited with numerous military campaigns,
including a naval expedition, and is said to have reinstated van¬
quished kings and married their daughters. But no specific details
are stated. There is, however, no doubt that he ruled over a vast
empire. On the north it included Yunnan and reached the frontier
of the then kingdom of China. On the west it was bounded by the
mountains forming the watershed between the rivers Menam and
Salween. The eastern and southern boundaries were formed res¬
pectively by the kingdom of Champa and the sea.

Yaso-varman was not only a great patron of art and literature
but was himself a great scholar. He was fond of Sdstras and Kavyas
and is said to have composed a commentary on Patanjali’s Mahi-
bhtishya. He was liberal in his religious views, and though a devot¬
ed follower of Saivism, patronised Buddhism generously. He
founded numerous asramas or abodes of religious communities, and
made elaborate regulations for them, many copies of which, engrav¬
ed on stone, still exist and mark the spots where these sacred her¬
mitages stood. These and numerous other records of the time

420

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

indicate a happy, prosperous and peaceful kingdom ruled over by
an able and wise monarch who took all possible measures to ensure
the welfare of the kingdom in all its aspects, political, economic,
religious, and social. Even making due allowances for the usual
exaggerations of court-poets, we must regard Yaso-varman as a
brave general and an ideal king who excelled both in the arts of
peace and war. There was undoubtedly some basis and justi¬
fication for the statement in these records that the glory of Yaso-
varman was sung, even after his death, by the people “in their
games, on their beds, and in their travels.” It reminds us of a similar
verse in praise of Dharmapala4 with whom Yaso-varman may be
aptly compared.

Yaso-varman died about A.D. 900 and was succeeded by his
two sons, Harsha-varman I and Isana-varman XL But the latter was
overthrown some time before A.D. 928 by Jaya-varman IV, the
husband of a sister of Yaso-varman. The usurper removed the
capital as well as the tutelary deity Devaraja to Koh Ker (Chok
Gargyar), situated in a wild barren country about 50 miles to the
north-east of Angkor. The only known important event in the reign
of Jaya-varman IV is his successful fight with Champa, whose ruler
he is said to have crushed.

Jaya-varman IV was succeeded by his son Harsha-varman II in
A.D. 941 or 942. Next came Rajendra-varman, the son of another
sister of Yaso-varman. °-It is likely that there were struggles for
succession to the throne in which Rajendra-varman came out victo¬
rious. He ascended the throne in A.D. 944 and removed the capital
back again to Ya^odhara-pura which had been deserted for a long
time. Rajendra-varman has left a large number of long records,
which credit him with victorious campaigns in all directions. But
the only specific event that we know of is 'his successful invasion of
Champa in the course of which he advanced as far as the Khan-hoa
province and desecrated the Po Nagar temple.

Rajendra-varman died in A.D. 968 and was succeeded by his son
Jaya-varman V. Although &aivism remained the official religion,
the king was an ardent champion of Buddhism, and issued regula¬
tions and instructions for the propagation of that faith. He was
also a great builder and led a successful invasion against Champa,
He died in A.D. 1001 and with him ended the direct line of Indra-
varman.

3. General Review

The two centuries that intervened between the accession of
Jaya-varman II and the death of Jaya-varman V were marked by a

421

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

rapid growth of the Kambuja empire, and constitute an important
chapter in the history of Indian cultural and colonial expansion in
Indo-China. In order to understand this properly we must take
a bird’s-eye view of the general political condition of Indo-China
in the tenth century A.D.

The Chinese annals give a broad and comprehensive survey of
the political geography of Indo-China about the year A.D. 960 when
the Song dynasty began its rule in China. The whole of Tonkin,
with the two districts in Annam immediately adjoining to the south,
constituted the Chinese province of Ngan-nan; but it became an
independent state under an Annamese chief in A.D. 968, and its
name changed to Dai-co-viet. To the north and north-west was
the independent Hinduised Thai principality of Nan-Chao or Mithila-
rashtra (North Yunnan) that had thrown off the Chinese yoke about
A.D. 730. To the south and west of these two lay the well-known
kingdoms of Champa, Kambuja, and Bamahhadesa (Lower Burma).
The central region of the Peninsula, surrounded by these states, was
peopled by the Thais who had imbibed the rudiments of Hindu civi¬
lisation and set up a number of principalities which bore Hindu or
Hinduised names.

The extension of the political supremacy of Kambuja beyond its
northern boundary can be definitely traced as far back as A.D. 862
when the kingdom of Alavi-rashtra,- comprising the southern part
of Yunnan, formed a part of the Kambuja empire according to a
Chinese chronicler who visited these regions in that year. In the
light of this we cannot dismiss, as fanciful, the claim of Indra-varman
that his commands were obeyed by the king of China, and of Yaio-
varman that his empire reached up to the frontier of China, Pos¬
sibly they conquered Mithila-rashtra or North Yunnan, and thus
reached the very border of what then formed the kingdom of China.
Many local chronicles have preserved reminiscences of the Kambuja
rule along the valley of the Upper Mekong as far north as Yunnan.

The Kambuja kingdom also expanded along the valley of the
Menam river in the west. Lavapurl, which comprised the territory
extending from the Gulf of Siam in the south as far as Kampheng
Phet on the north, formed an integral part of the Kambuja kingdom,
which also exercised political authority over the numerous petty
states in the northern part of Siam (or Thailand). The northernmost
of th^se bore the very significant name Khmera-rashtra or the
kingdom of the Khfners (the people of Kambuja), and touched the
Kambuja kingdom of Alavi-rashfra mentioned above.

To the south of Siam, the part of Malay Peninsula lying to the
north of the Isthmus of Kra belonged to Kambuja. The rest of the

422

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

Malay Peninsula belonged to the Sailendras who also ruled over
Java and Sumatra, Indra-varman’s claim of supremacy over Java
may refer to a successful contest with the Sailendras, though noth¬
ing is definitely known.

As regards the kingdom of Champa, references have been made
to frequent fights between it and Kambuja almost throughout the
ninth and tenth centuries A.D. There seems to be no doubt that
Kambuja gained the upper hand in these struggles at least in the
tenth century A.D.

It is thus apparent that under the two powerful dynasties found¬
ed by Jaya-varman II and Indra-varman, Kambuja had emerged
from comparative obscurity into the most powerful kingdom in
Indo-China. Its power and magnificence impressed the Arab travel¬
lers, and one of them Ibn a! -Fa kin (A.D. 902) describes the Khmer
kingdom as having an extent of four months’ march.

III. CHAMPA

1. The Dynasty of Pdnduranga (c, A.D, 757-860)

On the death of Rudra-varman II5 the throne of Champa was
occupied by Prithivlndra-varman (A.D. 757). We learn from epi-
graphic records that “he enjoyed the land by having conquered all
his enemies by his own power”, and that he destroyed all the thieves.
This indicates a period of internecine war and anarchy in Champa.
The express statement in the same record that he enjoyed the whole
of Champa shows that he succeeded in consolidating the entire
country under his authority.

Prithivindra-varman was succeeded by his nephew (sister’s son)
Satya-varman in or some time before A.D. 774. During his reign the
coast of Champa suffered a great deal from the raids of sea-men
from Java, referred to as “vicious cannibals coming by means of
ships.” Whether these were pirates or regular mariners it is difficult
to say. But they wrought great havoc. There was a sacred temple
in Champa, founded, according to popular tradition, by king Vichitra-
sagara “in the year 5911 of the Dvapara yuga.” In A.D. 774 the
Javanese raiders burnt this temple and carried away the image, viz.
a Mukhalinga of &iva. Satya-varman inflicted a crushing defeat
upon them in a naval engagement, but could not recover the image
as it had been destroyed. He, however, installed a new image and
hence came to be regarded as the second Vichitrasagara or an in¬
carnation of that king.

Satya-varman was succeeded by his younger brother Indra-
varman. There was another Javanese raid in A.D. 787 causing the

428

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

destruction of another famous shrine containing an image “establish¬
ed there for many thousands of years.” Indra-varman re-installed
the deity under the name of Indra-bhadresvara. This Indian custom
of associating the name of the king with that of the divine image set
up by him was very often followed in Champa. Indra-varman him¬
self installed two other images called after him Indra-bhogesvara
and Indra-paramesvara, and endowed many religious establishments.
Indra-varman is said to have fought with many enemies and ruled
over the whole of Champa. He renewed diplomatic relations with
China, and sent presents of rhinoceros and buffaloes to the emperor
in A.D. 793.

Hari-varman, the husband of Indra-varman’s sister, next ascend¬
ed the throne (c. A.D. 801). In one of his records, dated A.D. 817,
he claims to have defeated the Chinese. According to Chinese
history a king of Champa conquered the two Chinese districts of
Hoan and Ai in January, A.D. 803, and renewed the expedition in
A.D. 809; but the Chinese governor forced him to retreat by inflict¬
ing a crushing defeat upon him. Most likely this occurred in the
reign of Hari-varman and forms the basis of his claim for victory
over the Chinese. One of his generals led a victorious expedition
against Kambuja. He seems to have advanced into the heart of the
country and ravaged its towns. Its probable effect upon Kambuja
has been discussed before in connection with the history of Jaya-
varman II.6 The successful aggressive policy of Hari-varman
against his two very powerful rivals undoubtedly gave him justi¬
fication for assuming the proud title of “Rdjddhiraja Sri Champa-
pura-Paramesvara” (king of kings, Lord of Champa).

Hari-varman was succeeded by his son Vikranta-vlarman III
(c. A.D. 820-860). He was the governor of Pandurahga during his
father’s reign. Since all the inscriptions of this dynasty have been
found in this southern region, it has been suggested that it was
probably the original seat of the royal family and the main strong¬
hold of the rulers of this dynasty. But they ruled over the whole
kingdom and had their official capital in the city of Champa.
Vikranta-varman III died without issue, and with him ended the
dynasty which is usually referred to as the dynasty of Pandurahga.

2. The Bhj-igu Dynasty (c. A.D. 860-985)

The first notable king of the new dynasty that ruled Champa
for more than a century was Indra-varman II. The epigraphic
records give him a mythical pedigree reaching back to God Siva.
But although his father and grandfather are referred to as kings, it
is explicitly stated in more than one inscription that Indra-varman

424

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

gained the kingdom of Champa “by the special merit of his auste¬
rities, and by virtue of his pure intelligence, not from his grand¬
father or father.” Most likely the immediate ancestors of Indra-
varman were mere local rulers, and he made himself master of the
whole kingdom by his own prowess. His original name was “Sri
Lakshmindra Bhu mis vara Gramasvamin,” and after he became king
of Champa he assumed the title “Sri Jaya Indra-varman Maharaja-
dhiraja.” The epigraphie records refer to his family as Bhrigu
dynasty, presumably because, according to the mythological account
of the origin of the family, Bhrigu was sent to Champa by Mahadeva
himself.

Not mucn is Known about Indra-varman II except his religious
endowments. In spite of his faith in Saivism the king had evident
leanings towards Buddhism, for he erected a Buddhist temple and
a monastery. He must have enjoyed a long and peaceful reign
(c. A.D. 860-895); and he sent an embassy to China in A.D. 877.

Jay asirhha-varman (c. A.D. 896-905), who succeeded Indra-
varman II, was probably related to him, but nothing is definitely
known. The epigraphie records give us a long list of his pious dona-
tions. Reference is frequently made to the wealth and splendour
of Indrapura which was probably the real capital of this dynasty,
though Champa was still officially recognised as such. The king is
said to have spread his power to other lands, though no specific
event is recorded except that he sent a diplomatic mission to Java.
This was renewed by Bhadra-varman III (c. A.D. 905-910), who suc¬
ceeded the son of Jayasimha-varman. The epigraphie records refer
repeatedly to his victories over enemies and also to the multitude of
royal ambassadors coming to his court from different countries. One
of his ministers is expressly credited with sufficient linguistic talents
to understand thoroughly the messages sent by kings from different
countries. All these indicate that Champa was now recognised ab¬
road as an important and powerful kingdom and the country played
its part in international politics.

Bhadra-varman’s son and successor Indra-varman III was a
distinguished scholar. We are told in one of his records that he
mastered the different systems of philosophy ( shat-tarka ) including
Mlmamsa, as well as Buddhist philosophy, the grammar of Panini
together with its commentary Kasika, and the Uttar a-kalpa of the
&Mvites. But the king could not pursue his studies in peace. The
king of Kambuja, probaby Rajendra-varman, invaded his domi¬
nions, advanced far into the interior, and even carried away a golden
image of the deity which the king had installed in a temple at Po-

425

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Nagar. The invasion had no permanent result* but the kingdom of
Champa suffered a great deal.

The kings of Champa had stopped their customary embassies
and presents to China during the troublesome period following the
overthrow of the T’ang Dynasty. Indra-varman resumed the prac¬
tice and sent an embassy to China with various presents in A.D. 951.
Seven more embassies were sent by him during the period between
A/D 958 and 971.

3. The Annamese Invasions

Indra-varman III enjoyed a long reign of about 60 years from
about A.D. 911 to 971. He was succeeded by Praramesvara-varman
who sent no less than six embassies to China, between A.D. 972 and
979. As noted above, an Annamese chief had founded an indepen¬
dent kingdom immediately to the north of Champa in A.D. 968.
This ruler, named Dinh Bo Linh, died in A.D. 979. A rival Anna¬
mese chief, who was defeated by him and had taken refuge in
Champa, now planned to seize the throne of Annam with the aid of
Paramesvara-varman. The latter led in person a naval expedition
against the capital city of Tonkin and reached within a few miles of
it. But a storm destroyed the whole fleet with the exception of the
royal vessel, and though Paramesvara-varman returned safely to his
kingdom, the whole expedition had a tragic end (A.D. 979). The
newly elected Annamese Emperor Le Hoan sent an ambassador to
Paramesvara-varman, but the latter imprisoned him against the
diplomatic conventions of all ages and countries. In order to
avenge this grave humiliation, Le Hoan personally led an expedi¬
tion against Champa. Paramesvara-varman was defeated and
killed at the first encounter, and although Indra-varman IV was
hastily proclaimed king in Champa he could not save the situation.
Le Hoan ravaged the capital city and occupied a large part of the
kingdom. Then, after making arrangements for its administration,
he returned (A.D. 982) with an immense booty, about 100 ladies of
the royal harem of Champa, and an Indian Bhikshu (monk) .

Indra-varman IV, who had taken refuge in the southern part
of his kingdom, now sent a Brahmana envoy to the Chinese court,
complaining against the Annamese occupation of Champa, but
received no help from that quarter. Shortly after, internal dissen¬
sions among the Annamese chiefs enabled one of them, Lu*u-Ky-
Tong, to seize the throne of Champa, and Le Hoan was unable to dis¬
lodge him. After the death of Indra-varman IV he was officially
proclaimed king of Champa. But soon a national hero appeared, who
freed the country from foreign yoke. He ascended the throne in

426

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

A.D. 989 under the name of Vijaya Sri Hari* varman (II) at Vijaya,
in Binh-Dinh, but later removed to the old capital at Indrapura,

Le Hoan now again ravaged the borderlands of Champa. Hari-
varman sent an embassy with rich presents to the Chinese Emperor
who commanded Le Hoan to keep within his own territory. Hari-
varman also conciliated the Annamese king by refusing assistance
to a rebel Annamese chief. Le Hoan appreciated this act and in
return stopped his incursions and released a number of Cham pri¬
soners (A.D. 992). During the same year Hari- varman was gratified
beyond measure by receiving a rich present from the Chinese
Emperor consisting of magnificent horses, standards, and other
equipments of war, Hari-varman wrote back to the emperor that
thanks to the imperial favour his kingdom was again enjoying
peace, and his neighbours no longer entertained any desire of ruin¬
ing him. It is evident, however, that the imperial favour emboldened
the Cham king to ravage the Annamese territory to the north,
although outwardly he was on friendly terms and sent diplomatic
missions to Le Hoan, This undercurrent of hostility between
Champa and her northern neighbour continued during the next half
a century and ultimately proved her ruin. For the time being, how¬
ever, things went on well, though Hari-varman’s successor, called in
Chinese chronicles Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Sri, who ascended the throne
some time before A.D. 999, transferred the capital permanently to
Vijaya, far to the south, as a precautionary measure.

XV. JAVA

1. The Kingdom of Mataram

A powerful kingdom was founded in Central Java by king
Sannaha in the first half of the eighth century A.D, Sanjaya, the
successor of Sannaha, is known to have been ruling in A.D. 732. He
is described in the Changal Inscription as “conqueror of the coun¬
tries of neighouring kings"; and a literary work, composed much
later, gives details of his conquests which included Sumatra, Kam-
buja, and probably also Malay Peninsula. It is difficult to say how
far this later tradition can be regarded as historical. But Sanjaya
was undoubtedly a great hero as his name figures prominently even
in later epigraphic records. Some scholars have even gone so far
as to regard him as the founder of the &ailendra Dynasty mentioned
above; but this view rests upon very slender foundations. There
are, however, good grounds to believe that Sanjaya was the founder
of the kingdom of Mataram which, after a career of glory in the
early period, again flourished in the sixteenth century as an impor¬
tant principality under a Muslim Sultan. The old capital of this

427

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

kingdom was situated probably at or near Prambanan in Central
Java which is famous for its big temples.

Shortly after the death of Sahjaya, if not during his reign, the
Sailendras conquered Central Java, probably, during the period
A.D. 742-755. The successors of San jay a were forced to shift their
headquarters about 150 miles to the east, and they ruled in Eastern
Java for nearly a century. But they recovered their old capital
about the middle of the ninth century A.D., evidently after the
Sailendras had voluntarily left or were overthrown by them- A
passage in a Chinese history describes Java as a powerful state at
this period, and its supremacy was acknowledged by twenty-eight
small states on all sides. Although epigraphic records give the
names of a number of kings belonging to this dynasty, we know
hardly anything about them till we come to Balitung. Besides his
proper name Balitung which was Indonesian, he assumed different
coronation names such as Uttuhgadeva, Isvara-Kesavotsavatuhga,
isvara-Kesava-Samarottuhga, and Dharmodaya Mahassambhu. His
dominions certainly included both Eastern and Western Java, and
his known regnal years are A.D. 898 and 910. It has been suggested
that Balitung was originally a ruler of Eastern Java, and by marry¬
ing a princess of Mataram, became also ruler of that kingdom in
Central Java. This, as well as the view that the famous temple of
Lara Jongrang was the burial temple of Balitung, can only be re¬
garded as probable hypotheses.

Balitung or Dharmodaya Mahasambhu was succeeded by
Dakshottama in or shortly before A.D. 915. He occupied a high
office during the reign of his predecessor, and probably belonged to
the royal family. He certainly ruled over both Central and Eastern
Java, and so probably did his two successors Tulodong and Wawa.
But the kingdom of Mataram came to an end during the latter’s
reign, about A.D. 928. Wawa was thus the last of a long line of
kings who ruled in Java for two centuries, and for the first time, in
recorded history, politically united Eastern and Central Java.

A stone inscription at Dinaya, to the north of Malang, refers
to king Devasimha, his son Gajayana, and the latter’s daughter
Uttejana. Her son was the king who issued the inscription to com¬
memorate the consecration of a stone image of Agastya in A.D. 760
with elaborate rituals performed by priests versed in Vedic lore.
Whether the kings mentioned in this record belonged to the family
of Sanjaya, or were independent of it, it is difficult to say.

2. End oj Hindu Civilisation in Central Java

Petty dynasties were thus probably ruling in Java even during
the period when the greater part, even if not the whole, of Central

428

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

and Eastern Java was included in the kingdom of Mataram, which
had its headquarters in Central Java, except for the brief interlude
of Sailendra supremacy. But with the death of Wawa and the end
of the old royal dynasty, the centre of political authority definitely
shifted to Eastern Java, and what is even more striking, there was
a complete collapse of culture and civilisation in Central Java. It
is difficult to account for this dual change, and various theories have
been put forward to explain it. According to one view, the governor
of the eastern province revolted against the central authority and
perpetrated massacres and ravages in Central Java on a large scale.
But this can hardly account for the complete extinction of a flourish¬
ing culture, and the theory is belied by the fact that the large num¬
ber of monuments in Central Java bear no signs of wilful destruc¬
tion. Another theory attributes the wholesale desertion of Central
Java to some natural phenomenon or visitation, like the eruption
of a volcano or a violent epidemic which superstitious people might
have interpreted as a sign of divine displeasure. But there are facts
to prove that the migration of the people or the obliteration of cul¬
ture in Java was not so sudden as the above theory would imply.
According to a third view the rulers of Eastern Java deliberately laid
waste the whole of Central Java in pursuance of what is now known
as a ‘scorched earth policy’ against a possible invasion by the
&ailendras. It is, however, difficult to believe that such wholesale
destruction would be undertaken merely at the apprehension of an
invasion.

It seems more probable that ever since the king of Mataram
was forced to shift his capital to the east on account of the conquest
of Central Java by the ^ailendras, the centre of politics and culture
was transferred to that region, and remained there, even though a
vain attempt was made, after about a century, to revive the old
glory of Central Java by transferring the capital back again to that
region. This view is supported by the fact that even during the
century that followed this formal re-transfer of capital, most of the
inscriptions, so far discovered, belong to Eastern Java. Slowly but
steadily the political and cultural life continued to flow towards the
east, and gradually Central Java lost its political importance as well
as cultural pre-eminence. This might have been obscured from the
ordinary view by the glamour of the court-life, but the process of
change was nevertheless a reality. Some unknown factors, such as
a violent volcanic eruption, epidemic, or ravages by the Sailendras,
might have hastened the progress of the decay which was in any
case rendered inevitable by the original transfer of capital in the
middle of the eighth century A.D.

429

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

But whatever may be the reasons, there is no dispute about the
stark fact that Hindu culture and civilisation lost its hold on Central
Java about the middle of the tenth century A.D., and we have here
a repetition of what took place in Western Java five hundred years
earlier. Since the eleventh century A.D., Eastern Java remained,
for another period of five hundred years, as the only stronghold of
Hindu culture and civilisation in Java.

3. Eastern Java— Dynasty of Sindok

Sindok, the first ruler in Eastern Java, was regarded as a famous
king by posterity, and relationship with him was claimed, even if
no direct descent was traced, by many kings for centimes. Yet
Sindok appears to have been intimately connected with the old royal
family, and occupied such high offices of state under his two pre¬
decessors as are only held by an heir-apparent to the throne.
Probably he was not the son of Wawa, but belonged to a different
family, and hence, though he succeeded to the throne in the natural
course, he was regarded as the founder of a long line of Javanese
kings. It has been suggested that he married the daughter of king
Wawa and acquired the throne by the right of his wife. But this
as well as the suggestion that he was a grandson of Daksha is highly
problematical.

Sindok ascended the throne in c. A.D. -929 and assumed the
name Sri Isana-Vikrama Dharmottuhgadeva at the time of* his coro¬
nation. Nearly twenty inscriptions of his reign have been discover¬
ed so far, but they do not record any specific events of his reign.
To judge from the findspots of these inscriptions the kingdom of
Sindok comprised merely the valley of the Brantas river, but it
possibly extended far beyond this area.

The last known date of Sindok is A.D, 947. He was succeeded
by his daughter &rl Isanatuhgavijaya, who ruled as queen and was
married to ^rl Lokapala. She was succeeded by her son &ri Makuta-
vamsa- vardhana , who is said to have belonged to the family of
Sindok and owed the throne to this king and not to the family of
his own father Lokapala. It is not likely, therefore, that Lokapala
ever ruled as king, though we possess three records issued by a
king bearing this name.

King Makutavamsa-vardhana had a daughter, Mahendradatta,
also known as Gunapriya-dharmapatm, who was married to Udayana.
The princess, with her husband, ruled over the island of Bali with¬
out any royal title. The fact that her name precedes that of her
husband in contemporary records proves that she ruled in her own

430

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

right as the daughter of the king of Java. Incidentally it proves
that the king of Java had established his suzerainty over Bali.

No other important event in the reign of Makutavamsa-vardhana
is known. Nor do we know anything definite about the succession
to the throne. It is known from a later record that king Dharma-
yamsa ruled in Eastern Java towards the close of the tenth century
A.D., but we do not know whether he was the immediate successor
of Makufavariisa-vardhana or, even, if he belonged to the same royal
family. It has been suggested that he belonged to a different family
but married the daughter of Makutavamsa-vardhana.

The two most important events in the reign of Bharmavamsa
are renewal of diplomatic relations with China and the struggle with
the &ailendras. The two are probably not altogether unconnected,
and show an aggressive or imperial policy on the part of Java which
had probably begun earlier as evidenced by the conquest of Bali.

In A.D. 992 a Javanese envoy visited the Chinese court. He
represented, with the assistance of an interpreter, that a great
Chinese merchant, who owned many vessels, had come several times
to Java, and he availed himself of the merchant’s guidance to come
to the Imperial Court. This shows that Java had not been in touch
with China for a long period.

The Javanese envoy to China reported “that his country was
in enmity with San-fo-tsi and that they were always fighting with
each other.” We learn from an envoy of San-fo-tsi that he left the
Chinese court in A.D. 990, but on reaching Canton learnt that his
country had been invaded by Java. So he rested there for about a
year and proceeded to Champa with his navy in the spring of A.D.
992. But as he did not receive any good news there he returned to
China and requested the emperor to issue a decree making San-fo-tsi
a protectorate of China.

As noted above, San-fo-tsi undoubtedly refers to the Sailendra
kingdom. It is evident that even though the &ailendras left Java,
the animosity between the two continued and broke out into open
hostilities in or some time before A.D. 990. In that year Java took
the offensive, invaded the kingdom of the gailendras, and reduced
them to such straits that they had to seek the protection of China.
It is very likely that Java also sent envoys to China as a counterpoise
to this move on the part of her rival. But though Java had achieved
great success in the beginning, it was short-lived. In A.D. 1003
San-fo-tsi recovered sufficient strength to send an embassy to China
without any hindrance from Java. It is evident that the &ailendra

431

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

king had succeeded in his resistance and hurled back the invaders
from his country.

In spite of this set-back, king Dharmavaihsa enhanced the glory
and prestige of Java in Indonesia. Unfortunately, the origin and
incidents of his struggle with the Sailendras are not known, but it
may not be unconnected with the tragic end of the Javanese king
less than four years later. We learn from a record of his successor
and son-in-law Airlangga that in A.D. 1006 Java was destroyed by
a great catastrophe ( pralaya ) which overwhelmed it like the sea.
“Then the flourishing capital city,” so runs the record, “which was
hitherto a seat of joy and merriment, was reduced to ashes, and the
great king met his end in the year 929 (— A.D. 1007).”

It is held by some that the above passage refers to a natural
calamity like a volcanic eruption. But this is hardly borne out by
the detailed story of Airlangga’s flight, his fugitive life, and the
recovery of the kingdom after arduous fight with various enemies.
There can be hardly any doubt that the calamity was caused by a
hostile attack. It is natural to infer that the enemies who destroyed
the political life of Java were either the Sailendras or some powers
backed by them. But there is no evidence in support of it, and the
absence of any reference to the Sailendras in the detailed account
of the subsequent struggles of Airlangga makes it very unlikely.
But whoever might have been the enemy, his triumph was complete.
King Dharmavamia died and his kingdom perished with him in
A.D. 1007. The story of its recovery by Airlangga will be narrated
in the next volume.

V. BURMA

The Hinduised Pyu kingdom,7 with its capital at Srlkshetra
(Prome), was the most powerful kingdom in Burma during the
period under review. According to Chinese accounts it included
nearly the whole of the country, except the Mon kingdom in the
coastal regions of Lower Burma, and probably also Arakan. For
we are told that the Pyu kingdom touched Kambuja on the east and
India on the west, extended .up to the sea on the south and adjoined
Dvaravati on the south-west (evidently a mistake for south-east, if
it refers to the well-known Hindu kingdom in Siam). It is said to
have been 500 miles from east to west and 700 to 800 miles from
north to south. It extended up to the Thai kingdom of Yunnan in
the north and claimed supremacy over 18 subject kingdoms. The
Chinese account also gives us a list of eight or nine garrison towns
and of the 32 most important among the 298 tribes or settlements.
The capital city, 27 miles in circumference, was surrounded by a wall

482

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

faced with glazed bricks, and this was protected by a moat whose
banks were also faced with brick. The city had twelve gates with
pagodas at the four corners. It contained several thousands of fami¬
lies, and over a hundred Buddhist monasteries, with courts and
rooms all decked with gold and silver.

The detailed account of the Pyus, particularly their sincere
devotion to Buddhism, social customs, trade and currency, arts,
crafts and ornaments, and high proficiency in music proves that they
had attained a high degree of civilisation and had imbibed a large
measure of Hindu culture. The rise of the powerful Thai kingdom
in Yunnan, known as Nan-chao or Mithila-rashtra, about A.D. 730
has been noted above.8 The frontier between this kingdom and that
of the Pyus qn the west followed roughly the Sino-Burmese frontier
of to-day. Nan-chao rapidly grew powerful, and its king Ko-lo-fong
inflicted a defeat upon the Chinese in A.D. 754. He next turned his
attention to his western neighbour and invaded his kingdom. The
Pyu king submitted and henceforth Upper Burma was dominated
by the Thais. When at the end of the eighth century the grandson
of Ko-lo-fong acknowledged the suzerainty of China and sent em¬
bassies to the Imperial Court, the Pyu king also followed suit. Two
more embassies were sent to China in A.D. 802 and 807. The former
was led by the king’s brother (or son) Sunandana, governor of the
city of Sri (perhaps Bhamo or Tagaung), who took some court musi¬
cians as a present to the Chinese emperor.

The peace with Nan-chao, however, did not last long. In
A D. 832 the ruler of Nan-chao invaded the Pyu kingdom, plundered
the capital city, and took more than 3000 persons as prisoners. This
was a severe blow to the Pyu power and marks the beginning of its
decline. But it did not bring about a sudden end to the Pyu king¬
dom or its culture, as some scholars hold. For we find that even
in A.D. 882 an embassy from this kingdom visited China. But little
is known of its history after the ninth century A.D. It is probable that
the Mons in the south grew powerful and conquered the southern
part of the Pyu kingdom, forcing the Pyus to remove their capital
further north to Pagan on the Ira wadi. Soon a new tribe, the
Mrammas (Burmans), came into prominence in this region. Pressed
by the Mons from the south and the Mrammas from the north the
Pyus gradually lost their power and were ultimately absorbed by
their two powerful neighbours. From the eleventh century A.D.
the Mrammas ruled as the dominant power in Burma with Pagan
as their capital.

438

A.I.K.— 28

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

VI. CIVILISATION IN THE HINDU COLONIES IN

SOUTH-EAST ASIA

The Hindu culture in all its aspects permeated the life of the
people in these colonies to an extent which it is difficult to convey
fully within the short scope of this chapter. We shall therefore
coniine ourselves to the delineation of a few prominent characteris¬
tics under the broad heads of society, religion, art, and literature.

1. Society

The caste-system, . which is the most distinctive characteristic
of Hindu society, and may be regarded as its fundamental basis, was
introduced in Java, Madura, Sumatra, Champa and other colonies.
For we have not only references to “ Chdiurvarnya ” or four castes,
but there is also specific mention of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas,
and ^udras, both in literature and inscriptions. This caste-system
was not, however, as rigid as we find it in India to-day, but rather
resembled what was in vogue here in ancient times. We can get
some idea of the caste-system in these remote colonies by studying
the main features which prevail even to-day in the island of Bali.
Thus, as laid down in Manu-smriti , marriage among different castes
is prevalent, but while a man may marry a girl of his own or lower
caste, a woman may only marry one of equal or higher caste. The
children of mixed marriages belong to the caste of the father, though
they differ in rank and status according to the caste of the mother.
The marriage of a woman with a man of lower caste is punishable
with death.

In Bali the ^udras are not despised or regarded as impure and
untouchable. Nor are the castes tied down to specific occupations.
Thus men of all castes take to agriculture, and the Sudras, in addi¬
tion, follow other arts and crafts. We also find another characteris¬
tic feature of ancient Indian caste-system, viz . inequality in the eyes
of law which lays down, for the same offence, punishment in inverse
ratio to the superiority of caste of the offender, and in direct ratio
to that of the offended.

In some places, as in Champa, although there was a theoretical
division into the four castes, practically there was no sharp distinc¬
tion among the people outside the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, and
even these two formed classes rather than castes. Nor did the
Brahmanas occupy a position of unquestioned supremacy. They en¬
joyed great dignity, and the murder of a Brahmana was regarded as
a particularly heinous crime. But they did not dominate the king
and the state to the same extent as in India. It is interesting to
note that in many instances where the two classes are mentioned

484

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

together, the Kshatriyas are placed before the Brahmanas, as we
find in Buddhist and Jain texts in India. In Bali, even to-day, the
ruling princes, be they of Kshatriya or' Vaisya caste, are regarded
as superior to their Brahmana subjects, and although theoretically
a prince is not allowed to marry a Brahmana girl, this is often done
by the legal subterfuge of expelling a Brahmana girl and adopting
her in the house of the prince.

The position of woman in many of these colonies seems to have
been much better than in India, at least so far as political rights are
concerned. As noted above,9 Gunapriya ruled in her own rights,
and her name was placed before that of her husband. There are
instances in later history of a daughter succeeding to the throne,
although she had two brothers, and acting as regent for her mother
although she had a grown-up son. Some ladies occupied the highest
offices of state, and wives of officials are stated in inscriptions to have
* received presents from the king along with their husbands on cere¬
monial occasions. The old literature as well as the present day
customs in Bali indicate that there was no purdah system and women
freely mixed with men. The system of burning the widow along
with the dead husband was in vogue. Sometimes even the slaves
and concubines of the dead perished with him. This is now for¬
bidden to the Sudras, and generally the Sati rite is confined to royal
families.

In addition to the social division into castes there was also dis¬
tinction between the aristocracy and common people. The two divi¬
sions were overlapping to a certain extent, and though the Brah¬
manas and the Kshatriyas formed the bulk of the aristocracy it cer¬
tainly included other people. The external symbols of aristocracy,
as in India, were (1) special articles of dress and ornaments, (2) right
to use special conveyances, such as palanquins and elephants, to the
accompaniment of music, etc., and (3) the claim to be seated, near
the king.

As regards dress, the sculptures represent, as in India the upper
part of the body above the waist as uncovered, both in the case of
males and females. The Chinese accounts, too, refer to similar
dress. As is well-known, in Bali, even to-day, the women do not
cover the upper part of the body. So this seems to be an old prac¬
tice, at least in some of the colonies, and to judge from the sculptural
representations, it was possibly not unknown even in India.

2. Religion

The Puranic religion had a strong hold on almost all the colo¬
nies, Although Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva were all worshipped, the

485

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

cult of &iva was undoubtedly the most popular. Next came Vaish-
navism. As in India, the worship of Brahma never attained great
popularity. The images of Trimurti, i.e, the three gods combined
together, as well as of the composite god &iva- Vishnu, are found in
Java and Kambuja. As a matter of fact the entire Puranic pantheon
was known in these countries, and we come across images of Hindu
gods and goddesses in their innumerable names and forms as known
in India. The mystic philosophy of the Upanishads, and even later
outgrowths such as Tantrik rites, can also be traced. Indeed Hindu
religion in all its aspects, both canonical and popular, appears in
such fullness in these colonies, that to describe it in detail would be
to recount at length the religious conditions in India.

The study of Indian religious literature was a special feature of
the religious life. In Java the period under review saw the begin¬
nings of that extensive Javanese religious literature, based on
Indian texts, which will be noticed in the next volume. The inscrip¬
tions of Kambuja frequently refer to Brahmanas versed in Veda,
Vedahga, Samaveda, and Buddhist scriptures, and kings and minis¬
ters- possessing a profound knowledge of the Dharmasastra.
Arrangements were also made for the daily recitation of R&mayana,
Mahahkarata , and the Puranas, and it was considered a pious act to
present copies of these texts to temples.

Buddhism was also popular, particularly in Suvarna-dvipa, i.e.
East Indies. Although the Hlnayana form was prevalent in the
seventh century, it was almost ousted in the eighth by Mahavana,
which had a triumphal career in Java and Sumatra during the
period of ^ailendra supremacy. It has left undying memorials in
the famous stupa of Barabudur and several magnificent temples.
As noted above,10 Buddhist teachers from Bengal exerted consider¬
able influence in Java, and the ^ailendras were in close contact with
the Pa la kings and such famous Buddhist centres in India as Nalanda.
As in the case of Puranic religion, almost the entire hierarchy of
the Mahayanist gods make their appearance in Java, not only in
identical forms and names, but also with the familiar postures called
mudrd. We possess also an interesting work Sang hyang Kamaka-
yanikan, a somewhat free Javanese version of a Sanskrit original
interspersed with a number of original Sanskrit verses, which gives
an exposition of the sacred principles of Mahayana.

Buddhism had also prevailed in Champa. Even as early as
A.D. 605 a victorious Chinese general carried away 1350 Buddhist
books from this country. From the eighth century A.D. we hear
of many kings constructing Buddhist temples and monasteries and
installing Buddhist images. The site of Dong Duong indicates the

436

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

great hold of Buddhism in this country. For its ruins contain the
remains of a Buddhist temple far greater in dimensions than the
largest Brahmanical temple in Champa, and a fine standing image
of Buddha, which is regarded as the most artistic representation of
a god so far found in that country.

The Sanskrit inscriptions of Kambuja, to which reference will
be made later, throw a great deal of light on the religious develop¬
ments. These inscriptions reflect the life and society in Kambuja
and testify to the thoroughness of the Indian cultural conquest of
these far-off lands. They prove that the people fully imbibed the
tenets and practices, the theology, rituals, and the iconography of
the various religious sects of India. The numerous temples, images
of gods and goddesses, and pious foundations show the powerful
hold which religion had over the popular mind. But the inscriptions
prove something more; they clearly show that there was in Kambuja,
beyond the external forms of religion, that higher and deeper spiri¬
tual view of life which is the true essence of all religions and. form¬
ed such a distinctive characteristic of ancient Indian culture and
civilisation. These inscriptions reveal a spirit of piety and renun¬
ciation, a deep yearning for emancipation from the trammels of
birth and evils of the world, and longing for the attainment of the
highest bliss and salvation by union with Brahman, the Ultimate
Reality. These ideas, which form the keynote of Indian spiritual
life, are frequently expressed with beauty and elegance, and in lan¬
guage at once stately and serene.

Generally the true religious spirit is chiefly found among the
common people. But in Kambuja even the kings, high officials, and
the aristocracy were inspired by the high ideals portrayed above.
This is probably due to a close association between secular and spiri¬
tual heads. The inscriptions tell us that the kings usually received
their early education from eminent religious Acharyas and members
of the family of hereditary royal priests.11 There are also many
instances of kings and members of the royal family becoming high
priests and Acharyas. The intermarriage between royal and priestly
families was also very common. The predominance of a family,
whose members supplied royal priests for 250 years in unbroken
succession, is both an index and the cause of the extreme religious
outlook of the king and the people.

At least two special circumstances may be pointed out as being
mainly responsible for this growth of religious and spiritual life in
Kambuja. The first is a constant and intimate contact with India,
and the second is the establishment of a series of dsramas or hermi¬
tages. Both require some detailed notice.

487

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Apart from the indirect evidence furnished by inscriptions,
actual examples of contact with India, are recorded in Kambuja
inscriptions. Reference has been made above to Agastya, a Brah-
mana from India, who founded a royal family in Kambuja. Raja-
lakshmi, the daughter of Rajendra-varman, was married to a Brah¬
mans, named Bivakara Bhatta, who is said to have been born on
the banks of the river Kalindi sanctified by association with Krishna's
early life. This undoubtedly implies that Divakara Bhatta was born
in India on the banks of the Yamuna river and, having migrated to
Kambuja, obtained a high position there. We have similar instances,
both in earlier and later times, of learned Indian Brahmanas, noted
for their spiritual powers, being invited to Kambuja and received
with high honours. The Brahmana named Hiranyadama, who per¬
formed Tantrik rites for Jaya-varman II, lias been mentioned above.12
Another eminent Saiva Brahmana named Sarvajnamuni, versed in
all the Vedas and Agamas, came from India, and his descendants
occupied high offices. The people of Kambuja also visited India to
acquire knowledge and spiritual instruction. The most important
example is that of 6ivasomaf the guru (preceptor) of Indra-varman.
It is stated in a contemporary record that he learnt the s&stras
(sacred scriptures) from Bhagavat Sankara, who is undoubtedly the
famous ^ankaracharya.

Coming to the second factor, the asramas, these hermitages were
the abodes of pious devotees who dedicated their lives to study and
meditation, A large number of these institutions existed all over
Kambuja. King Yaio-varman is said to have founded one hundred
asramas , and this is supported by the actual discovery of a large
number of inscriptions recording the foundation of individual
asramas in different parts of the kingdom. These inscriptions are
fairly long, and give detailed regulations for the management of the
asramas and the conduct of persons visiting them or living therein.
These regulations indicate the high moral and spiritual ideal which
inspired these institutions, and the great humanitarian spirit in
which their actual work was carried on. These asramas remind us
of the hermitages in ancient India of which we get such a vivid
picture in ancient Indian literature and on which they were evident¬
ly based. They formed powerful centres of Indian culture in Kam¬
buja, from which it radiated in all directions and gained in purity,
strength, and stability.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that there was a spirit of
religious toleration in all the colonies. Although various Brahmani-
cal sects flourished along with Buddhism, there was no animosity
between their followers. On the other hand kings and people alike

438

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

paid reverence to all religious sects. The same king endowed both
Saiva and Buddhist religious establishments or installed images of
different sectarian gods. In this respect the Indian colonists main¬
tained the best traditions of their motherland.

3. Art

Every Hindu colony contains numerous monuments of artistic
activity in the shape of temples and images which show distinct
traces of Indian influence and inspiration in varying degrees. While
some are close imitations, almost replicas, of Indian models, others
show refreshing development of local styles by the addition of spe¬
cial, sometimes characteristic, features to Indian ideas. None excels
in this respect the Indo- Javanese art which reached its high water¬
mark of glory and splendour during the period under review, and
needs a more detailed treatment than the rest.

(i) Indo- Javanese Art

Art in Java, as in India and her other colonies, was the hand¬
maid of religion. The religious structures in Java are known by
the general name Charidi , and most of them are temples, built on a
more or less uniform plan with variations in details. Each temple
consists of three distinct parts, viz. (1) a high decorated basement,
(2) the square body of the temple with a vestibule in front and pro¬
jections on all other sides, and (3) the roof consisting of a series of
gradually diminishing storeys each of which is a minor replica of
the main temple with four turrets at four corners of the same design.
The interior of the temple is a plain square chamber, whose vertical
walls support a series of projecting horizontal courses of stone which
form an inverted pyramid of steps and is terminated by a high and
pointed hollow cone.

The decorative ornaments consist of well-known Indian motifs,
and one which occurs very frequently is known as Kala-Makara.
Really Kala and Makara are two separate motifs though they are
often found united. The first is a grotesque form of Indian Kirtti-
mukha, and represents a conventional lion’s head with protruding
eyes, broad nose, very thick upper lip, and two big projecting teeth
on two sides. The Makara closely resembles its Indian prototype.

The arches in these temples are constructed on the horizontal
principle as in India, but columns and pillars are conspicuous by
their absence. There is often a large group or cluster of temples
formed by one or more big temples in the centre with numerous
smaller temples surrounding them.

439

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The earliest temples in Java are those on the Dieng plateau,
which is 6,500 feet high and surrounded by hills on all sides. They
are Brahmanical temples named after the heroes and heroines of the
Mahahhtirata , and belong probably to the eighth century A.D.
Although comparatively small in dimensions, these temples and the
sculptures in them are characterised by a sobriety and dignity which
is usually associated with Indian temples of the Gupta period.

The Prambanan valley contains several groups of important
temples. Among the Buddhist temples may be mentioned Chandi
Kalasan, Chandi Sari, and Chandi Sevu. The first is a magnificent
specimen of temple architecture, and was built by a 3ailendra king
in A.D. 778 for the goddess Tara. The complex of temples known
as Chandi Sevu contains no less than 250 temples with the main
temple in the centre of a paved courtyard measuring about 600 ft.
by 540 ft.

Still more famous is the Lara-Jongrang group of Brahmanical
temples. It consists of eight main temples, three in each row with
two between them, with three rows of minor temples making a total
of 156. The three main temples in one row contain images of Brahma,
Vishnu, and &iva, the &iva temple in the centre being the most mag¬
nificent. Tlie balustrade round the temple contains a continuous
series of relief sculptures in 42 panels, depicting the story of the Ra-
mayana. These exhibit a high degree of skill, and may be reckoned
among the very best to be found in Java.

Midway between the Dieng plateau and the Prambanan valley
stands the Kedu plain, which contains a number of fine temples,
among which Chandi Mendut and Chandi Pavon deserve special
mention as beautiful specimens of Indo-Javanese art.

But by far the most magnificent monument in Java is the
famous Barabudur, a colossal structure justly regarded as a veri¬
table wonder by the whole world. It is situated on the top of a
hillock commanding a fine view across the plains of Kedu to the
distant ranges of hills. This noble building consists of nine gradual¬
ly receding terraces, the six lower ones being square in plan, and
the upper three circular. The whole is crowned by a bell-shaped
stupa f which stands at the centre of the topmost terrace and is
accessible from it by a series of circular steps. The three uppermost
terraces are encircled by rings of stupas , each containing an image
of Buddha within a perforated framework. The five lower terraces
are each enclosed on the inner side by a wall supporting a balustrade,
and the four successive galleries thus formed contain eleven series
of sculptured panels depicting the life of Buddha and other Buddhist

440

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

stories. The balustrade consists of a row of arched niches resembl¬
ing temples and containing an image of Buddha. There is a stair¬
case with a highly decorated gateway in the middle of each side of
the gallery leading to the next higher one-

The most notable feature of Barabudur is its massive propor¬
tions. It impresses the visitor with a feeling as if a hillock has sud¬
denly come to view. It is difficult to convey an $xact idea of this
feeling by measurements alone., but still that is the only concrete
way of expressing it. The lowest terrace, including projections on
two sides, has an extreme length of nearly 400 ft., and the topmost
one a diameter of 90 ft. The temple niches, each containing a fine
image of Buddha, are 432 in number. The total number of sculptur¬
ed panels in the galleries is about 1500.

These figures give some idea of the massive grandeur of Bara¬
budur which strikes a visitor v/hen it first comes to his view. But
as he approaches closer to the structure, he is no less deeply im¬
pressed by the fine quality of its immense decorations, extensive
relief sculptures, and the numerous images of Buddha. It is diffi¬
cult to name any product of art, either in India or anywhere else in
the world, where such a high standard of excellence has been
maintained over such an extensive range. This combination of
massive quantity and fine quality invests Barabudur with a unique
character. It has hardly any parallel in the world, and it may be
truly remarked of its artists that “they conceived like giants and
finished like jewellers.”

The construction of Barabudur may be roughly dated towards
the close of the eighth or the beginning of the ninth century A.D.
when the &ailendras ruled in Java and were the dominant political
power in Suvarna-dvipa. There is hardly any doubt that this great
monument is the result of their patronage.

Although Lara Jongrang and Barabudur have cast into shade
all the other structures in Java, many of them are fine specimens
of Indo-Javanese architecture, and some of the sculptures, such as
those of Mendut and Banon, show perhaps even a greater degree
of refinement and delicacy than those of the two justly famous
monuments.

(ii) Art in Indo-China

The art of Kambuja may be broadly divided into two classes,
the primitive and the classic. The latter, which is associated with
Angkor and shows the high watermark of its glory, dates from
about the tenth century and will be dealt with in the next volume.

441

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

The primitive art began from the age of Fu-nan, and was developed
by natural stages of evolution to the classical art. But as most of
the monuments of Fu-nan were made of perishable materials like
wood or brick, there are not enough remains to enable us to recon¬
struct the history of its art. The brick temples, roughly resembling
those of Java, show some affinity with Gupta art, which is even
more evident in some of the sculptures discovered both in Siam
and Cambodia. It may be safely presumed, therefore, that the pri¬
mitive art of Kambuja and Siam was directly derived from India.
Some scholars are even of opinion that the artists and craftsmen
who built the temples and made the images of gods came from
India. But be that as it may, there is no doubt that the primitive
art of Kambuja was purely Indian, and from Fu-nan this Indian
art of the Gupta age spread over a wide territory in Indo-China
along with other phases of Indian culture.

There are also a large number of temples in Champa. In addi¬
tion to many isolated examples there are three important groups
of temples, viz. those of Myson, Dong Duong, and Po-Nagar, the
second being Buddhist and the other two Saivite. These temples
are generally built of brick and belong to one standard type. Their
most characteristic feature is the roof which has three different
forms. The first or the normal form consists of a series of four
receding storeys crowned by a curvilinear pyramidal slab. The
second form consists of two storeys, the upper one having the shape
of an elongated arched vault with ogival ends. The third form con¬
sists of a curvilinear pyramidal dome, springing directly from the
walls of the sanctuary and surmounted by an dmalaka such as we
find in the iikharas of Northern India. All these forms or types are
found in the rock-cut temples at Mamailapuram in Madras, and
there can hardly be any doubt that the architectural style of
Champa was derived from India.

Although neither Champa nor Kambuja produced during this
period any structure that can even make a remote approach to
what we find in Java, there was a fair amount of artistic activity
in vboth, full of future promise. In Champa, due perhaps to the
political conditions, these promises never materialised. But in
Kambuja the art developed in rapid strides after tenth century A.D.
and produced some remarkable monuments which almost rivalled
those of Java.

4. Literature

The Sanskrit inscriptions discovered in Kambuja, Champa,
Malaya Peninsula, and Java leave no doubt that Sanskrit literature,

442

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

in ail its branches, was highly cultivated in all the Indian colonies-
As we have seen above, 13we can trace its beginning to a much earlier
period. But the large number of Sanskrit inscriptions— about 30
in Champa and 70 in Kambuj a— during the period under review,
indicate very great progress in the study of Sanskrit. Reference
has already been made above to religious literature, but even in
secular literature the achievements were remarkable. Inscriptions,
earlier than the ninth century A.D., refer to many of its branches
such as grammar and philology, philosophy, political science (Artha-
sastra), and Kavya. The literary accomplishments of king Indra-
varman III of Champa and Yaso-varman of Kambuj a have been
mentioned above. Yaso-varman’s minister was an expert in astro¬
logy. All these throw interesting light on the zeal and enthusiasm
with which all classes of peopk igh and low, took to the study
of Sanskrit.

The cultivation of Sanskrit language and literature reached its
highest development in Kambuj a during the ninth and tenth cen¬
turies A.D. This may be easily deduced from a careful study of
the large number of Sanskrit inscriptions composed in beautiful
and almost flawless Kavya style. Many of these run to great
lengths. Four inscriptions of Yaso-varman contain respectively 50
75, 93, and 108 verses each, and two inscriptions of Raj end ra -varman
contain respectively 218 and 298 verses. The authors of these in¬
scriptions give clear evidence of a thorough knowledge of alrhost all
the Sanskrit metres and the most abstruse rules of Sanskrit rhetoric
and prosody, intimate acquaintance with various branches of lite¬
rature such as Veda, Vedanta, Purana, Dharmasastra, Buddhist and
Jain literature, different schools of philosophy, and Vyakarana, spe¬
cially the works of Panin! and Patahjali. Specific reference is made
to Vatsyayana and Viialaksha as the authors respectively of Kama-
sutra and a book on polity, to Manu-smriti, from which a verse is
actually quoted, and to the famous medical treatise of Susruta.
Both the form and contents of the inscriptions indicate a mastery
of Sanskrit Kavya. An inscription of Eajendra-varman contains
four verses which are evidently copied from Raghuvamsa with slight
modifications. Some inscriptions of Yaso-varman refer to Pravara-
sena and Mayura as the authors of Setubandha and Suryasataka, , and
to Gunadhya as a writer in Prakrit with an allusion to the legend
about him contained in the KathdsariUsdgara. The inscriptions
themselves are sometimes writtten in such a fine Kavya style as would
do honour to a reputable Sanskrit poet of India. They certainly
excel in literary merits the Sanskrit inscriptions so far discovered
in India. As to the legends and mythology, derived chiefly from the
Puranas and the epics, and the allusion, alliteration, and simile etc.

443

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

which usually abound in Sanskrit Kavyas, they occur so frequently
in these records that their authors seem to be saturated with them.

Such a state of knowledge and proficienby clearly implies a close
and constant contact between India and Kambuja. M. Qoedes,* while
editing a Kambuja inscription, has pointed out that it so strikingly
exhibits all the characteristic features of the Gauda style, that its
author must have been either an inhabitant of Gauda (Bengal) or
one who had lived in that country for a long time. As a matter of
fact similar remarks may perhaps be made in respect of many other
records. On the whole the series of inscriptions may be taken as
a definite evidence of the flourishing state of literature in Kambuja
and her intimate contact with India.

VII. CHINA

The most active and fruitful period of intercourse between India
and China came to an end with the eight century A.D.14 The last
century of T’ang rule (A.D. 618-907) was full of troubles, and the
Arab incursions in Central Asia probably interfered with the free
intercourse of the Buddhists between India and China. In any case
we hear very little of the cultural or political relations with Ehdia
about this time. But the Song dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) revived the
old traditions and the active intercourse was resumed for another
century.

Kir

In A.D. 972 forty-four Indian monks went to China. Next year
Dharmadeva, a monk of Nalanda, was received by i:he emperor of
China with great honours. He translated a large number of Sans¬
krit texts and died in China in A.D. 1001. A number of other Indian
monks, including a prince of Western India named Manjusii, visited
China between 970 and 1036. According to the Chinese chroniclers
there were never so many Indian monks in the Chinese court as
at the close of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh cen¬
tury A.D. A large number of Sanskrit manuscripts were brought
from India by these Indian monks as well as the Chinese pilgrims.
In 982 the Chinese Emperor appointed a Board of Translators with
three Indian scholars at the head. They translated more than 200
volumes between A.D. 982 and 1011.

A large number of Chinese pilgrims also came to India between
A.D. 950 and 1033. In A.D. 964, 300 Chinese monks started for India,
and this pilgrimage lasted for twelve years. Two years later the
Chinese Emperor issued an appeal to the Buddhist monks, and 157
of them went in pursuance of it to pay imperial homage to the holy
places in India. They were furnished with letters patent ordering

444

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

all the kings of Central Asia and Northern India to help them with
guides. These monks were sometimes asked to carry out certain
religious duties in India, on behalf of the Emperor.

Five of these Chinese pilgrims have left short inscriptions at the
sacred site of Bodh-Gaya. One of them records the visit of the monk
Che-yi in A.D. 950- Three others, dated A.D. 1022, refer to the con¬
struction of stone stupas by three Chinese monks. The last inscrip¬
tion is more interesting. It is dated in A.D. 1033 and records the
construction of a stupa in honour of Emperor T’ai-tsong by the
Emperor and the Dowager Empress of the great Song dynasty. We
are told that the Emperor and the Empress “respectfully charged
the monk Huai- wen with the task of going to the country of Magadha
in order to erect a stupa by the side of the Vajrasana dedicated to
Emperor T’ai-tsong.” This inscription still remains as the last
monument of the Chinese pilgrimage to India which began about
a thousand years ago.

The last Chinese piligrim left India shortly after A.D. 1033. and
a group of nine Indian monks went to China in A.D. 1036. Only a
single Indian monk is known to have visited China after that date, in
A.D. 1053, and the official chronicle terminates its notice on India
from A.D. 1036. This date, therefore, marks the close of the long
and intimate cultural intercourse between India and China. The
cause of this sudden end is not easy to determine, and it naturally
led to a decline in the popularity of Buddhism. “The number of
Buddhist monks and nuns in China in A.D. 1021 were respectively
3,97,615 and 61,240; in 1034, 3,85,520 and 48,740; but in 1068, only
2,20,660 and 34,030.”16

There was political relation between South India and China
during the Song period. A Chola embassy visited the Imperial
Court in A.D. 1015. Details of their journey are given in Chinese
annals which show that it took, in all, 1150 days, though they were
actually under sail for only 247 days. The Chola king is said to
have sent as presents, among other things, 21,000 ounces of pearls,
60 elephants’ tusks, and 60 catties of frankincense. The envoy added
6600 ounces of pearls and 3300 catties of perfumes. In A.D. 1033
and 1077 the Chola king sent two more embassies to China.

The sea-borne trade between India and China continued through¬
out this period, but it is difficult to say how far the Indians took
any share in it. The Song Annals do not include India among the
countries whose merchants traded at Canton in A.D. 971. Chou
Ku-fei, writing in 1178, refers to Quilon as an important centre of
trade with China, but does not mention India among the countries

445

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

engaged in that trade. It may be argued from these that the Arabs
were gradually ousting the Indians from the Chinese trade.16 But
the discovery of 15 coins in Tan j ore District, representing practically
the entire Song period, may be cited as an evidence that the com¬
mercial relations between South India and China, which flourished
in the Tang period,17 probably continued uninterrupted through¬
out the Song period.18

Yin. TIBET

According to the chronicles of Tibet her kings exercised politi¬
cal domination over parts of India during the period A.D. 750-850.
The Tibetan king Khri-sroh-lde-btsan, who ruled from A.D. 755 to
797, is said to have subdued the frontier provinces including ‘China
in the east and India in the south.’ His son Mu-Khri-btsan-po (or
Mu-tig-Btsan-po) who ruled from A.D. 798 to 804 subjugated two
or three (parts of) Jambudvipa and forced the Pala king Dharrna-
pala and another Indian king to pay tribute. The next important
king Ral-pa-can (A.D. 817-836) 19 conquered India as far as Gahga-
sagara which has been taken to represent the mouth of the Gahga.

How far these Tibetan claims of conquest and supremacy in
the Indian plains can be regarded as historical, it is difficult to
say. We have no reference in Indian sources to any military cam¬
paign of the Tibetans in India or to their exercising political suze¬
rainty in any part of the country. On the other hand, Chinese sour¬
ces confirm the great military strength and the aggressive military
campaigns of the Tibetans both against China and India. One Chinese
author says that some time about A.D. 787 the Emperor of China
made an alliance with the Caliph of Baghdad and some Indian prin¬
ces, for security against the Tibetans.20 It is also to be noted that
both I§takhri and Ibn Haukal call the Bay of Bengal as Tibetan Sea,
thus indirectly indicating the advance of the Tibetans to the heart
of Bengal. While, therefore, there may be some foundation for these
claims, we cannot come to any definite conclusion, until further evi¬
dence is available.

It is interesting to note that the same period (A.D. 750-850) .
in which Tibetan domination in India is said to have reached its
climax also witnessed the supremacy of Buddhism in Tibet. The
king Khri-sroh-lde-btsan, mentioned above, was a great patron of
Buddhism, and was regarded as an incarnation of Bodhisattva Man-
juiri. He invited Santarakshita, the High Priest of the University
of Nalanda, and appointed him the High Priest of Tibet. He
made Buddhism the state-religion of Tibet in place of Bon, a sort

446

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

of demon-worship. Santarakshita introduced the system of Bud¬
dhist monarchism which is now known as Lamaism in Tibet. He
was helped in this onerous task of reorganising the religious sys¬
tem by another Indian monk named Padmasambhava. A scholar
named Ananta from Kashmir also translated sacred texts and prea¬
ched Buddhism. At this time a Chinese Buddhist missionary visit¬
ed Tibet and preached doctrines which were different from those
of &antarakshita and Padmasambhava. The latter, unable to refute
him, induced the king to invite the great Buddhist philosopher of
Magadha named Kamalasila. Kamalasila visited Tibet and, in the
presence of the assembled court, came out victorious over the Chi¬
nese sage. The king of Tibet placed Kamalasila at the head of the
metaphysical branch of the Buddhist church. The orthodox section
of the people were at first hostile to the new religion, but all opposi¬
tion gradually died down. King Khri-sron-lde-btsan built the
famous temple of Bsam-yas in imitation of the temple of Odanta-
puri in Magadha. This temple still exists and is situated about
35 miles from Lhasa.

The names of a large number of Indian scholars who taught
different aspects of Buddhism about this time in Tibet have been
preserved. Among them may be mentioned Dharmakirti, Vimala-
mitra, Buddhaguhya, and Santigarbha. They introduced Tantrik
ritual and taught mysticism based on Buddhist Tantrism.

But the names of Santarakshita and Padmasambhava are held
in special veneration. The former introduced the observance of the
“ten virtues.” Padmasambhava was the greatest teacher of Tantrik
doctrines which spread all over the country. He became almost
a legendary and mythical figure in Tibet.

The reign of Khri-sron-lde-btsan thus saw the final triumph
of Buddhism in Tibet. According to Tibetan chronicles “the Bon
religion was suppressed and the holy religion was made to spread
and flourished” during the lifetime of this king. They quote a
verse mentioning gantarakshita, Padmasambhava, Kamalasila, and
Khri-sron-lde-btsan as the four persons through whom “like sun¬
rise in the dark country of Tibet, the light of the holy religion spread
as far as the frontiers.” “These holy men,” so the verse concludes,
“all Tibetans will for ever reverently salute”.

The successors of king Khri-sron-lde-btsan followed his policy
of translating sacred books, erecting temples, and inviting Panditas
from India. Ral-pa-can, mentioned above, was a great patron of
Buddhism. As there were conflicting interpretations in the large
number of Tibetan translations of sacred scriptures, he invited the -

447

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Indian Panditas Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi, Silendrabodhi, Bodhi-
mitra, and Dhanaslla to Tibet. He was a great lover of Indian
culture and introduced even the system of Indian weights and
measures in Tibet. All this provoked a reaction during the reign
of his successor Glan-dar-ma who persecuted Buddhism. But he
was murdered, probably by a monk, and his son, who owed the
throne to the help of the Buddhist monks, restored the supremacy
of Buddhism. This king (A.D. 842-70) and his successors invited
Buddhist scholars from India, erected temples, and had sacred books
translated into Tibetan. Eminent Tibetan scholars also visited
India in order to learn the Buddhist doctrines.21

Tibetan Chronicles have preserved a most circumstantial
account of the part played by an Indian scholar named Dipahkara
Srljhana, called also Atisa. Even making allowances for natural
exaggeration and somewhat romantic character of the story, it shows
in a striking manner to what extent India was regarded as their
spiritual home by the Tibetans. The story must be read in full in
order to understand the reverential attitude of the Tibetans towards
India. Here we can only give a summary.

Dipahkara was born in Bengal in c. A.D. 980. After attaining
proficiency in both Buddhist and Brahmanical philosophy and scrip¬
tures he went to Acharya Chandraklrti, the High Priest of Suvarna-
dvipa, and studied with him for twelve years. On his return he
was acknowledged as the hierarch of Magadha and, at the request
of king Nayapala, accepted the post of High Priest of Vikramaslla.

About this time Lha Lama Ye-ses-hod, king of Tibet, wanted
to reform Buddhism which had become greatly debased by the ad¬
mixture of Tantrik and Bon mysticism. Accordingly he sent a
number of young Tibetan monks to India to study Buddhist scrip¬
tures and to invite to Tibet renowned scholars like Dipahkara, Ratna-
vajra and others. Out of the 21 Tibetan monks who thus came to
India, only two survived and returned to Tibet after completing
their studies. They made inquiries about Dipahkara, but were told
that any invitation to him to visit Tibet would be premature. But
the king, on hearing of his high renown and scholarship, sent an
envoy to Magadha with one hundred attendants and a large quan¬
tity of gold. The envoy presented to Dipahkara the king’s letter
with a large piece of bar-gold as a present from his -sovereign, and
begged him to honour his country with a visit. Dipahkara declined
the present and the invitation. The envoy wept bitterly, but could
not change the decision of Dipahkara.

448

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

Shortly after this the king of Tibet fell into the hands of an
enemy and died in captivity. Before his death he sent a message
which so touched the heart of. Dipahkara that he decided to visit
Tibet.

Atlsa was received with high honours at the frontier of Tibet.
Four generals, with one hundred horsemen, received him and he
was escorted in a procession carrying flags and playing various musi¬
cal instruments. His journey through the country was in the nature
of a royal tour, and he was everywhere hailed by all classes of
people. The king arranged a grand ovation for him in the capital.
Dipahkara spent the remaining 13 years of his life in Tibet, preach¬
ing the pure doctrines of Buddhism and writing sacred texts. He
reformed Buddhism in Tibet by eliminating Tantrik elements, and
wrote about two hundred books. He was the spiritual guide and
teacher of Bromton, the founder of the first grand hierarchy of
Tibet. He died in A.D. 1053, and is even now remembered with
deep veneration all over upper Asia or wherever the Buddhism of
the Tibet variety prevails.

Throughout the Pala period Tibet was in close touch with
India, particularly with the great Universities of Nalanda and Vik-
ramasila. She adopted many traits of Indian culture along with
religion, such as the 60 years’ cycle system. Many Indian monks
visited Tibet and preached the new developments of Buddhism. In
particular the mystic schools of Buddhism like Vajrayana and Saha-
jayana found great favour there. The vast literature of this reli¬
gion, now lost in India, has been preserved in Tibetan translations,
in the two voluminous collections known as Bstan-hgyur and Bkah-
hgyur. We possess only a bare knowledge of the names and gene¬
ral contents of the texts included in them, as most of them have
not yet been studied in detail. But the systematic catalogue pre¬
pared by Csoma de Coros and Cordier, and works of several other
scholars show that these works are very large in number and varied
in nature. They furnish positive testimony to the intimate connec¬
tion between the two countries and the profound influence exer¬
cised by India upon the development of religious thought and lite¬
rature, as well as many other aspects of culture in Tibet.

IX. WESTERN COUNTRIES

We have abundant references to a very close contact between
India and the Muslim world.22 Baghdad was at this time the centre
of Muslim world, and Indian culture reached it both directly as well
as through Iran. Indian literature, at first translated into Persian,
was later translated from Persian into Arabic, The most prominent

449

A.I,K.— 2ft

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

example of this is furnished by the fables of Kalila and Dimna
based on Panchat antra,23 and probably the famous medical treatise
Char a k as am h i td was first known to the Muslim court in this way.

The direct intercourse between India and Baghdad is prominent¬
ly noticeable during the reigns of Al-Mansur (A.D. 754-75) and
Harun Al-Raslhd (A.D. 786-809). As Sindh was under the actual
rule of Al-Mansur, several Indian embassies came to his court. These
embassies were accompanied by Indian scholars who taught the
Arabs both mathematics and astronomy, as well as various other sub¬
jects. Al-Biruni tells us that the “star-cycles, as known through
the canon of Alfazari and Ya’kub Ibn Tarik, were derived from a
Hindu who came to Bagdad as a member of the political mission
which Sindh sent to the Khalif Almansur, A.H. 154 (A.D. 771).”2i
Again, we learn from the same source, that the Hindu traditions re¬
garding the distances of the stars were communicated to Ya’kub
Ibn Tarik by “the well-known Hindu scholar who, in A.H. 161 (A.D.
778), accompanied an embassy to Bagdad.”26 Two other Indian
embassies are known, from other sources, to have visited Baghdad
in the year 136 (A.D. 753) and 156 (A.D. 773).26

The scholars who accompanied these embassies brought seve¬
ral works on mathematics including the Brahma-sphuta-siddhcinta
and the Khandakhadyaka of Brahmagupta. With their help these
works were translated into Arabic by Arab scholars (Alfazari, per¬
haps also Ya’kub Ibn Tarik) and it was thus that the Arabs first
became acquainted with a scientific system of astronomy. Both
the works exercised a profound influence on the development of
astronomy by the Arabs who learned from Brahmagupta earlier
than from Ptolemy. It is probably also through these scholars that
the Hindu numerals were first definitely introduced amongst the
Arabs. It is well known how this new system, known as decimal
notation based on the place-value of the first nine numbers and the
use of zero, simplified and revolutionised the Science of Mathematics
all over the v/orld. Whether Europe derived this knowledge direct¬
ly from India or through the Arabs is a disputed question, but there
is a general consensus of opinion that the world is indebted to India
for this epoch-making discovery. In this connection reference may
be made to a remarkable statement by Severus Sebokht, a learned
Syrian scholar who lived in a convent on the Euphrates about the
middle of the seventh century A.D. He pays a very high compli¬
ment to the Indians for their “subtle discoveries in the science of
astronomy, discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the
Greeks and the Babylonians.” He then refers to their system of
“computing that surpasses description” and remarks: “I wish only

450

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those
who believe, because they speak Greek, that they have reached the
limits of science, should know these things, they would be convinced
that there are also others who know something/’27

Without going into further details we may conclude with the
following expression of opinion by an eminent European scholar:
“In Science, too, the debt of Europe to India has been considerable.
There is, in the first place, the great fact that the Indians invented
the numerical figures used all over the world. The influence which
the decimal system of reckoning dependent on those figures has had
not only on mathematics, but on the progress of civilisation in gene¬
ral can hardly be over-estimated. During the eighth and ninth cen¬
turies the Indians became the teachers in arithmetic and algebra of
the Arabs, and through them of the nations of the West. Thus,
though we call the latter science by an Arabic name, it is a gift we
owe to India.”28

During the Caliphate of Harun Al-Rashld contact with India
was further promoted chiefly by the efforts of the ministers of the
Barmak family, then at the height of their power. The founder of
this family was a Buddhist high-priest in the Naubehar (—Nava
Vihara or New Monastery) in Balkh. Although converted to Islam
they still had great leanings towards their old culture. They in¬
duced Indian scholars to come to Baghdad and engaged them to
translate into Arabic Sanskrit books on medicine, pharmacology,
toxicology, philosophy, astronomy, astrology, algebra, arithmetic and
other subjects. Arab scholars were also sent to India in large num¬
bers to learn those sciences at first hand from Indian authorities.

We learn from several Arab works written between the tenth
and thirteenth century A.D. that a number of standard Hindu trea¬
tises on medicine, materia medica and therapeutics were translated
into Arabic by order of the Caliph Harun Al-Rashid (A.D. 786-809) .
These included, among others, such famous works as the Charaka ,
the Susruta, the Niddna, and the Ashtanga of Vagbhata. The Su~
sruta was translated by an Indian whose name is written in Arabic
as Mankh. He cured Harun Al-Rashid of a severe illness and was
appointed by the grateful Caliph the head of the Royal Hospital.

The names of a number of Indian scholars who visited Baghdad
are preserved in Arabic works, but unfortunately it is hardly possi¬
ble, even in a single case, to restore the original Indian form from
the Arabic transliteration. Sachau’s attempts in this direction are
praiseworthy, but not convincing. Thus he suggests that the names
of the authors of three books on ‘drinkables', ‘philosophy’ and ‘signs

451

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

of swords’ are respectively Atri, Vedavyasa and Vyaghra. He also
thinks that the Hindu physician who was director of the hospital
of the Barmaks in Baghdad and is mentioned as the son of DHN,
was probably named Dhanya or Dhanin, and connects it with Dhan-
vantari, the mythological physician of the gods.

Islam was influenced by India not only in literature and sci¬
ence, as noted above, but also in various other ways. Such influence
has been traced even in religious ideas, notably in the growth and
development of Islamic mysticism or Spufiism. As Titus has point¬
ed out, “here the contribution seems to be made in thought, religious
imagery of expression, and pious practices, which come from both
Buddhist and Vedantic sources.”29 An earlier form of such influ¬
ence is manifested in Zuhd or asceticism, which is not identical with
§ufiism,30 “The Aghdni has preserved for us at least one portrayal
of an unmistakable Buddhistic view of life, and the Zindlq monks
described by al-Jahiz (ninth century A.D.) were either Indian sddhus,
Buddhist monks, or their imitators.”31 In any case, “the presence
of wandering Indian monks was a factor of practical importance to
the adherents of Islam as early as the time of ‘Abbasid Caliphate”.32
No doubt they were instrumental in preaching Indian ideas which
influenced even Arab philosophers. One of them, Abu-al-‘Ala’
al-ma’arri (A.D. 973-1057), who is described as the “philosopher of
poets and poet of philosophers”, was so much inoculated with Indian
ideas that he adopted a vegetarian diet and a life of seclusion.33
It is known that Buddhist works were translated into Arabic dur¬
ing the ‘Abbasid period, specially in the reigns of Al-Mansur and
Harun Al-Hashfd.34 Even in building mosques they were indebted,
both for craftsmen and architectural ideas, to India.36 Early Arab
geographers derived from India the notion of a world-centre, which
they called Arin, a corrupt form of Uj jay ini, which was famous for
its astronomical observatory 36 Many of their musical terminologies
are of Indian origin.37

The Arab merchants visited India in increasingly large numbers,
and many of them wrote interesting accounts of India, the earliest of
them being dated about the middle of the ninth century A.D.38
There were Muslims settled in India for whom mosques were built
by the Indian kings.

We learn from Ibn Haukal (tenth century A.D.) that “several
important cities in Western India had Jama Mas j ids where the
Muhammadan precepts were openly observed”. The same writer
tells us that in the dominion of the Rashtrakutas “Musulmans lived in
many cities and none but Musulmans ruled over them on the part of

452

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

the ruling authority”. This is a remarkable concession to the foreign
settlers. It does not appear, however, that the Muslim population
was quite considerable in the friendly state of the Rashtrakutas.
Even in Sindh, we are told, there was a large population of infidels.39

1. See above, Vol. Ill, p. 640.

2. See p. 52.

3. See above, p. 52.

4. See above, p. 49.

5. See above, Vol. Ill, p. 636.

6. See above, p. 417.

7. See above, Vol. Ill, p. 637.

8. See p. 421.

9. See p. 429.

10. See p. 414.

11. See pp. 414, 416.

12. See p. 416.

13. See Vol. in, p. 643.

14. Vol. Ill, pp. 597-616.

15. SIS , I. 164.

16. Sastri: Foreign Notices, 23-25; SIS, II. 157.

17. Vol. Ill, p. 612.

18. SIS, I. 60.

19. TTie date of Ral- pa-can is given on the authority of Petech (p. 81). Francke
gives A.D. 804-816 as the period of his reign (p. 80).

20. Sastri: Foreign Notices, 17.

21. Petech holds the view that Buddhism practically disappeared from Tibet after

the persecution of Glan.dar-ma and was revived after two centuries by Atisa
(pp. 82-3).

22. For a general treatment of the subject, cf. Sachau’s Eng. Tr. of Alberuni’s India.
XXX ft.

23. See Vol. IH, p. 314.

24. Sachau: Alberuni’s India, II. 15.

25. Ibid., II. 67.

26. Ibid., II. 313.

27. JA., II, 1910. 225-27. Also cf. History of Hindu Mathematics by B. Dutta and
A. N. Singh, I. 95 ff; P. K. Hitti: History of the Arabs, 307-308, 573-4.

28. Macdonell, HSL. 424.

29. M. T. Titus, Indian Islam, 149.

30. Ibid.

31. Hitti, op. cit., 435; Goldziher, Vorlesungen iiber den Islam, Tr. by Seelye, 172-3.

32. Titus, op. cit., 147.

33. Hitti op. cit., 458-9.

34. T. J. De Boer, History of the Philosophy of Islam, 9.

35. Hitti, op. cit., 265, 417.

36. Ibid, 384.

37. Ibid., 428.

38. These have been translated in HIED, I.

39. HIED, I. 34, 38.

458

LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Sources: Literary Texts and Translations

(1) Indian Sources:

(A) Brahmanical:

(i) Epics;

(ii) Puranas ;

(iii) Philosophy;

(iv) Dharmasastra;

(v) Historical Works;

(vi) Polity;

(vii) Lexicons;

(viii) Grammar;

(ix) Astronomy, Astrology and Mathematics:

(x) Medicine;

(xi) Poetics, Dramaturgy and Metrics;

(xii) Champu;

(xiii) Anthology;

(xiv) Belles-Lettres.

(B) Buddhist:

(i) Pali;

(ii) Sanskrit.

(D) Works in Apabhraihsa:

(E) Muslim:

(2) Non-Indian Sources:

(A) Arabic.

(B) Tibetan.

II. Original Sources:

(1) Inscriptions.

(2) Coins.

III. Modem Works:

(1) Histories of the Period.

(2) Histories of Literature.

(3) Religion and Philosophy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chapter I
Chapter II

>»

Chapter XIV

454

Mahabhdrata

JRamdyana

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. ORIGINAL SOURCES: Literary:

Texts and Translations ,

(1) Indian Sources:

(A) BRAHMANICAL:

(i) EPICS:

(Bom. Ed.), with the comm, of Nilakantha.

Edited by R. Kinjawadekar. Poona, 1929-33.
(CaL Ed.) Edited by N. Siromani and others.
BI. Calcutta, 1834-39.

(Kumbhakonam Ed.) Ed. by T. R. Krishna-
charya and T. R. Vyasacharya. Bombay,
1905-10.

(Southern Recension) Ed. by P. P. S. Sastri.
Madras, 1931 jff.

(Critical Edition) I. Adiparvan. Ed. by V. S.
Sukthankar Poona, 1927-33.

II. Sabhaparvan. Ed. by F. Edgerton. Poona,
1943-44.

III, IV. Aranyakaparvan. Ed. by V. S.
Sukthankar. Poona, 1941-42.

V. Virataparvan. Ed. by Raghu Vira. Poona,
1936. '

VI. Udyogaparvan. Ed. by S. K. De. Poona,
1937-40.

VII. Bhishmaparvan. Ed. by S. K. Belvaikar.
Poona, 1945-47.

VIII. Dronaparvan. Fasc. 25. Ed. by S. K.
De. Poona, 1953 (in progress).

IX. Karnaparvan. Ed. by P. L. Vaidya.
Poona 1950-54

XIII-XVI. 6antiparvan. Ed. by S. K. Bel-
valkar. Poona, 1949-54 (in progress).

Eng. trans. by K. M. Ganguly. Published by
P- C, Roy. Calcutta, 1884-96; New Ed. Cal¬
cutta, 1926-32.

Eng. trans. by M. N. Dutt. Calcutta, 1895-1905.
(Bengal Recension) Ed. by G. Gorresio. Turin,
1843-67.

(North-Western India) Ed- by Pandit Rama
Labhaya and others. Lahore, 1923 ff.

(North and South) Bombay, 1902.

(South) Madras, 1933.

(Critical Ed.) Ed- by Raghu Vira. First Fasc.
Lahore, 1938.

Eng. trans. by M. N. Dutt. Calcutta. 1892-94.
Trans, into English verse, by R. T, H- Griffith.
Benares, 1915.

455

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Agni Purdna

Bhdgavata Pur ana

Bhavishya Pur ana

Brahma Purdna

Birahmarlda Purdna
• • •

Brihanndradiya

Purdna

Garuda Purdna

Harivamsa

Kurma Purdna
•

Linga Purdna
Markandeya Purdna

Matsya Purdna

Padma Purdna

Siva Purdna
Vardha Purdna
Vdyu Purdna

Vishnu Purdna

V ishnudharmot -
tara Purdna

(ii) PURANAS:

Ed. by R. Mitra. BI. Calcutta, 1873-79.

Ed. ASS. Poona, 1900.

Eng. trans. M. N. Dutt. Calcutta, 1901.

Ed, with French trans. by E. Burnouf, and con¬
tinued by Hauvette-Besnault and Roussel*
5 Vols. Paris, 1840-98.

Ed. by V. L. Pansikar. Bombay, 1920.

Eng. trans. M. N- Dutt. Calcutta, 1895.

Eng. trans. bv Swami Vijnanananda. SBH.
Allahabad, 1921-23.

Eng. trans. by S- Subba Rao. Tirupati, 1928.
Eng. trans. by J. M. Sanyal. Calcutta, 1930-34.
Pub. Venkatesvara Press. Bombay, 1910.

ASS. Poona, 1895-

Pub. Venkatesvara Press. Bombay, 1913.

Ed. P. Hrishikesha Sastri. BI. Calcutta, 1891.
Bombay, 1906.

Eng. trans. M- N. Dutt. Calcutta, 1908.

Ed. R. Kinjawadekar. Poona, 1936.

Ed. Nilamani Mukhopadhyaya. BI. Calcutta,
1890.

Ed. J. Vidyasagara- BI. Calcutta, 1885.

Ed. K. M. Banerjea. BI. Calcutta, 1862.

Eng. trans. by F. E- Pargiter. Calcutta, 1904.
ASS. Poona. 1907.

Eng. trans. by a Taluqdar of Oudh. SBH. 2
Vols. Allahabad, 1916-17.

Ed- V. N. Mandlik. ASS. 4 Vols. Poona.
1893-94.

Pub. Venkatesvara Press. Bombay, 1895.

Pub. Venkatesvara Press. Bombay.

Ed. P. Hrishikesa Sastri. BI. Calcutta, 1893.

Ed. R. Mitra. 2 Vols. BI. Calcutta, 1880-88.
ASS. Poona, 1905.

Bombay, 1889.

Eng. trans. by H. H. Wilson. 5 vols. London,
1864-70.

Eng. trans. by M- N. Dutt. Calcutta, 1894.

Pub. Venkatesvara Press. Bombay, 1912.

(iii) PHILOSOPHY:

(1) Mimdmsd:

Nyayakanika of Vachaspati

See below under “Vidhiviveka”.
Prakaranapanchikd of 6alikanatha

Benares, 1904.

Slokavdrttika of Kumarila Bhatta

Ed. in Chowkhamba SS. Benares, 1898-9.
Ed. in Pandit, NS, Vols. 3-4.

Eng. trans. by G. Jha. BI. Calcutta, 1900 ff.

456

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tantravdrttika of Kumar ila Bhatta

Ed. in Benares SS. Benares, 1890.

Eng. trans. by G. Jha. BI. Calcutta, 1903 fL

Tuptikd of Kumar ila Bhatta

Ed. Benares SS. Benares, 1903.

Tattvabindu of Vachaspatimisra

Benares, 1870. Ed. by V. A. Ramaswami Sastrk
Annamalainagar, 1936.

Vidhiviveka of Mandanamisra

• •

with the comm. Nyayakanikd by Vachaspati,
Benares, 1907-

(2) Nydya:

NyayakusurnJi'njali of Udayana

Ed. with comm, by K. Somasekhara Sastri,
Tirupati, 1940.

Eng. trans. by Swami Ravi Tirtha, Vol. I.
Madras, 1946.

Nydyamanjan of Jayanta Bhatta

Ed- by Suryanarayana Sukla. Benares, 1936.

Nyd-yaparisishta of Udayana

Ed, with comm, by Narendrachandra Vedanta -
tirtha. Calcutta, 1938.

Nyayasara of Bhasarvajha

Ed. by S. C. Vidyabhushana. Calcutta, 1910.

Nydyavdrttikatatpocrya of Vachaspati

Benares, 1898.

Ed. with notes by Amarendra Mohan Tarka^
tirtha and Taranath Nyaya-Tarkatirtha-
Calcutta, 1936.

Ny&yav&rttikatatparyaparisuddhi of Udayana

Ed. by Vindhyesvari Prasad Dvivedi and
Lakshmana Sastri Dravida. BI, Calcutta^
1911-24.

(3) Samkhya:

Samkhyatattvakaumudi of Vachaspati

Ed. with comm, by Sitaram Sastri Kelkar and
Ramasastri Bhandari. Benares, 1919-22.

Ed. by Ramesh Chandra. Calcutta, 1935-

(3) Vaiseshika :

Kiranavalt of Udayana

Ed. with comm, by Siva Chandra Sarvabha-
uma. BI. Calcutta, 1911-12.

Lakshccndvali of Udayana

Ed. in Pandit , NS., XXI-XXII.

Nydyakandali of Sridhara Bhatta

Ed. in VSS, No- 6. Benares, 1895.

Eng. trans. by G. Jha in Pandit , NS. XXV-
XXXIV; Reprinted, Benares, 1916; 2nd Ed.
with notes by H. D. Sharma. Poona, 1934.

457

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ
(J) Vedanta:

Bhdmati of Vachaspati

Ed. BI. Calcutta, 1876-1880.

Ed. by Bala Sastri. Benares, 1880.

Ed. by Jivananda Vidyasagara. Calcutta, 1891.
Ed. with notes by Dhundiraj Sastri Nyayo-
padhyaya. Benares, 1935-37.

( Chatussutri ) Ed. with Eng. trans. by S. S.
Suryanarayana Sastri and C- Kunhan Raja.
Madras, 1933.

Brahmasiddhi of Mandanamisra

• 9

Ed. with the comm, of Sahkhapani by S. Kup~
puswami Sastri. Madras, 1937.

Brahmasutrabhashya of 6ahkaracharya

Ed. with comm, by Narayana Sastri Eksam-
bekar. ASS. Poona, 1900-1903.

Eng. trans- (Vedanta Sutras with the comm,
of &ankaracharya) by G. Thibaut. SBE.
Oxford, 1890.

Naishkarmyasiddhi of Suresvara

BSS. Bombay, 1891; 2nd Ed. Ed. by M. Hiri-
yanna. Poona, 1925.

Panchapadikd of Padmapada

Ed. VSS- Benares, 1891-2.

Param&rthasara of Abhinavagupta

Ed. with comm. Kashmir Series. Srinagar,
1916.

Ed. with comm. Benares, 1932.

Samkshepasafiraka of Sarvajnatma

Ed. with comm, by Bhau Sastri Vajhe.
Benares, 1913.

Ed- with comm, by S. N. Sukla. Benares.
1936.

(6) Yoga:

E^jarnartanda of Bhoja

Ed. and trans. by R. Mitra. BL Calcutta, 1883.

Yogasutras with Rdj arnartanda and other
comms. Ed. by Dhundiraj Sastri. Benares,
1930.

Tattvavaisdradi of Vachaspati

Yogasutras with the comm, of Vyasa and the
gloss of Vachaspati. Ed. by R. Bodas. BSS.
Bombay, 1892; 2nd Ed. 1917.

Ed. by Gosvami Damodara Sastri. Benares,
1935.

Eng. trans. by J. H. Woods. HOS. Cambridge
Mass., 1914.

Eng. trans. by Ramaprasada. SBH. Allaha¬
bad, 1910.

458

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

(iv) DH ARMA&ASTR A :

Bdlakridd, of Visvarupa

Y djnav a l kya-smri ti with the comm, of Vis-
varupa. TSS. Trivandrum, 1922-24.

Dharmas&stra-samigraha

Ed. by J. Vidyasagara. 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1876.
Manuhhdshya of Medhatithi

Manu-smriti with the comm, of Medhatithi.

Ed- by G. Jha. BI. Calcutta, 1932-39.

Ed. by V. N. Mandlik. Bombay, 1886.

Ed. by J. R. Gharpure. Bombay, 1920.

Eng. trans. by G. Jha. Calcutta, 1922-29.
Smntlndm Samuehchaya

Ed. in ASS. Poona, 1905.

Smriti-sandarbhah
* *

Vols. I-IIL Guruman^ala-granthamala. Cal¬
cutta, 1952.

(v) HISTORICAL WORKS:

Vikramdnkadevacharita. Ed. by G. BUhler.
BSS. Bombay, 1875.

Prithvirajavijaya. Ed. with the comm, of
Jonaraja by S. K. Belvalkar. BI. Calcutta,
1914-1922*

Ed. by G. H. Ojha. Ajmer, 1941.
Dvitiya-Rajatarangini
Ed. P. Peterson. Bombay, 1896.

Rdjataranginu

Ed. Durga Prasad. Bombay, 1892-
Eng. trans. by M. A. Stein. London, 1900.

Eng, trans. by R. S. Pandit. Allahabad, 1935.
Padmagupta alias Parimala

Navasdhasdnkacharita . Ed. by V. S. Islampur-
kar. BSS. Bombay, 1895.

Sandhyakara Nandi

Ramacharita. Ed. by H. P. Sastri. MASB, v.
2nd Ed. Ed. by R. C. Majumdar, R. G.
Basak and N. G. Banerji. Rajshahi, 1939.

(vi) POLITY:

Nitisara of Kamandaka

Ed. by R. Mitra. BI. Calcutta, 1884.

Ed. with the comm, of 6ankararya, by T. Gana-
pati Sastri. TSS. Trivandrum, 1912.

JVt tisdra of Sukra

Ed. by G. Oppert- Madras, 1882.

Eng. trans- by M. N. Dutt. Calcutta, 1896.

Eng. trans. by B. K. Sarkar. 2nd Ed. Allaha^
bad, 1923.

Nitivakydmrita of Somesvara

Bombay, 1887-88.

Pub, MDJG Series, Bombay.

459

Bilhana

Jayanaka

Jonaraja

Kalharta

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bhanvantari

Halayudha

Kesava

Kdtantra

Sabddnusdsana

Bhattotpala
Mahavlrachary a

Sridharaeharya

Varahamihira

Bhanvantari

Indu

Madhava

Vrinda

Abhinavagupta

Anandavardhana

Dhananjaya

Jayaddman

(vii) LEXICONS:

See below under “Medicine”.

Abhidhdnaratnamdld . Ed. by Th. AufrechL
London, 1861.

Kalpadrukosa. Ed. by Ramavatara Carina.
GOS. 2 vols. Baroda, 1928, 1932.

(viii) GRAMMAR:

With the comm, of Durgasimha. Ed. by J.
Eggeling. BI- Calcutta, 1874-78.

of Sakatayana, with Prakriydsamgraha of
Abhayachandra. Pub. by Jestharam Mu-
kundji. Bombay, 1907.

(ix) ASTRONOMY, ASTROLOGY AND

MATHEMATICS:

See below under “Varahamihira”.

Ganitasdrasamgraha. Ed. with Eng. trans. and
notes by M. Rangacharya. Madras, 1912-

Ganitasdra or Trisatu Ed. by M. Ramanuja-
charya and G. R. Kaye. Leipzig, 1913.

Brihaj-jdtaka . With Bhattotpala’s comm. Ed.
by Sita Ram Jha> Benares, 1934.

(x) MEDICINE:

Dhanvantariya Nighantu . ASS, No. 33. Poona.
1896.

Comm, on Ashtanga-samgraha. Ed. by Rudra
Parasara. Trichur, 1913-24.

Rugvinischaya or Madhavanidana. Ed. with
comm, by Kaviraj S. C. Sen- 2nd Ed.
Benares, 1932.

Ed. with comms. by J. T. Acharya. Bombay,
1920.

Siddhiyoga. ASS, No. 27. Poona, 1894.

(xi) POETICS DRAMATURGY, AND

METRICS:

Lochana. KM, 25. Bombay, 1911.

German trans. by H. Jacobi. ZDMG, LVI and
LVII.

Lochana (VI). Ed. by S. K. De. Calcutta, 1923
(JDL,_IX. 15-42).

Dhvanydloka, with the comm. Lochana of
Abhinavagupta. See above under “Abhi¬
navagupta”.

Dasarupa. Ed. with the comm- of Dhanika.
by F. E, Hall. BI. Calcutta, 1865.

Eng. trans. G. C- O. Haas. New York, 1912.

(Comprising Jayadevachchhandah, Chhan-
donusdsanam of Jayaklrti and of Hemachan-
dra, and Vrittaratndkarah of Kedara). Ed.
with intr., iist and index of Sanskrit metres,
etc. by H. D. Velankar. Bombay, 1949.

460

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mukulabhatta

Rajasekhara

Rudrata

Sagaranandin

Udbhata

Utpala

Vamana

Abhidhdvrittimdtrikd. NSP. Bombay, 1916.
Kdvyamimdmsa. Ed. by C. D. Dalai and R. A*
Sastri. GOS. 3rd Ed. Baroda, 1934.
Kavyalankdra. Ed. with the comm, of Nami-
sadhu by Durgaprasada and K. P. Parab.
KM, 2. Bombay, 1909.

Nd^akalaksharuiratnakosa . Vol. I. Ed. by M.
Dillon. London, 1937.

Alankara-samgraha. Ed. with the comm-
Laghuvritti of Pratiharenduraja. NSP.
Bombay. 1915.

Ed. by N. D. Banhatti. BSS. Poona. 1925
Chhandahsdstra. Ed- by H. D. Velankar. Raja
Comm. Vol. (pp. 148-152).
Kdvydlankdrasutra. Ed. with Vritti by Durga-
prasad and K. P. Parab. KM, 15. Bombay,
1926.

Ed- with a comm. Srirangam, 1909.

Eng. trans. by G. Jha. Allahabad, 1912; 2nd
Ed. Poona, 1928.

Ed. with German trans. by C. Cappeller. Jena,
1875.

Sotfdhala

Somadeva

Trivikramabhatta

(xii) CHAMPU:

Udayasundarlkatha . Ed- by C. D. Dalai and
E. Krishnamacharya. GOS. Baroda, 1920
Yasastilakachampu. Ed. by Sivadatta and
Parab. KM. Bombay, 1901-1903.

Nalachampu or Damayantikathd , Ed. with
comm- by N. K. Sarma. Benares, 1932.

Ed. with comm. Bombay, 1885.

Kavxndravachana -
samuchchaya

(xiii) ANTHOLOGY:

Ed. with intr. and notes by F. W. Thomas. BI.
Calcutta, 1912.

(xiv) BELLES-LETTRES :

(Note: References to most important works in Sanskrit are given
here. Full details v/ill be found in the Histories of Sanskrit
Literature by De and Das Gupta, Keith, Krishnamachariar,
Wintemitz, etc.)

Abhinanda

Ananda

Anandavardhana

Anahgaharsha

MatrarSja

Bhallata

Ktidambari-kathdsara. Ed- by Durgaprasad
and K. P. Parab. NSP. Bombay, 1899.

Eld. by Achintyaram Sarman., Lahore, 1900.
Rdmacharita. Ed. with intr. by Ramaswami
Sastri Siromani. GOS. Baroda, 1930.
Mddhavanala-kathd. Ed. by Pavloni. OC, IX.

1.430 ff; GSAI, XXII. 313 ff.

Devisataka. Ed. Kdvyamdld , XI. 1-31.
Tdpasavatsardja . Ed. by Yadugiri Yatiraja-
Bangalore, 1928.

Bhallatasataka. Kdvyamald , IV. 140 ff.

461

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Budhasvamin

Chaturbhdrn

Hanumat

Kshemlsvara

Kulasekhara

Murari

Nltivarman

Purantaka

Rajasekhara

Ratnakara

Brihatkathd Slokasariigraha . Ed. with critical
notes and French trans. by F. Lacote. Paris,.
1908-29.

(comprising Sudraka's PadmaprdbhritakCL,
Isvaradatta’s Dhurta-vita-samvada, Vara-
ruchi’s Ubhayabhisarika, and &yamilaka!s
Pddatdditaka) Ed. by M. Ramakrishna Kavi
and S. K. Ramanatha Sastri. Patna. 1922.
Hanuman-ndtaka (Devanagari nec.) of Damo-
dara Misra with the comm, of Mohan Das.
Bombay, 1860; 1868; etc.

Maham^aka (Bengali rec.) of Madhusudana.
Ed. with comm, by Jivananda Vidyasagara.
Calcutta, 1890.

Chandakausika. Ed. by Jaganmohan Tarka-
lamkara. Calcutta, 1867. Ed. by J. Vidya¬
sagara. Calcutta, 1884- Ed. by Krishna
Sastri Gurjara. Litho. Bombay, 1860.
German trans. ( Kausikds * Zorn) by Ludwig
Fritze. Leipzig, 1883.

Mukundamald. Kdvyamald, I. 11 f.

Ed. by K. Rama Pisharoti. Annamalainagar,
1933.

Anarghardghava . Ed. by Premchandra Tarka-
vagis. Calcutta, 1860.

Ed. by Durgaprasad and K. P. Parab. NSP.
Bombay, 1890-

Klchakavadha. Ed. by S. K. De. Dacca, 1929..
Sydmalddandaka . Kavyamala, I. 8 ff.
Bdlabharata. Ed. by C. Cappeller- Strass-
burg, 1885.

Ed. by Durgaprasad and K. P. Parab. NSP.
Bombay, 1887 (included in the Karptira-
man j an).

B&laramdyana. Ed. by Govindadeva Sastri.
Benares, 1869.

Ed. by J. Vidyasagar. Calcutta, 1884.
Karpilramanjan. Ed. by Durgaprasad and
K. P. Parab. NSP. Bombay, 1887.

Ed. by Manomohan Ghosh. Calcutta, 1939.
Ed. by Sten Konow, with Eng. trans. and
notes, etc. by C. R. Lanman- HOS. Cambridge
Mass-, 1901.

Viddhasdlabhanjika. Ed. by B. R. Arte.
Poona, 1886.

Ed, by Varnanacharya in Pandit, VI-VIL
Ed. by J. Vidyasagar. 2nd Ed. Calcutta, 1883.
Ed. with comms. by J. B. Chaudhuri. Calcutta,
1943.

Eng. trans. by L. H. Gray. JAOS, XXVII. 1-71.
Haravijaya. Ed. by Durgaprasad and K. P.
Parab. KM. Bombay, 1890.

462

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kavyarakshasa or Rakshasakcivya. Ed. by A,
Hoefer. Sanskrit-Lesebuch. Berlin, 1849.
Ed. by K. P. Parab. NSP. Bombay, 1900.
Italian trans. by F. Belloni-Filippi. GSAI ,
XIX, 1908. 83 ff.

Nalodaya, accompanied with a metrical trans.

by W. Yates. Calcutta, 1844.
Asclidryachuddrnuni. Ed. by C. Sankararaja
Sastri. Madras, 1926.

Eng. trans. by C- Sankararaja Sastri. Madras,
1927.

Kapphindbhyudaya. Ed. by Gaurishankar.
Lahore, 1927.

Dutangada. KM. Bombay, 1891.

Eng. trans. by L. H. Gray. J AOS, XXXII. 58 ft.
Stotrdvali. Ed. by Vishnuprasad Bhandari.
Benares, 1902.

Yudhishthiravijaya. NSP. Bombay, 1897-
Mudrarakshasa. Ed. K. T- Telang. BSS. 3rd
revised Ed. Bombay, 1900. Ed. A. Hille-
brandt. Breslau, 1912; New Ed. 1935.

Ed. with Eng. trans- by K. H. Dhruva. 2nd
Ed. Poona, 1923; 3rd Ed. Poona, 1930.

Eng. trans. (The Signet Ring) with notes, etc,
by R. S, Pandit. Bombay, 1944.

(B) BUDDHIST:

(i) PALI:

(Note: Important references only are given here. Further parti¬
culars will be found in Geiger, Law, Winternitz, etc. given
under “Histories of Literature” below.)
Abhidhammatthasamgaha of Aniruddha

Ed- by Rhys Davids. JPTS, 1894. 1 ff.

Eng. trans. by S. Z. Aung. Ed. by Mrs. Rhys
Davids. PTS. London, 1910.

Andgatavaihsa of Kassapa

Ed. by J. P- Minayeff. JPTS , 1886, 33 ff.
Gandh’avams a Ed. by J. Minayeff. JPTSf 1886. 54-80.

Mahabodhivamsa of Upatissa

Ed. by S. A. Strong. PTS. London, 1891-
Telakapdhagdtha Ed. by E. R. Goonaratne. JPTS , 1884. 49 ff.

(ii) SANSKRIT:

Abhisamayalankdrnloka of Haribhadra

Ed, by Giuseppe Tucci- GOS, 62, Baroda,
1952.

Advayavajrasamgraha of Advayavajra

Ed. by Haraprasad Sastri. GOS, 40. Baroda.
1927.

Arya-manjusrI-mulakalpa

Ed. by T.* Ganapati Sastri. 3 Parts. TSS.
Trivandrum, 1920-1925.

Ravideva

Saktibhadra

Sivasvamin

Subhata

Utpaladeva

Vasudeva

Visakhadatta

463

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bauddha-stotra-samgraha

Vol- I, consisting of Sragdhard-stotra of Sar-
vajnamitra. Ed. by S. C. Vidyabhushaaja.
BI. Calcutta, 1908.

Guhyasamuja Tantra or Tathdgataguhyaka

Ed. by B. Bhattacharyya. GOS, 53. Baroda,
1931.

Jndnasiddhi of Indrabhuti

vSee “ V ajraydnagranthadvayam ” below-
Kaulajndnanirnaya Ed. by P. C. Bagchi. Calcutta, 1934.
Maftpisrl-Mdlakalpa See “Arya-manjusri-mulakalpa” above.
Prajnopayavinischqyasiddhi of Anangavajra

See ‘‘Vajraydnagranthadvayam” below.
Sddhanarnald Ed. by B. Bhattacharyya. GOS, 26, 41. Baro¬

da, 1925, 1928.

Saktisangama Tantra Ed- by B. Bhattacharyya. GOS, 61, 91, 104.

Baroda, 1932, 1941, 1947.

See “Bauddha-stotra-samgraha” above.

See (‘Guhy asama ja Tantra” above,
of Santarakshita with the comm, of Kamala-
sila. Ed. by E. Krishnamacharya with a
Foreword by B. Bhattacharyya. GOS, 30,
31. Baroda, 1926.

Eng. trans- by G. Jha. GOS, 80, 83. Baroda,
1937, 1939.

comprising Prajnopayavinischayasiddhi of
Anangavajra and Jndnasiddhi of Indrabhuti.
Ed. by B. Bhattacharyya. GOS, 44. Baroda,
1929.

(Only important authors and works in Sanskrit and Prakrit are listed
here. For full details reference may be made to Wintemitz, His¬
tory of Indian Literature, Vol. II, and Velankar, Jinaratnakosa

Poona, 1944.)

V ardhamdna-charita or Mahdwra-charita.

Pub. with Marathi trans. Sholapur, 1931.
Paiyalachchhl . Pub. Bhavnagar, V. S. 1973.
Ed. by G. Biihler in Beitrage zur Kunde der
Indoger . Sprachen, IV. 70 ff.
Tilakamahjati-kathd . NSP. Bombay, 1903.
Rdghava-Pandaviya or Dvisandhdna. Ed.
with comm, by Sivadatta and K. P. Parab-
KM. Bombay, 1895.

Upadesamald (Prakrit). Pub. JDPS. Bhav¬
nagar, 1915; Uvaesamala. Ed- by L. P. Tessi-
tori. GSAIy 25 (1912). 162-297.

Uttarapurana (See under Jinasena I).
Dhurtdkhyana (Prakrit). Ed. by A. N. Upa-
dhye. SJS. Bombay, 1944-
Samaruichchakahd . Ed. by H. Jacobi. BI.
Calcutta. 1926.

Asaga

Dhanapala

Dhanahjaya

Dharmadasa

Gunabhadra

Haribhadra

Sragdhard-stotra

Tathdgataguhyaka

Tattva^samgraha

V ajraydnagran-
thadvayam

464

Hastimalla
Jinasena I

Jinasena II

Kanakasena
Vadiraja *
Mahesvara Suri

Manatunga

Nandisheiia

Ravishena

Sakatayana
, Siddharshi

^obhana

Somadeva

Svayambhu

Vadiraja Suri

Devasena

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vikrantakaurava or Sulochand Ndfaka. Pub.
MX) J G series. Bombay, V. S. 197 (=1916).

Adipurdna; Published along with Gunabha-
dra’s Uttar apurdna in Mahapurdna. Pub.
Syadvada-Granthamala. Indore, V, S. 1973-5.

Pdrsvabhyudaya. Ed. with comm. NSP. Bom¬
bay, 1909.

Meghaduta as embodied in the Pdrsnabhyu-
daya with the comm, of Mallinatha and a
literal Eng. trans. by K. B. Pathak. Poona,
1894.

Harivamsapurdna . Pub. MDJG Series. Bom¬
bay, 1930.

Yasodhara-charitra. Ed. by Gopinatha Rao.
Tanjore, 1912.

Jdanapanchamt-kathd (Prakrit). Ed. by A. S.
Gopani. SJS- Bombay, 1949.

Bhaktdmarastotra. Ed. with German trans.
by H. Jacobi. IS, XIV. 359 ff.

Ed. with the comms. of Gunakara, Megha-
vijaya and Kanakakusala by H- R. Kapadia.
DLP Series. Bombay, 1932.

Ajitasantistava. Pub. in DLP Series, Bom¬
bay.

Pub. by Venichand Surchand. Mehsana, 1915
(in Pancha Pratikramariddi Sutrdni).

Padmapurdna. Pub. MDJG Series. Bombay,
1928, 29.

See earlier under “Grammar”.

TJpamitihhavCLprapanchdkathd. Ed. by P.
Peterson and H. Jacobi. BI. Calcutta, 1899-
1914; Pub. by Devchand Lalbhai. Bombay,
1918-20.

German trans. (Bks. I-III) by W. KirfeL Leip¬
zig, 1924 (Indische Erzahler, X).

gobhanastuti or Tirthesastuti or Chaturvim -
sati-Jinastuti. Pub. with the comm, of
Dhanapala. Kavygjruild, VII. •» 132 ff.; Pub-
in Agamodaya Samiti Series. Bombay.
1926.

Ed. and trans. in German by H. Jacobi. ZDMG ,
32. 509 ff.

See earlier under “Champu”-

Svayambhu-chhandas . Ed. by H. D. Velankar.
JBBRAS, 1935; JUB , Nov. 1936.

See above under “Kanakasena Vadiraja”.

(D) WORKS IN APABHRAM&A:

Savayadhatnma Doha . Ed. with intr., trans-,
glossary, notes, and index by H. L. Jain.
Karanja, 1932.

A.I.K. — 80

465

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bhavisayatta-kahd . Ed. by H. Jacobi. Mun
chen, 1918-

Ed. by C. D. Dalai and P. D. Gune. GOS, 20.
Baroda, 1923.

Sanakumara-chariu. Ed. with German trans.

notes, etc. by H. Jacobi. Munchen, 1921.
Paramappayasu. Ed. with Sanskrit comm.,
Hindi trans., critical intr., etc. along with
Yogasara, critical text, Sanskrit Ciihaya,
intr., etc., by A. N. Upadhye. Bombay, 1937
Karakanda-chariu. Ed. with intr.. trans..

glossary, etc. by H. L. Jain. Karanja, 1934.
Les chants mystiques. Les Dohd-kosa ( en
Apabhramsa avec les versions tibetaines) et
les Caryd (en vieux-Bengali) avec introduc¬
tion, vocabulaires et notes edites et traduits
par M- Shahidullah. Paris, 1928.

Nayachakra . Pub. MDJG Series, No. 16.
Bombay.

Jasahara-chdriu. Critically edited with intr..
glossary, and notes by P. L. Vaidya.
Karanja, 1931.

Mahdpurtina. Critically edited by P. L.

Vaidya. 3 vols. Bombay, 1937-41.
Nayakumdra-chariu. Critically edited wTith
an intr., glossary, indices, and notes by H.
L. Jain. Karanja, 1933.

Pdhuda Doha, Critically edited with intr.
trans., glossary, etc-, by H. L. Jain. Amraoti,
1933.

Vairdgyasdra. Ed. by H. D. Velankar. ABORl\
1928. 272-280.

Paiima-chariu. Ed. by H. C- Bhavani. STS
2 vols. Bombay, 1953 (in progress).

(D) MUSLIM:

Ashkdl ul-Bildd of ibn Hauqal

Extracts trans. HIED , I. 31-40,

Chach-rwma of Muhammad ‘All i. Hamid i. Abu Bakr Kufi

Trans, by Mirza Kalich Beg Fredunbeg. Two
vols. Karachi, 1900.

Extracts trans. HIED, I. 131-211.
Habib-us-Siyar of Khond Mir

Bombay, 1857.

Jdmi ‘ul-Hikdyat of Muhammad ‘Aufi

Extracts trans. HIED, II. 155-203.

Kitdb Futuh al Buldan of Ahmad ibn Yahya ibn-Jabir al-Baladhuri

Eng. trans. by P. K. Hitti and F. C. Murgotten.
Kitdb vl-Aqdlim of Ishtakhri

Extracts trans- HIED, I. 26-30.

Kitdb-uLHind and Athdr-al-Bdquia of al-Biruni

Eng. trans. (Alberuni’s Indie.; by E. C. Sachau..
London, 1914.

Dhanapala

Haribhadra

Joindu

Kanakamara
Khanha et Saraha

Mailladeva

Pushpadanta

Ramasimha Muni

Suprabhacharya

Svayambhti

466

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mur&j-ul-Zahab of al-Mas’udi

Text and French trans. by Barbicr de Mcynard.
Paris, 1861.

Extracts trans. HIED , I. 18-25.

Rauza t-us- Safa of Mir Khond
SVsiiat ut-Taurtrlkh of Sulayman

Extracts trans- HIED, I. 1-7.

Tabaqat-i-Akbarl of Nizamuddln

Trans, by B. Dey. BI. Calcutta, 1913.

Tabaqdt-i-Nlsin of Minhaj-ud-dln

Trans, by H. G. Raverty. London, 1881.

Taj -i:.l -Man sir of Hasan Nizami

Ta'rikk4-Firi$hta Lucknow, 1905. Eng. trans- (Rise of the

Mahomedan Power in India) by J. Briggs.
Vols. MV. London, 1829.

Ta'rtkh-i-Yanrini of Al-Utbl

Ed. by Ali.

Trans, by J. Reynolds. London-
Extracts trans. HIED , II. 14-52.

Tarkhan-ndma of Saiyid Jamal

Extracts trans. HIED, I. 300 ff.

Extracts trans. HIED , I. 253-281.

Extracts trans- HIED , I. 212-252.

History of India as told by its own Historians .
8 Vols. , London, 1866-77 ... .Vol. H. Re¬
printed with Introduction by Mohammad
Habib, Commentary by S. H. Hodiwala, and
Supplement by Khaliq Ahmad Nizami.
Aligarh, 1952.

Studies in Indo-MusUm History. Bombay,
1939.

(2) Non-Indian Sources:

(A) ARABIC:

Ta ' rihh-i-T dhiri

T d'rikh-i-Ma'sumi

Elliot, Sir H.M. and
Dovrsox. John.

HomvAU. S. II.

Buzurg ibn Shahriyar

Kitdb € Ajdyab-ul-Hind or Livre des Merveilles
de L’Inde, Texte Arabe par P. A. Van der
Lith; traduction Franchise par L- Mareel
Devic. Leide, 1883-86.

Eng. trans. (The Book of the Marvels of India)

by L. Marcel t)evic. London, 1928.

* » • *

F errand Relations des Voyages et Textes G6ogra-

phiques Arabes, Persans et Turks — Relatifs
a V Extreme-Orient du VIII • au XVIII*
siecles. 2 Vols. Paris, 1913-14. Voyage du
Marchand Arabe Sulayman en Inde et en
Chine — Redige en 851 suivi de remarques
par Abu Zayd Hasan vers 916. Paris. 1922

467

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

(B) TIBETAN:

Tabanatha German trans. by F. A. von Schiefner (Geschi-

chte des Buddhismus in Indien). St. Peters¬
burg, 1869,

Eng. trans. (History of Buddhism in India) by
U. N. Ghoshal and N- Dutt. 1HQ, III. 60-68;
508-9; 803-7; IV. 530-3; V. 715-21; VI. 334-
44; VII. 150-60; VIII. 247-52; X. 551-7;
XXVII. 239-49; XXVIII. 41-50.

Extracts trans. into English by W. L- Heeley.
I A IV. 101-4; “Taranatha’s Account of the
Magadha Kings” by E. Lyall. I A, IV. 361-7.

II. ORIGINAL SOURCES:

Aiyer. K. V. Subra-
hmanya.

Bhandarkar, D. R.
Hultzsch, E.

KrISHN AMAC1I AKLC .

C. R.

Ranch amukhi, R. S.
Rangacharya, V.
Rick, Lewis.

(1) Inscriptions:

South Indian Inscriptions. 2 vols. (ASI, New
Imperial Series, Vols. 52, 53). Madras, 1928,
1933.

“List of Inscriptions of Northern India’’.

Appendix to El, XIX-XXIII.

South Indian Inscriptions . 3 vols. (ASI, NIS,

Vols. 9, 10 and 29). Madras, 1890-1929.
Bombay -Karnataka Inscriptions. Madras, 1940.

Karnataka Inscriptions . 2 vols. Dharwar, 1941,
1951.

Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency. 3 vols.
Madras, 1919.

Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions. London,
1909.

Sastri, H. Krishna. South Indian Inscriptions. 2 vols. (ASI, NIS,

Vols. 44, 49). Madras, 1924, 26.

Sewell, R. and At- Historical Inscriptions of Southern India.
yangar, S. Krishna- Madras, 1932.
swami.

(Also Epzgraphia Indica, Epigraphia Camatica, etc.)

Allan, J.

Banerji, R. D.
Brown, C. J.
Cunningham, A.

Elliot, W.
Rapson, E. J.
Singhal, C. R.
Smith, V. A.

(2) COINS:

Catalogue of the Coins of Ancient India (in the
British Museum). London, 1936.

Prachina M.udrd (Bengali). Calcutta, 1322 B.S.
Coins of India. Calcutta^ 1922.

Coins of Mediaeval India from the seventh
century down to the Muhammadan Conquest.
London, 1894.

Coins of Southern India. London, 1896.

Indian Coins. Strassburg,, 1897.

Bibliography of Indian Coins. Bombav, 1950*
Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta, including the Cabinet of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal. Vol. I. Oxford, 1906.

468

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

III. MODERN WORKS:
(1) Histories of the Period:

Aiyangab, S. Krish-
naswami.

Altekar, A. S.
Basak, R. G.
Bhandarkar, R. G,

Jouveau-Dubreuil,

Majumdar, R. C.
Majumdar, R. C.
(Ed.).

Majumdar, R.C. and
Alteear, A. S.
(Ed.).

Masson-Oursel, P.

and others.

Ray, H. C.

Sastri, K. A. Nila-
k?>nta.

Smith, V. A.
Tripathi, R. S.
Vaidya, C. V.

Ancient India. Poona, 1941.

Rdshprakutas and their times. Poona, 1934.
History of North-Eastern India. Calcutta, 1934.
Early History of the Deccan - BG, Vol. I, Part
2. Bombay, 1896; 2nd Ed. CW, III. 1*198.
Poona, 1927; 3rd Ed. Calcutta, 1928.

Ancient History of the Deccan (trans. from the
French by V. S. Swaminadha Dikshitar).
Pondicherry, 1920.

Ancient India. Banaras, 1952-
History of Bengal. Vol. I. Dacca, 1943.

The Vakataka-Gupta Age (A New History of
the Indian People, Vol. VI). Lahore, 1946;
Reprint, Banaras, 1954.

Ancient India and Indian Civilization (Eng.

trans. from original French). London, 1934.
Dynastic History of Northern India . 2 vols.
Calcutta, 1931, 1936.

History of India. Vol. I. Madras, 1950.

Early History of India. 4th Ed. Oxford, 1924.
History of Kanuaj. Benares, 1937.

History of Mediaeval Hindu India . 3 vols
Poona, 1921-1926.

Das Gupta, S. N.

(Ed.).

De, S. K.

Frazer, R. W.
Geiger, W.

Gowen, H. H.
Kane, P. V.

Keith, A. B.

Krishnamachariar,

Law, B. C.

(2) Histories of Literature:

A History of Sanskrit Literature. Classical
Period. Vol. I. Calcutta, 1947.

Sanskrit Poetics. 2 vols. London, 1923, 1925.
Literary History of India . London, 1898.

Pali Literatur und Sprache. Strassburg, 1916.
Eng. trans. by B. K. Ghosh (Pali Literature
and Language). Calcutta, 1943-
History of Indian Literature. New York, 1931.
History of Alahkara Literature. 2nd Ed. Bom¬
bay, 1923; 3rd Ed. ( History of Sanskrit
Poetics ). Bombay, 1951.

Sanskrit Drama. Oxford, 1924. Reprint, 1954.
History of Sanskrit Literature. Oxford, 1928.

Reprint, 1941, 1948, 1953.

History of Classical Sanskrit Literature-
Madras, 1937.

History of Pali Literature. 2 vols. London,
1933.

Macdonell, A. A. History of Sanskrit Literature. London, 1900.

469

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Winternitz. M. History of Indian Literature (Eng. trans. by

Mrs. S. Ketkar). Vols- I and II. Calcutta,
1927, 1933.

Geschichte der indischen Literatur. Band HI.
Leipzig, 1920.

B HAND ARK All, 11. Ci .

Bhattaoharyya, H.
D. (E(l..).

Has Gupta, S. N.

Farqtjhar, J. N.

Kane. P. V.

Radhakrishnan, 8.
Vidyadhuskana, 8.C.
Zimmer, H.

(3) Religion and Philosophy:

Vaishnavism, Saivism and other minor Re!
gious Systems. Strassburg, 1913; Indian
Edition, Poona, 1938.

The Philosophies. Cultural Heritage of India.

2nd Ed. Vol- III. Calcutta, 1953.

History of Indian Philosophy. 4 vols. Cam¬
bridge, 1932-49.

An Outline of the Religious Literature of
India . Oxford, 1920.

History of Dharmasdstra. 4 vols. Poona,
1 930-53.

Indian Philosophy. 2 vols. London, 1923, 1927-
History of Indian Logic. Calcutta. 1921.
Philosophies of India. Ed. by J. Campbell.
London, 1953.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

{Note: In the Bibliographies to the different chapters, the Original
Sources and Modern Works, mentioned earlier, are not
repeated save in exceptional cases).

Kalhana

Nagavarma

Nripatunga

Pampa

Somadeva

CHAPTER I

THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE
I. Original Sources:

(i) LITERARY:

See above, under “Historical Works”
Karnd$akabhashabhushana. Ed- by L. Rice
Bangalore, 1884.

Kavirdjamdrga . Ed. by K. B. Pathak.

V ikramdrjuna Vi jay a or Pampa Bhdrata. Ed.

by L. Rice. Bangalore, 1898.

See above, under “Chamou”.

(ii) INSCRIPTIONS:

Bhandarkar. T>. R. A List of the Inscriptions of Northern India

roritten in Brahmi and its derivative scripts
from about A.C. 300. Appendix to El, XIX-
XXIII.

Fleet,, J. F. The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the

Bombay Presidency. BG , I, ii. Bombay,
1896.

“Sanskrit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions” (deal¬
ing with the Rashfrakutas) . IA, XI. 108-115;
124-127; 156-163; XII.* 156-165; 215-225;

247-258.

470

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

ItiKALAi.. Inscriptions in the Central Provinces and Berar.

2nd Ed- Nagpur, 1932,

Kick, L. See above, under ‘‘Inscriptions”.

(iii) SOME IMPORTANT RASHTRAKUTA

INSCRIPTIONS:

1. Ellora Plates, 6.663 (=A.D. 741): El, XXV. 25.

2. Samangad Grant, 6.675 (=A.D. 753-54): I A, XI. 108.

3. Antroli-Chharoli Plates, 6.679 (=A.D. 757): JBBRAS, XVI. 106.

4. Alas Plates, 6.692 (=A.D. 769): El, VI. 208.

5. Bhandak Plates, 6.694 (=A.D. 772): El, XIV. 121.

6. Bhor State Museum Plates, 6.702 (=A.D. 780): El, XXII. 176.

7. Daulatabad Plates, 6.715 (=A.D. 793): El, IX. 195.

8. British Museum Plates, 6.726 (=A.D. 804): I A, XI. 104. El.

XXXIII 327

9. Sisavai Grant, 6. 729 (=A.D. 807): El, XXIII. 204.

10. Wani Dindori Plates, 6.730 (=A.D. 808): IA, XI. 156.

11. Radhanpur Plates, 6.730 (=A.D. 808): El, VI. 242; I A, VI. 59.

12. Baroda Grant, $. 734 (=A.D. 812-13); IA, XII. 156.

13. Lohara Grant, 6.734 (=A.D. 812): El, XXIII. 212.

14. Surat Plates, 6.743 (==A.D. 821): El, XXI. 133.

15. Navsari Plates, 6.738 (=A.D. 816): JBBRA.S, XX. 135.

16. Kavi Grant, 6.749 (=A.D. 827-8): IA, V. 113.

17. Barcda Grant, 6.757 (=A.D. 835-6): IA, XIV. 196.

18. Nilgund Ins., 6.788 (=A.D. 866): El, VI. 98.

19. Sirur Ins., 6.788 (=--A.D. 866): El, VII. 202; IA. XII. 218.

20. Begumra Grant, 6.789 (=A.D. 867): IA, XII. 179.

21. Sanjan Plates, 6.793 (=A.D. 871): El, XVIII. 235.

22. Begumra Grant, 6.810 (=A.D. 888): IA, XIII. 65.

23. Kapadvanj Plates, 6.832 (=A.D. 910): El, I. 52.

24. Begumra Plates, 6.836 (=A.D. 914): El, IX. 24.

25. Cambay Plates, 6.852 (=A.D. 930): El, VII. 26.

26. Sangli Plates, 6.855 (=A.D. 933-4): I A, XII. 247.

27. Deoli Plates, 6.862 (=A.D. 940): El. V. 190.

28. Karhad Plates, 6.880 (=A.D. 959): El, IV. 278.

29. Kurda Grant, 6.894 (=A.D. 972-3): I A, XII. 263.

30. Gundur Ins., 6.896 (— A.D. 973-4): IA, XII. 270.

31. Sravana Belgola Prasasti, 6.904 (=A.D. 982): Inscriptions at

Srdvana Belgola. 53, No. 57.

32. Dasavatara Cave Ins. (undated). A.SWI, V. 87.

33. Jura Prasasti (undated). El, XIX. 287.

n. MODERN WORKS:

Altekar, A. S. “The Chronology of the Campaigns of Govinda

III of the Rashtrakutas”. D. R. Bhandarkar
Vol. 153-8.

“New Light on the history of the Gujarat Rash¬
trakutas”. Ojha Comm. Vol. III. 3-7.

“A Note on the date of the Manne plates of
Stambha Ranavaloka”- El, XXIII. 293-4.
Rashtrakutas and their times. Poona, 1934.
Ayyae, A. S. R. “A Note on the Dates;' of three Rashtrakuta

Kings’'. El, XXVI. 161-5.

471

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Banerji, R. D.

Bhandarkar, R. G.
Das Gupta, N. N.

Deoras. V. R.

Elliot, H. M. and
Dowson, John.
Fleet, J. F.

Gai, G. S.

Ghani, M. A.
Mibashi, V. V.

Sastri, K. A. Nila-
kanta.

Sharma, D.

Tripathi, R. S.

V ENKATARAMAN A Y YA ,

‘‘Northern Conquests of Krishna III”. JBORS ,
XIV. 476-488.

See above, under “Histories of the Period”.

“On the reign of Krishna II, the Rashtrakuta”
IA, LXII. 134-6.’

“Govinda III — -A Forgotten Emperor of Madhya
Pradesh”- Annual Bulletin of the Nagpur
Historical Society , No. 6. October, 1951, pp.
60-75.

See above, under “Muslim”.

“The Family name of the Rashtrakutas of Mai-
khed”. EIf VII. 214.

“The Original Home of the Rashtrakutas of
Malkhed”. Ibid - 223.

“The Banners and Crests of the Rashtrakutas
and Rattas of Saundatti”. Ibid. 227.

“On the Date of the Eilora Plates of Danti-
durga”. IHQ, XXVIII. 79-82.

See below, under Ch. V (11) “Arabs in India”.

“Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta
imperial power”. JOI, I. 31-38.

“The Dates of the Eilora Plates of Dantidurga ’.
JBBRAS , NS, XXVI. 163-7.

“A further note on the date of Manne plates
of Stambha Ranavaloka”. El XXIII. 295-7.

“New Light on the Medieval History of Guja¬
rat”. D. R. Bhandarkar Vol., pp. 53-58.

“Two copper-plate inscriptions from Berar”.
EI} XXIII- 204-222.

“Amoghavarsha and Karka Suvamavarsha of
Lata”. PIHC, X . 210-4.

“Did Dhruva abdicate?” JOR , XV. 9-12.

“Krishna III and the Chedis”. JOR, XVI. 155-8.

“The Imperial Pratiharas”, JIH, XXXVIII,
605.

See above, under “Histories of the Period”.

“Rashtrakutas of Malkhed”. PIHC , VIII. 85-90

See below, under Ch. II.

CHAPTER H

RISE AND FALL OF THE PRAT1HARA EMPIRE

I. Original Sources:

(i) LITERARY:

Bappabhatti-

charitam

Harivamsapurdna

Kumarapdlacharita

Prabandhachinta-

mani

•

Prabhdvakacharita
V ikramarjuna
Vi jay a

Ed. by V. Krishnamacharya. JBBRAS, NS, IV.
313-325.

See above, under Jinasena II in “(C) Jain” —
General Bibliography.

See below, Ch. V (4) -

See below, Ch- V (2).
See below, Ch. V (4).
See above, Ch. I.

472

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

(ii) INSCRIPTIONS:

LIST OF IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS,
(See above, p. 40)

Aiyangar, S.Krishna-
swami.

Ganguly, D. C.

Haldeb, R. R.

Jain, H. L.
Majumdab, R. C.

Munshi, K. M.

Ray, N. R.

Raychaudhubi, H.C.

Sastbi, K. A. Nila-
kanta.

Sen, B. C.

Sarma, Dasaratha.

Smith, V. A.
Tripathi, R. S.

V ENKATARAM AN A Y Y A ,

II. MODERN WORKS

“The Bappa Bhatti Charita and the Early His¬
tory of the Gurjara Empire”. JBBRAS , NS,
IV. 101-133.

“The “Gurjaras” in the Rashtrakuta Inscrip¬
tions”. PIHC , III. 513-5.

“The Pratiharas and the Gujaras”. JBORS.
XIV. 221-230.

“Who were the Imperial Pratiharas?” IA LVII.
181-4.

“The Chief Political Divisions of India during
the Eighth Century.” 1C, XI. 161-170.

“The Gurjara Pratiharas.” JDL, X. 1-76.

“Some Problems concerning Gurjara-Prati-
haras.” Munshi Diamond Jubilee Vol.,
Part II ( BV , X), 1-18.

(Both these articles give full references to
earlier literature on the subject).

The Glory that was Gurjaradesa, Part III:
The Imperial Gurjaras. Bombay. 1944.

“A Note on the Chronology of the Later Prati¬
haras.” IA, LVII. 230-4.

“A note on the Emperor Mahlpala of the Prati-
hara Dynasty.” PIHC, IV. 153-5.

“Mahlpala of the , Chandakausika.” JOR, VI.
191-2.

“Nagabhata II’s Operations against Dharma-
pala and Chakrayudha.” PIHC, XL 141-7.

“The Imperial Pratiharas— A Revised Study.”
JIH, XXII. 93-105.

“Chronology of the Reign of the Imperial Pra-
tihara Nagabhata II.” IHQ, XX; 72-75.

“A Supplementary Note on Vatsaraja Pratl-
hara.” IHQ, XXIII. 43-4.

“The Gurjaras of Raj put ana and Kanauj.”
JRAS, 1909- 53 ff; 247 ff.

See above, under “Histories of the Period”.

“The Rashtrakuta king Krishna II and Gurjara
Pratiharas of Kanauj.” PIHC, VI. 163-70.

CHAPTER m
THE PALAS
I. Original Sources :

(i) LITERARY:

Brihat-Svayambhu Purdna

Ed. by H. P. Sastri. BI. Calcutta, 1894-1900,
Rdmacharita of Sandhyakara Nandi

See above, in “General Bibliography” under
“Historical Works”.

473

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Taranatha See above, under “Tibetan”.

Udayasundarxkatha of Soddhala

See above, in “General Bibliography” under

“Champa”.

(ii) INSCRIPTIONS:

List of important inscriptions of the Pala Dynasty

Abbreviations
CP Copper- plate

I Image

S Stone

P Pillar

Serial

No.

Year

Find place

Name of the
king.

Reference

Bodh-Gaya-S

Dharmapala

JASB. IV. 101.

Khalimpur-CP

El, IV. 243.

• •

Nalanda-CP

FJ. XXIII. 290.

Monghyr-CP

Devapala

El, XVIII. 304.

35 (or 39) Nalanda-CP

I 9

El, XVII. 318;

Monograph No. 1 of
Varendra Research
Society;

JR asbl; VII. 215.

» •

Ghoshrawa-S

1A, XVII. 307.

Bihar-I

fiurapala

JASB.IV.108.

JR ASBL, IV. 390.

Rajauna-S

IHQ. XXIX. SOI,

Bhagalpur-CP

Narayanapala

IA.XV. 304.

Bihar-I

7A.XLVII.110.

• »

Badal-SP

El, 11.160.

12-14

28,31.32

Kurihar-I

Rajyapala

JBORSJ CXVI. 246.

• •

Bhatuniya-S

El, XXXIII. 150.

Jajilpara-CP

Go pala H

J AS, L, XVII. 137.

VS. 1083 Sarnath-I

Mahipala

J A, XIV. 139.

Baghaura-I

EL XVII. 355.

Bangarh-CP

JASB.LXI.77.

EI.XIV . 324.

Belwa-CP

El, XXIX, I ff.

48(?)

Imadpur-I

7A, XIV. 165
(f.n.17).

JRASBL, VII. 218;

XVI. 247.

Gaya-S

Nayapala

Pdlas of Bengal, 78.

JPASB, LXIX . 190.

23a

Belwa-CP

Vigrahapala III

E7,XXIX.9.

Amgachi-CP

E7,XV.293.

Bangaon-CP

E7, XXIX, 48.

Tetrawan-I

Ramapala

JASB,1V. 109.

JRASBL, IV. 390.

Chandimau-I

Pdlas of' Bengal, 93.

Manahali-CP

Madanapala

JPASB, LXIX Part 1,68.

Jaynagar-I

ASC,III.125;

JRASBL, VII. 216.

474

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

3© Saka 1083 Valgudar Madanpala JAS. L, XVII. 27.

$1, XXVIII. 145.

Inscriptions connected with the Bala Kings.

• •

Dinajpur-P

JASBy 11.619.

• •

Irda-CP

Nayapala

E/,XXn.l50;XXIV.43.

Kamauli-CP

Vidyadeva

Erjl.350.

Bihar-X

Mahendrapala

A SJ,1923-4,p . 102.

Paharpur-P

Memoir, ASJ, No. 55.
p.75

Gunariya

JASB^KVI. 278.

19(?)

Bihar

Pdlas of Bengal, 64,

Inscriptions Nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 17, 19, 23, 24, 28 and 33, along with a few other
inscriptions of the Pala kings, have been edited in Gaudalekhamdlat a Bengali Work,
published in B.S. 1319.

H. MODERN WORKS:

In English:

Banbrji, R. D.
Beattacharya, D C.

Ghosh, J. C.
Majumdar, R. C.

Paul, P. L.

Raychoudhuri, H.C,

Sastrx, K. A. Nilfv
kanta.

Sen, B. C.

Sharma, Dasarathft.

The Palos of Bengal . MASB . V. 3. Calcutta,
1915.

“Bala Chronology.” JBORS, XIV. 489.

“A Chronology of the Pala Dynasty of Ben¬
gal.” L4., XLIX, 189.

“Pala Chronology (A reply to Prof. Banerji).”
IRQ , VI. 153.

“Caste and Chronology of the Pala kings of
Bengal.” IRQ , IX. 479.

History of Bengal, Vol. I. Dacca, 1943.

“Pala Chronology.” JBORS , XV. 643.

“The Chronology of the Pala kings.” JASB,
NS, XVII. 1.

The Early History of Bengal. 2 vols. Cal¬
cutta, 1939, 1940.

“Pala Expansion in the Far South of India.”
POC, VIII. 537.

“Rajendra Chola I and Mahlpala of Bengal.”
7HQ, XIII. 149-52.

“The Battle of Venbai”. India Antiqua (Ley¬
den, 1947), 254-256.

Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of
Bengal. Calcutta, 1942.

“The two white umbrellas secured by Dhruva,”
IHQ, XX. 84-5.

Banerji, R. D.
Chanda, R. P.
Majumdar, R. C.
Roy, N, R.

In Bengali:

Bahgldr Itihdsa (3rd Edition).
Gandarijamald (B.S. 1319).

Bdngladeser Itihdsa (2nd Ed,, B.S- 1356).
Bahgdlir Itihdsa (B.S. 1356).

475

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

CHAPTER IV

EASTERN INDIA DURING THE PALA PERIOD

(1) NEPAL:

Original Sources:

Bendall, C.

Bhagvanlal, Indraji.
Levi, S.

Sastri, H. P.

Walsh, E. H.
Wright, D.

Catalogue of Buddhist Sanskrit MSS at Cam¬
bridge. Cambridge, 1883.

Historical Introduction to H. P. Sastri’ s “Cata¬
logue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper MSS
belonging to the Durbar Library , Nepal ”
Calcutta, 1905.

Journey in Nepal and Northern India. Cam¬
bridge, 1886-

“On Some Nepalese Coins in the Library of
the German Oriental Society.,, ZDMGr
XXXVI. 651-2.

“Inscriptions from Nepal.” IA, IX. 163-194.

“Anciennes Inscriptions du Nepal.” JA, 1907r
IX. 49-114.

Catalogue of Palm-leaf and selected Paper
MSS belonging to the Durbar Library
Nepal. Calcutta, 1905.

“The Coinage of Nepal.” JRAS, 1908 • 669-
759; 1132-36.

History of Nepal (translated from the Par -
batiya). Cambridge, 1877.

Buhler, G.

Fleet, J. F.

Kirkapatrick, Col.

Lahdon, Percival.
Levi, S.

Majumdar, R. C.

Ray, H. C.
Taranatha

Modem Works

“Bhagwanlal Indraji’s Some Considerations
on the History of Nepal.” IA, XIII. 411-28.
“Chronology of the Early Rulers of Nepal.”
IA, XIV. 342-351.

An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal . London ,
1811.

Nepal . 2 Vols. London, 1928.

“Note sur la Chronologie du Nepal.” JA, 1894r
IV. 55-72.

Le Nepal, Vols. I-III. Paris, 1905-1908.
“Chronology of the Early kings of Nepal.” B. C.

Law Volume, I- 626-41.

DHNI, I, Ch. 4.

See above, in “General Bibliography” under
“Tibetan”.

(2) KAMARUPA:

(i) Original Sources: Inscriptions

Bhattacharya, Kamarupasdsandvali (in Bengali). Rangpur,

Padmanatha. 1931.

List of important inscriptions has been given on p. 61.

476

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Babua, B. M.
Babua, K. L.
Bhattasali, N. K.
Dutta, K.

Gait, E. A.

(ii) Modern Works:

“Common Ancestry of the Pre-Ahom Rulers
etc.” IHQ, XXIII. 200-220.

Early History of Kamarupa . Vol. I. Shillong,
1933.

“New Light on the History of Assam.” IHQ,
XXL 19-28; 143 ff; XXII. 1 ff.; 112 ff.; 245 ft.
“New Light on the Early History of Assam.”
PIHC, XII. 154 ff.

History of Assam . 2nd Ed. Calcutta, 1926-

(3) ORISSA:

(i) Original Sources: Inscriptions

Hibalal. See above, in Ch. I.

“Outline of the History of Kalihga” and “Outline of the History
of the Bhanja Kings of Orissa” by R. C. Majumdar, and Dynasties
of Medieval Orissa by B. Misra contain complete lists of inscriptions.
Inscriptions discovered subsequently are referred to in the footnotes
and in IHQ, XXVIII. 225 ff. Some recent inscriptions are listed
below.

1. Angul copperplate of DharmamahadevL JAS, L, XVIII. 245-50.

2. Baud plates of TribhuvanamahadevL

3 . Baud plates of Prithvimahadevi.

4. Bonai copperplates of Udaya Varaha Deva .JBORS, XXXI.

159-171.

5. Brahmesvara Temple Ins. of Uddyotakesari. JASB,L , XIII.

63-73.

6. Jura da charter of Nefctabhanja. El, XXIV. 15.

7 . Khadipa^a image Ins. of the time of Subhakara. El, XXVI. 247.

(Re-edited in No. 10 below).

8. Madras Museum plates of the time of Narendra Dhavala. El,

XXVIII. 44-50.

9 . Mandasa plates of Dharmakhedi JAHRS, VIII. 233-7.

10 . Orissa Museum image ins. of the time of Subhakara Deva. PIHC ,

Xn. 66-74. (See No. 7 above).

11. Taltali plates of Dandimahadevl. IHQ, XXI. 218.

12. Taltali plates of DharmamahadevL IHQ, XX. 213-220.

13. Terundia plates of Subhakara II. El, XXVIII. 211-6.

14. Two grants of Bhanja kings of Vanjulvaka. El, XXVIII. 272-283.

15. Two Ins. from Jajpur. El, XXVIII, 179-185.

16. Two plates of Devanandadeva. El, XXVIII. 325-334.

Acharya, P.

Banerji, R. D.
Chakravarti, M. M.

Chanda, R. P.

(ii) Modern Works:

“The Bhanja kings of Orissa.” JBORS, XII.
92-102.

History of Orissa . 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1930-31.

“Chronology of the Eastern Ganga kings of
Orissa.” JASB, 1903* 97-147.

Bhanja Dynasty of Mayurbhanj and their an¬
cient capital Khiching. Mayurbhauj, 1929.

477

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Das, M. N.

Das Gupta, C. C.

Riralal.

Mahtab, H.
Majtjmdar, R. C.

Mazumdar, B. 0.

Misra, B.

Mitba, R. L.
Ramp as, G.
Rtrcar, D. 0.

Glimpses of Kalinga History . Calcutta, 1949.
“Some notes on Adi-Bhahjas of Khijjihga
Kotta, earlier Bhanjas of Khinjali-Mandaia,
Bhanjas of Bauda and later Bhafijas , of
Khihjali.” ABORI, XIL 231-245.

“Bhahja kings and their country.” J30RSr
XVI. 113-116-

The History of Orissa. Lucknow, 1949.

“Outline of the History of Kalinga.” DUS, II,

2.1 ff.

“Outline of the History of the Bharija kings of
Orissa.” DUS, III. 2. 138 ff.

Orissa in the Making . Calcutta, 1925.

“Sketch of the History of Orissa.” JBORS ,
VI. 348-60.

Orissa under the Bhauma Kings . Calcutta.
1934.

Dynasties of Medieval Orissa . Calcutta, 1933.
Antiquities of Orissa. 2 Vols. Calcutta, 1875-
BO.

“Suryavaihil King^ of Orissa.” JBRS, XXXI.
172-94

“The Bhanjas of K h m j all - M and ala-” IHQy
XXVIII, 225-231.

“The Dhavala Ruling Family in Ancient
Orissa.” P1HC , XXL 127-129.

“Dominions of the Sulkis of Orissa.” JOR,
XVIII. 45-48.

“The Era of the Bhauma-karas *of Orissa.”
IHQ, XXIX. 148-155.

“Jajpur and the Bhauma-karas of Orissa”
JAS,L, XVII. 15-17.

“New Facts about the Bhauma-karas.” JOR.
XVIII. 49 ff.

“Some Minor Dynasties of Orissa.” OHRJ~
II, 2. 13-20.

CHAPTER V

CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA
Original Sources
(i) INSCRIPTIONS

(Note: No lists of inscriptions have been attached to this chapter
in view of the facts that they are few in number and that
complete lists of inscriptions will be attached to the chapter
in Vol. V, which is in continuation of this chapter.)

(1) THE CHANDELLAS:

Original Sources
(i) LITERARY

Prabodhcchandrodaya of Krishnamisra

Pub. NSP. Bombay, 1924-

Eng. trans. by J. Taylor. London, 1862.

478

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

CUNNINGHAM , A.
Ganguly, D. C.
Mttra, S. K.

Majumdar, R. C.
Ray, H. C.
Smith, V. A

Modem Works

Archaeological Survey Reports, X.

History of the Paramara Dynasty. Dacca, 1933,
“A Note on the Status of the Early Chandella
Rulers ” 1HQ, XXIX. 304-309.

“The Gurjara Pratiharas”. JDL, X. 1-7R
DHN1, II, Ch. 11.

“Contributions to the History of Bundel-
khand.” JASB, 1881, Vol. I. pt. 1, pp. 1-53-
‘‘The History and Coinage of the Chandel
(Chandella) Dynasty of Bundelkhand.” I A ..
XXXVII. 114-148.

(2) THE KALACHURIS :

Original Sources:

LITERARY

Prahandhachint&mani of Merutuhga

Ed. Ramachandra Dinanatha. Bombay, 1888-
Ed. Muni Jinavijaya. SJS. Santiniketan, 1933.
Eng. trans. by C. H. Tawney- Bl. Calcutta,
1901.

Banbrji, R. D.

Cunningham, A.
Hibalal.

Ganguly, D. C.

Kielhorn, F.
Majumdar, R. C.

Mira shi, V. V.

Ray, H. C.
Vaidya, C. V.

Modern Works

The Haihayas of Tripuri and their Monuments-
MASI. Calcutta, 1931.

Archaeological Survey Reports, IX.

See above, in Ch. 1*

“The Kalachuris of Tripuri.” ABOR1, IX.
280-295.

“The Early History of the Kalachuris of Chedi.”
IHQ, XIII. 482-7.

Eastern Chdlukyas. Benares, 1937.

History of the Paramara Dynasty. Dacca, 1933-
“Kalachuris of Tripuri.” El, II. 300-305.

“The Gurjara Pratiharas.” JDL, X. 1-76.

“The Kalachuri king Kokkalla I.” PlHCr
XII. 123-126.

“Yuvarajadeva I of Tripuri ” ABORl, XI. 361-
373.

DHNI, H, Ch. 12.

History of Medieval Hindu India. III. 187-192.
Poona, 1926.

(3) THE PARAMARAS:

Original Sources
LITERARY

Auchityavichara of Kshemendra

Ed. KM, I. 115 if.

Extracts JBBRAS, XVI- 167-179 (Peterson).
Navas&hasarikacharita of Padmagupta

Ed. by Vaman Sastri Islampurkar. BSS. Bom¬
bay, 1895. Extract Eng. trans. JBBRAS ,
XXVI. 153 f.

479

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Puiyalachchhi of Dhanapala

£d. G. Biihler- Gottingen, 1879.
Prabandhachintdmani of Merutunga

See above, under “Kalachuris.”

Modem Works
Bhojardja . Madras, 1931.

“"Crber das Navasahasankacharita des Padma-
gupta oder Parimala.” Kaiserliche Akade-
mie der Wissenschaften, CXVI. 583-630.
History of the Paramdra Dynasty , Dacca, 1933.
Paramaras of Dhar and Malwa- Dhar State
Gazetteer . Reprint, Bombay, 1908.
‘‘Historical Data in Padmagupta’s Navasaha-
sankacharita.” IA, LII. 101-107.

“New Light on the History of the Paramara
Dynasty/’ PIHC, V. 256-260.

DHN1, II, Ch. 14.

Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan > Ed- by
W. Crooke. Oxford, 1920.

(4) THE SAINDHAVAS, CHAPAS, CHAULUKYAS, ETC.

Original Sources

Dvydsrayakdvya of Hemachandra

Ed. by A. V. Kathawate. BSS. 3 Vols- Bombay,
1900-1921.

Kitdb Futuh al Buldan of al-Baladhuri

See above in “General Bibliography” under
“Muslim”.

Kumdrapalacharita of Jayasimha

Ed. by Kantivijaya Gani. NSP. Bombay, 1926.
Prabandhachintdmani of Merutunga

See above, under “Paramaras ”

Prabandhakosa of Rajasekhara

Ed. by Muni Jinavijaya. SJS . Santiniketan,
1935.

Prabhdvakacharita of Prabhachandra

Ed. by H. M. Sarma. NSP. Bombay, 1909.

Ed. by Muni Jinavijaya- SJS . Bombay, 1940.

Rasa Mala by Forbes

Ed. by H. G. Rawlinson. Vol. I. Oxford, 1924
Vichdrasreni of Merutunga

JBBRAS, IX.

Pdtyalachchht of Dhanapala

See above, under “Paramaras.”

Modem Works

History of Gujarat. London, 1886-
Early History of Gujarat. BG, I. i. Bombay.
1896.

See above, under “Muslim” in “General Bibli¬
ography”.

Bayley,

Bhagwanlal Indraji

Elliot, H. M. and
Dowson, J.

Ayyangab, P. T. S.
Buhler, G. and
Zachariae, Th.

Ganguly, D. C.
Lu^rd, C. E. and
Lele, K. K.
Mirashi, V. V.

Ray, H. C.
Tod, J.

480

GENERAL BIBLIOGEAPH¥

QaHGULY, D, C.

Majdmbar, A. K.
Majumdae, E, 0.
Muhshi, K, M.

Ojhas G. H.

Bay, H. G

History of the Paramdra Dynasty . Dacca,
1933,

aOn the Pratihara MaMpala.” Munshi Dia¬
mond Jubilee Comm , Voh I. 194-201.
Chaulukyas of Gujarat , Bombay, 1950,

“The Gurjara Pratlharas.” JDh] X. 1-76.

The Imperial Gurjaras. Bombay, 1944. 2nd
Ed. Bombay, 1955.

History of Rajputana (in Hindi). Ajmer,
1936 ft

DHNL H, Ch. 15.

(5) THE CHAHAMANAS

Original Sources

LITERARY

Bvy&srayakavya of Hemachandra

See above, under “Samdhavas, etc.”
Hammira^Mahdkavya of Nayachandra Suri

Ed. by N. J. Kirtane. Bombay, 1879,
Prabandhachintamani of Merutunga

See above, under “Paramaras”.

Prahandhakosa of Bajasekhara

See above, under “Saindhavas, etc,”
Pxithvirdjavijaya of Jayanaka

See above, under “Jayanaka” in “Historical
Works”, General Bibliography.

Gakguly, D. C.

Ojha, G. He
Bay, H. C,
Tod, J.

Modem Works

“A Forgotten Moslem Invasion.” lHQi XIV
813-816.

“A New Light on the History of the Ch&ha-
manas.” IHQ , XVI. 567-573.

See above, under “Saindhavas, etc.”

DHNI, II, Ch. 16.

See above, under “Paramaras”.

(6) THE GUHILAS
Modem Works

Bhandarkab, D. B. “Guhilots,” JPASB, 1909. 167 ff.

Gahguly, D. G “Al-Biranfs Gujarat.” Islamic Culture, XXL

“A Forgotten Moslem Invasion.” IHQ , XIV.
813=816.

“Gurjaras in the Rishfrakuta Inscriptions”.
P1HC , III. 513-515.

“History of the Gurjara Country,” IHQ, X.
613-623,

History of the Paramdra Dynasty . Dacca, 1933.
Balder, B. B. .“The Guhila kings of Mewar.” LA, 1927. 169 ff.

Mathub, M. L. “Early Rulers of Mewar and their Fights with

the Arabs.” IHQ, XXIX. 315-331; XXX
31-37.

A.I.K. — 81

481

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ojha, G, H See above, under “Saindhavas, etc-*’

Ray, H. C. DHNl , II,«Ch. 18.

Eaychoudhuei, G. C. “Guhilot Origins.” D. R. Bhandarkav Vol,

311-16.

“A Note on the Early Home of the Guhilots.”
IC III 219-22.

“A Note on the Rise of the Guhilots in Chitor
and its Neighbourhood-” PIHC, III. 813-7.
Tod, J. See above, under “Paramaras.”

(7) THE SHAHIS:

Original Sources:

LITERARY

Jdmi’ul-Hikdydt of Muhammad ’AufI

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Kitab-ul-Hind of Birum

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Rdjatarangini of Kalhana

See above, in “Historical Works” in “General
Bibliography.”

Tabaqdt-i-Akbari of Nizamuddln

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Ta’rikh-i-Firishta

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

To’rikh^i-Y amxni of Utbi

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Modem Works

“The Hindu Kings of Kabul.” HIED, II, Note
A, p. 403 f.

“Hindu Reaction to Muslim Invasions.” Pot-
dar Comm . Vol., 341-351.

“The Hindu Sahiya Kingdom of Ohind”
JRAS, 1927. 485 f.

DHNl, I, Ch. 2.

KASHMIR:

Original Sources

R&jatarangini of Kalhana

See above, under “Historical Works” in “Gene¬
ral Bibliography.”

Tabaqtit-i-Akbari of Nizamuddln

See above; under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Ta>rtkh-i-Firishta

See above, under “Muslim” in “General Bib¬
liography.”

Elliot, H. M. and
Dowson, J.
Majumdak, R. C.

Nazim, M.

Ray, H. C.

482

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cunningham, A.
Ghoshal, U. N.

Ray, H, C.

Stein, M. A.

Hutchinson, J. and
Vogel, J, Ph.
Vogel, J. Ph.

(10)

Atkinson, E. T.

Gupte, Y. R.
Kielhorn, F.

Mitra, R. L.

SmoAR, D. C.

Arnold, Sir Thomas.
Garter.

Dhar, S. N.

Ghani, M. A.

Gibb, H. A. R.
Majumdar, R. C.

Muir, Sir William.

Raverty, Maj. H. G.
Le Strange, G.

Tod, Lt. Col. James.

Modern Works

Ancient Coinage of Kashmir. London, 1843.

“Dynastic Chronicles of Kashmir.” 1HQ,
XVIII. 195-207; 302-341; XIX. 27-38; 158-72.

DHNI, I, Ch. 3.

“Notes on the Monetary System of Ancient
Kashmir.” Num. Chr., XIX. 125-74.

(9) CHAMBA:

“History of Chamba State”. Journal of the
Panjah Historical Society , X. ii- 5-70.

Antiquities of the Chamba State. Part I. ASL
N1S , 36. Calcutta, 1911.

KUMAUN AND GARHWAL:

N.W.F. Gazetteer, XI. ( The Himalayan Dis¬
tricts of the North-Western Provinces of
India , II). 1884, pp. 469-85.

“Two Talesvara copper-plates.” El, XIII.
199 ff.

“Pandukesvara Plate of Lalitasuradeva.” 1A,
XXV. 177-184.

“Copper-plate grant from Pandukes var”. Proc.
A.S.B., 1877. 71-75.

“Some Ancient Kings of Kumaun and Garh-
wal.” BV, XII. 149-152.

(11) ARABS IN INDIA:

The Caliphate. Oxford, 1924.

A Short History of Sind. Karachi, 1926.

“The Arab Conquest of Sind.” IHQ, XVI.
596-604.

“The Advent of the Arabs in Hindustan; Their
Relations with the Hindus; and the Occupa¬
tion of Sindh.” POC, X. 403-10.

Arab Conquests in Central Asia. London, 1923.

“Chinese Records of the Arabs in Central Asia.”
BSOS, II. 613-22.

“The Arab Invasion of India.”. JIH, X, part
1, Supplement (gives full references to
authorities) .

Annals of the Early Caliphate. London, 1883.

Caliphate, its rise, decline and fall. Revised
by T. H. Weir. Edinburgh, 1915.

Notes on Afghanistan. London, 1888.

The Lands of the Eastefrn Caliphate . 1930.

Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan Ed. by
William Crooke. Oxford, 1920.

483

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL* KAHAUJ

CHAPTER VI

THE DECCAN

Original Sources:

Inscriptions

Rakgaohakya, V.

Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency .
Madras, 1919.

3 Vols.

Sbwsll, R.

Historical Ins-cripiions of Southern
Madras, 1932.

India.

(1) SELECT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE EASTERN CHALUKYAS:

1, Prithivfpaliavapaffam ins, of ¥ ishnu vardhana V, I A, XX, 186,

2, Masulipatam plates of Vijayaditya III, ED V. 122.

3, Guntur plates of Vijayaditya HI. ARSIE, 1912.84; JAHRS*

V. 113. .

4, Attili ins. of Chalukya Bhima, ARS1E , 1918. 131.

5, Be^wada plates of Chalukya BHima. El, V. 127.

6, Anakapalie ins. of Chalukya Bhima. ARS1E, 1909,108.

7, Adaxxki ins. of Chalukya Bhima. ED XIX. 275.

8, Chevuru plates of Amma I. El, XXVII. 41.

9, Pulivarra ins, of Amina. I. ARS1E , 1924, 10, 98.

10. Masulipatam, plates of Ammaraja II. ED XXIV. 268-78,

11. Nandigama taluk plates of Amma !L AR1E , 1917,117,

12. Maliyapundi grant of Amma II. El, IX. 47.

13. Kaiuchumbarra grant of Amma II. EL VII. 177.

14. Anaparti grant of Ammaraja II. JAHRS , XX. 195-201.

15. Vemalurpadu plates of Amma II. ED XVIII. 226-235.

16. Arumbak plates ©f Bidapa. El 9 XIX- 146.

(2) SELECT INSCRIPTIONS OF EASTERN GANGAS, GANGAS

OF SVETAKA AND EASTERN KADAMBAS:

1. Alamanda plates of Anantavarman. El, HI. 17-21.

2. Tekkali plates ©f Raj endra varman’s son Devendravarman. EL

XVIHc 311-313.

3. Mandasa plates of Bajendravarman, Bh. List , No. 2051.

4. Sanskrit and Old Canarese Inscriptions. IA, XIV. 7-12.

5. Cheedivalasa grant. JAS , L, XVIII. 77.

6. Gala will, copper-plate ins. of Manujj endravarman. JAHRS L XX.

161-170.

7. Narasapatam plates of Vajrahasta III. Bh. List , No. 1090.

8. Viiagapatam (Now Madras, Museum) plates of Anantavarman

( Cho^agahgadeva) . BK Listf No. 1103.

9. Nagari plates of Anahgabhima III ED XXVIII. 235-258.

10. Falamgara grant of Anantavarman Chotfaganga. ARSIE. 1935-

36.81-63.

11. Santa Bommall plates of Devendravarman. Bh , List . No. 2053.

(Edited in No. 14 below).

484

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

12. Gara ins, of Devendravarman. ARSIE , 1932-33. 56-57.

13. Paralakimedi plates of Vajrahasta. El , HI. '220-224.

14. Simhapura copper-plate grant of Dharmakhedi. JAHRS , III.

171-180. (See No. 10 above).

(3) SELECT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE SOMAVAMSI8:

1. Records of the Somavaihsi kings of Katak. EX, III. 323-359.

2 . Bhuvaneswar ins. JRASB , L, XIII. 74.

3. Mallar plates of Mahasivagupta. El, XXIII. 113.

4. Lodhia plates of Mahasivagupta. EL XXVII. 319.

5. Balangir Museum plates of Mahasivagupta I Yayati IAS t L,

XIX, 117-124.

6. Two inscriptions from Kelga. EL XXVIII. 321-328.

AlTEKLAK, A. S.
Bhandabkab, R. G.

Chikravartt. M. M.

Chhabba, B.Ch.

Chhabba, B.Ch. and
Rag, N. L.

Fleet, J. F.

Ganguly, X). C.
Majumdab, R. C. and
Altekab, A. 8.
(Ed.).

MirashIj V. V.

Panohamukhi, R. S.
Rao# Bo V. Krishna

Rao, N. L.
Babma, M. S.

II. Modern Works

Rashtrakutas and their times . Poona, 1934.

See above, under “Histories of the Period;* in
''General Bibliography55.

"Chronology of the Eastern Ganga kings of
Orissa-” ' JASB , 1903, Vol 72, pp. 97-147.

"A Note on the Chronology of the Ganges of
§ vet aka.” El, XXV. 240.

"Ten Years of Epigraphy (1937-46).” Ancient
India , No. 5, pp. 46 If.

"Chronology of the Eastern Chain ky a Kings-”
lAy XX-XXI.

"Dynasties of the Kanareee Districts.” EG , I,
Part 2,

Eastern Chalukyas . Benares, 1937.

Vdk&taka-Gupta Age* Lahore, 1946; Reprint.
Banaras, 1954.

"An Ancient Dynasty of Mahakosala.” P1HC ,
III. 319-327.

"Note on the Date of the SomavahnsI kings,”
El, XXVI, 227 If.

"Badami ins. of Chalukya Vallabhesvara.” EL
XXVII. 4-9.

"History of Rajahmundry.” JAHRS , III. 135-
170; IV. 97-112.

"Origin and Early History of the Chalukyas.”
PIHC, III. 386-410.

"Revised Chronology of the Eastern Chalukya
Kings.” JAHRS , IX, iv. 1-32.

"A Note on Siroda plates of (Bhoja) Deva-
raja”. El, XXVI. 337-340.

"Chronology of the Eastern Chalukyas.” JOR.
IX. 17-42.

"A Note on the Mandasa plates of Anasita-
varman.” JAHRS , XII 21-28.

485

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Sircar, D. C.

Smith, V. A.
Subbarao, R.

SUBRAHMANIAN, K.R.

Vk N K AT ARAM AN A Y Y A ,

‘‘Genealogy of the V ishnukun<Jins . ’ ’ ABOR1,
222-228.

“Kesaribeda plates of Nala Arthapati Bhafta*
,raka.” El, XXVIII. 12-17.

“Kuntala and Asmaka.” IHQ, XXIII. 65-68.
“Later Soinavamsls.” OHRJ, I. 289-300.

“A note on the genealogy of the Somavaxh&s.”
IHQ, XX. 76-82.

“A note on the later Somavamsis.” IHQ , XXII.
300-307-

Successors of the Sdtavdhanas in the Lower
Deccan. Calcutta, 1939.

See above, under “Histories of the Period” in
“General Bibliography”.

“The Origin of the Eastern Gahgas.” POC,
VHI. 573-580.

“History of the Eastern Gahgas of Kalihga.”
JAHRS , VI. 193-216; Vn. 57-64 (relating to
this period).

History of the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga .
“Vijayaditya III, a famous Eastern Chalukyan
King.” Rangaswami Aiyangar Comm . Vol.„
263-267.

The Eastern Chdlukyas of Vehgi . Madras,
1950.

CHAPTER Vn
SOUTHERN INDIA
Original Sources
(i) INSCRIPTIONS

Ayyar, V. V. South Indian Inscriptions . Vol. XII. Madras,

1943.

Rangacharya, V. See above, under Ch. VI.

Sewell, R. See above, under Ch. VI.

South Indian Inscriptions .

(1) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE PALLAVAS:

1. Velur Palayam Plates of Nandivarman III. SII II, Part V,
No. 98.

2. Triplicane inscription of Dantivarman. V. Venkappa, El, VIII,
No. 29.

3. Tiruvallarai ins. of Dantivarman. K. V. S. Iyer. El, XI. 156.

4. Tillaisthanam ins. of Vijayanandi-Vikramavarman. Ins. No. 52 of

1895.

5. Sendalai Pillar ins. of Nandi-Pottaraiyar. Ins. No. 11 of 1899.

6. Tiruvallam ins. of Vijayanandi-Vikramavarman. SII, III. 93.

7. Ulagalanda Perumal Temple (Kahehl) ins. of Nandippottarasar

who was victorious at Tellaru. Ins. 12 of 1895; V. Venkayya,
M.C.C. Magazine , VIII. 102. "

8. Tiruppalaitturai ins. Nandippottaraiyar, the victor at Tellaru.

Ins. No. 180 of 1907.

486

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

9. Gmjimallam B&pa ins. of Nandippotarasar. V. Venkayva. El,
XL 224.

10. Narattamalai ins. of Nripatungavarman. Ins. No. 365 of 1904.

11. Bahur plates of Nripatimgavarman. E. Hultzsch. El, IV. 180.

12. Tiruvalangadu ins. of Nripatungavarman. Ins. No. 460 of 1905.

13. Koviladi ins. of Nripatungavarman. Ins. No. 300 of 1901.

14. Kandiyur ins. of Nripatungavarman. Ins. No. 17 of 1895.

15. Tirumukkudal ins. of Nripatungavarman. Ins. No. 179 of 1915.

16. Gudimallam ins. of Nripatungavarman. IA, 1911.113.

17. Two Ambur inscriptions. E. Hultzsch. El, IV. 182-3.

18. Copper-plate inscriptions of the 6th year of Nripatungavarman.

S^ivell’s List of Antiquities , II, No. 209, p. 30.

(2) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE CHOLAS:

1 . Tirukkalukkunrram ins. of Rajakesarivarman. V. Venkayya. El,

III. 277-280.'

2. Takkolam ins. of Rajakesarivarman (Adilya I). K. V. S. Iyer.

El, XIX. 81-88.

3. Tillaittanam ins. of Aditya. SII, III, No. 89.

4. Tirupalanam ins. of Rajakesarivarman. SII, XIII, No. 304.

5. Tondaiman Nad ins. Parantaka. SII, VIII, No. 529.

8. Tiruvorriyur ins. of Parantaka I. SII, III, No. 108.

7. Kllmuttugur ins. of Parantaka. E. Hultzsch. El, IV. 178-9.

8. Two Tamil inscriptions at Ambur. E. Hultzsch. El, IV. 180-3.

9. Tirukkalukkunram ins. Parantaka I. V. Venkayya. El, III.

280-2.

10. Uttaramallur ins. of Parantaka I. K. V. S. Iyer. EL XXII.

145-150.

11 . A Chola ins. from Uttiramerur. K, A. N. Sastri. El, XXII, No.

32.

12. Tirukkalithaftai ins. of Sundarachola. K. V. S. Iyer. El, XII.
121-126.

13. Karikal ins. of Maduraikonda Rajakesari. E. Hultzsch. El, IV.

331-332.

14. Anbil plates of Sundarachola. T. A. G. Rao. El, XV. 44-72.

15. Three Tamil inscriptions of Lalgudi. K. V. S. Iyer. El, XX.

46-54.

16. Sholinghur ins. of Parantaka I. E. Hultzsch. El, IV. 221-225.

17. Museum Plates of Uttamachola. SII, III, No. 128.

18. Konerirajapuram ins. of Sembiyan Madevi. SII, III, No. 146.

19. Sembiyan Madevi ins. of Uttamachola. Ins. No. 494 of 1925.

20. Tanjore ins. Rajaraja I. SII, II, No. 6.

21. Melpadi ins. of Rajaraja I. SII, III, No. 14.

22. Udaiyargudi ins. of Rajakesarivarman, A.D. 988. K. A. N. Sastri.

El, XXL 165-170.

23. Larger Leiden plates. K. V. S. Iyer. El, XXII, No. 34.

24. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola I. SII , III, No. 205.

25. Kanyakumari ins. of Vira Rajendra Deva. K. V. S. Iyer. El,

XXV. 21-55.

26. Charala plates of Vira Rajendra Deva, 6. 991. A. S. R. Iyer and

V. V. Iyer, El, XXV, No. 25.

27. Regulations of the Sabha from two Uttaramallur inscriptions.

K. V. S. Iyer. EL XXV, No. 7.

487

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

(3) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE PANDYAS:

1. Anaimalai ins. of Ne^unj a$aiyan Pamntaka. K. V. S. Iyer. El,

VIII. 317-321.

2. Vejvikkudi Plates of Ne^lunj adaiyan Parantaka, H. K. SastrL

El, XVII, No. 16*

3. Madras Museum Plates of Neduhj adaiyan Panantaka. I A, XXXL

69-75.

4. Four Pandyan Records of Ukkirankottai. A. S. R. Ayyar. El,

.XXIII. 283-289.

5. Ambasamudram ins. of Varaguna I. V, Venkayya. El, IX. 84=94.

6. Manor ins. of Mar an Sadaiyag, K. A. N. Sastri. El, XXII. 5-11.

7. TiruchchirappaJJi ins. of Miran Sa^aiyan. AS I for 1903-

1904, p. 225. ’

8 . Tillaisthanam ins, ©f Maran Badalyan*. SII, V, No. 608,

9. Seridalai ins. of Maran Badalyan. SII , VI, No. 446.

10. Sittannavasal ins. of Sri Mara &ri Vallabha. Ins. No. 388 of

£904.

11. Avanipasekhara Mangalam ins. of flri Mara &ri Vallabha. Ins.

No, 155 of 1903.

12. Alvar Malai ins, of Yaragunavarman. Ins. No. 705 of 1905.

13. Tirchendur ins. of Varaguga Maharaja II. K. V. B. Iyer. El,

XXL 101-116.

14. Sinnamanur Plates ©£ Rajasimha III. SII, IH, No. 206.

15. Tiruppudaimarudur ins. of Vira Pandya. Ins. 122 of 1905.

18. Suchlndram inscriptions of Vira Pagdya. TAS , IH, Nos. 22-26.

17. Kilmattur ins. of Solanralaikonda Vira Pagdya. SII, V, No. 304.

18. Ambasamudram ins. of Solanralaikonda Vira Bagdya. A. S. R.

Ayyar, El, XXV. 35-42. "

(4) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE GANGAS:

1 . Javali Plates of ;&ri Purusha. EC , VI, Mg. 38.

2. Islampur Plates of &ri Purusha. K, B. Pathak and Sten Konow.

El, XII, No, 10.

3. Hosur Plates of Sri Purusha. EC , X, Gd. 47.

4. Devarhalli Plates of ^ripurusha. EC , IV, Ng. 85.

5. Manna (I) Plates of Marasimha Loka Trinetra Yuvamja. EC,

IX, Ni. 60.

8. Manne (II) Plates of Satyavakya Kohganivarman Rajamalla.
MAE, 1910,

7. Galigekere Plates of Ranavikramayya (Nitimarga I). EC, IV,
Yd, 60.

8. Narasapura Plates of Rajamalla IX Satyavakya. EC, X, Kl. 90.

9. Gattavadipura Plates of Rajamalla II SatyaYakya and Nitimarga
(Ereyappa). EC , XII, Nj. 269.

10. Sudi Plates of Butuga. J, F. Fleet. El, III. 158-184,

11. Keregodi Rahgapura Plates of Rajamalla II (or his brother

Butuga II). MAR, 1918-1919.

12. Kudlur Plates of Marasimha. MR A, 1920-1921.

13. Alur Plates of Marasimha. MRA , 1923-1924.

14. Udayendiram Plates of Frith ivlpati II. SII, II, No. 76.

15. Takkolam ins. of Pjdthivlpati II. SII, V, No. 1368..

16. Atakur ins. Butuga, J. F. Fleet. El , VI. 50-57.

488

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

(5) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE BAIBAS:

1 . Five Ba$a inscriptions from Gudinaallaxn. V. Venkayya. Elt XI,

222-240.

2. Udayendiram Plates of Vikramaditya II. F. Kielhom. EIP III.

74-77.

3. Gu<Jimallam Plates of Rana Vikramaditya II. E. Hultzsch. El,

XVII. 1-7.

(6) IMPORTANT INSCRIPTIONS OF THE VAIDUMBAS:

1. Three inscriptions of Vaidumba Maharaja Gan$a Tinetra. E. S.
Panchamukhi. El, XXHI. 183-193.

Aiyahgab, S. Krish¬
na swami.

Aiyer, K. V. Subrah-
manya.

Abokiaswamx, K.

Pith abba, B.Ch. and
Rao, N. L.

Dikshitak, V. R. R.

Gopabab, R.

Hebas, H.

Jquveaij-Dtibrkuxl,

Mahaiangam, T. V.

Minakshi, C.

Mobaes, G. M.
Paihjarathar, T. V.
Sadasiva.

Rajamakikkam, M.
Rao, R. V. Krishna.

Rao, G. V. Srinivasa.

Rao, M.V. Krishna.
Rao, N. L.

Rice, B. L.

Saletorb, B. A.

Modem Works

Some Contributions of South India to Indian
Culture. Calcutta, 1923. 2nd Ed. Calcutta,
1942.

Historical Sketches of Ancient Deccan . Mad¬
ras, 1917.

The Early History of the Velldr Basin. Mad¬
ras, 1954.

See above, under Ch. VI.

Studies in Tamil Literature and History. Lon¬
don, 1930.

History of the Pallavas of Kanchi. Madras,
1928.

Studies in Pallava History. Madras, 1933.
Ancient History of the Deccan (translated
from the French by V. S. Swaminadha Dik-
shitar). Pondicherry, 1920.

Pallavas (translated from the French by V. S.

Swaminadha Dikshitar). Pondicherry, 1917.
The Bdnas in South Indian History. Madras,

1952.

Administrative and Social Life under the
Pallavas . Madras, 1938.

The Kadamba Kula. Bombay, 1931.
Pirhalach-Cholar-Charittiram. Part I (in Ta¬
mil). Annamalainagar, 1949.

Pdn^iydr Varaldru (in Tamil). Madras, 1950.
Pailavar Varaldru (In Tamil). Madras, 1952.
A History of the Early Dynasties of Andhra-
desa. Madras, 1942.

South Indian Inscriptions. VOL XIII. Madras,

1953.

The Gangas of Talkad. Madras, 1936.

“Some New Facts about Chola History.” JORr
XIX. 148-151.

See above, under “Inscriptions” in “General
Bibliography”

Ancient Karndfaka. Vol. I. Poona, 1936-

489

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Sastbi, K. A. N.

SlRCAR, D. C.

Yenkayya, V.

(See Dipavamsa

Dathd-vatfisa

Hatthavanagalla-

vihdra-vamsa

Attangalu-vamsa

Daladapujavaliya
Daladdtirita
Nikdya Sahgraha

Puj&valiya, Ch. 34

Rajaratnakaraya

R&jdvaltya

Codrinoton, H. W.

COOMARASWAMY, A.

Geiger, W.

GoPALAN, R.
Hultzsch, E.

Mendis, G 0.

Muller, E.

Parker, H.

Pbxdham, C.

Sewell, E.

The Cholas. Vols. I, II, 1. Madras, 1925, 1937.

History of South India. Bombay, 1952.

The Pandyan Kingdom. London, 1929-

Studies in Chola History and Administration.
London, 1932.

The Early Pallavas . Lahore, 1935.

The Successors of the Sdtavdhanas in the
Lower Deccan. Calcutta, 1939.

“Five Bana Inscriptions from Gudimallam.” El,
XI. 222-240.

CHAPTER VIII
CEYLON
Original Sources
(i) PALI:

and Mahdvamsa in General Bibliography)

Ed. and trans. by B. C. Law. Lahore, 1925.

Ed. by James d’Alwis.

(ii) SIMHALESE:

Ed. by M. Kumaranatuhga. Colombo, B. E.
2466.

Ed. by K. M. Perera. Colombo, 1893.

Ed. by E. S. Rajasekhara. Colombo, 1920.

Ed. by D.M. de Z. Wickramasinghe. Colombo,
1890. Trans, by C. M. Fernando with an intr.
by W. F. Gunawardhana- Colombo, 1908.

Ed. by M. Medhankara Thera. Eng. trans. by
B. Gunasekara (A Contribution to the His¬
tory of Ceylon). Colombo, 1895.

Ed. by Simon de Silva- Colombo, 1907.

Ed. by B. Gunasekara. Colombo, 1911. Eng.
trans. by the same. Colombo, 1900.

Modem Works

History of Ceylon . London, 1926.

History of Indian and Indonesian Art - London,
1927.

Ceylon. Wiesbaden, 1898.

The Pallavas of Kanchi. Madras, 1928.

“Contributions to Singhalese Chronology.’’
JRAS, 1913, pp. 517 ft.

Early History of Ceylon. 9th Ed. Calcutta,
1948.

Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon . London, 1883.

Ancient Ceylon. London, 1909.

Historical , Political and Statistical Account of
Ceylon and its Dependencies. 2 Vols. Lon¬
don, 1849.

Historical Inscriptions of Southern India.

Madras, 1932.

490

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Smith, V, A.

Tuenour, G.

Wl JKBEMASINGHE .

WuESEUHA, L. C.

CHAPTER IX

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon. 2nd
Ed. Revised by K. de B. Codrington- Oxford,
1930.

An Epitome of the History of Ceylon . 1836.

Archaeological Survey of Ceylon . Vol. I.
Mahavamsa. Part I. Colombo, 1909'

(A) SANSKRIT, PALI, PRAKRIT, AND APABHRAM&A:

{Note: A select list of important texts in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit
and Apabhramsa has been given in General Bibliography.
Further accounts of individual texts and full bibliographical
material will be found in the works of Das Gupta and De,
Keith, Krishnamachariar, Wintemitz, Geiger, Law, and
others mentioned under ‘‘Histories of Literature,, in General
Bibliography above).

Alsdorf, A. Apabhrariisa-Studien. Leipzig, 1937.

Ayyar, A. S. Rama- “Nalodaya and its author.” QJMS, XIV, 302-
natha 311.

Bagcki, P. C. (Ed.). Dohdkosa. Calcutta, 1938 (JDL, XXVIII).

Bklyalkar, S. K. Systems of Sanskrit Grammar. Poona, 1915.

Bhandarkar, R. G. Collected Works. Vols. I-IV. Poona, 1927-1933.

Bhattach aryya , D. “Date of Vachaspati Misra and Udayana-
C. charya.” JGJRI, II.* 349-356.

Bhattanatha Svami “Mayuraja.” IA, XLI. 139-143.

Bdhler, G.

Chitrav, S. V.

De, S. K.

“The Indian Inscriptions and the Antiquity of
Indian Artificial Poetry.” (Eng. trans. by
V. S. Ghate) IA, XLH- 29-32; 137-148; 172-
179; 188-193; 230-234; 243-249.
Madhyayugina Charitra-Kosa (Dictionary of
Biography in Medieval India) (in Marathi).
Poona, 1937.

History of Sanskrit Poetics. 2 vols. London,
1923, 1925.

“Bhamaha’s Views on Guna.” Pathak Comm.

Vol. 353-358-

“Mahanataka.” IHQ, VII. 629-643 (709-723).

“The Problem of the Mahanataka. ” IHQ ,
VII. 537-627.

“Sanskrit Literature under the Pala Kings of
Bengal.” NIA, II ( Ross Comm. Vol.) 263-
282*

“Visakhadatta.” B. C. Law Volume , I. 50-57.

Devasthau, G. V. Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit and PrdkHt

Manuscripts in the Library of the University
of Bombay. Bombay, 1944.

Introduction to the Study of Visakhadatta and
his Mudra-Rdkshasa. Poona, 1948.

491

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bmsmr, B. B.

ItesmTAB, V. B. B.

Dutta, B. B. and
SltfGH, A. K.

WlUJLOZAT, J,

Code, P. K.

Haas, G.

BL&sea, R. 0.

A. F. B.

Jadc, H. L.

Jolly, X
Kane, P. V.

Kayi, M. B.

Kays, G. R.

Keith, A. B.

Kesava

Kohow, Stem

KeISHNAMACHABIAB,

tome, 8.

Mmsm, V. V.

Mooxsejss, S.

Bharatiya Jyotisha Sdstra (History of Indian
Astronomy) (in Marathi). 2nd Ed. Poona,

1931.

The Purttpa Index . 2 vols. Madras, 1951, 1952.
History of Hindu Mathematics . Lahore-, 1935.

La Doctrine Classique de la Medicine Indienne
—Ses Origines et ses Paralleles Grecs. Paris,
1940.

"Date of Rakshasakavya or Kavyarakshasa—
Before A.D. 1000.” JIH, XIX. 312-319.

Daiarupaka. New York, 1912.

Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites
and Customs . Dacca, 1940.

Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India .
Oxford, 1907.

“Apabhrazfr&a Bhasha am Sahitya” (Apafehra-
ihsa Language and Literature) (in Hindi).
NPP, L. 1-8; 100-121.

"Apabhraihsa Literature.” AUS, I.. 157-185.
"Svayamfehu and his two poems in Apabhra-
rhsa.” NUJ . No. 1, 1935.

Medicin, Strassburg, 1901 (Eng. trans. "Indian
Medicine”, by C. G. Kashikar. Poona 1951).

History of Alankdra Literature (Introduction
to S&hityadarpana , 2nd Edition). Bombay
1923; History of Sanskrit Poetics (Intr. to
Sdhifyadarpama 3rd Ed.). Bombay, 1951.
History of Dharmasdstra. Voi. I. Poona, 1930.

"Bate of Sagaranandin.” NIA, II. 412-419.

Hindu Astronomy. Calcutta, 1924.

Hindu Mathematics* Lahore, 1889.

Sanskrit Drama. Oxford, 1924; Reprint, Ox¬
ford, 1954.

Kalpadrukosa. Ed. by Bamavatara Sarma, YoL
I. GOB. Baroda, 1928.

Das Indische Drama . Berlin und Leipzig,
1920.

History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Mad¬
ras, 1937.

be thidtre indien. Parle, 1890.

"The Chronological -Order of Baja&ekhara’s
Works.' n Pathak Comm. Vol . 359-366.

"A dissertation on the identity of the author
of the Dhvanyatoka” B. C. Law Voh I.
1 79-193.

49$

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peterson, P.

Bags ay a>is V.

B.AHXTLA SAMKRXTYA-
YANA.

Ray, P. C.

Saema, Ramavatara
Sastri, H. P.

Sastri, P. P. S.

Schuyler, M.

Shahedullah, M.
Tiros aut, G.

Upadhye, A. N.

Yxlankar, H. D.

WlNTERNITZ, M.

A third report of operations in search of Sans¬
krit mss , in the Bombay Circle , 1884*86.
Bombay, 1887 ( =JBBRAS , XVIXI, Extra
no. 45).

A fourth report .... 1886-92 . Bombay, 1894
(-JBBRAS, XVIII, Extra no. 49 A).

Three reports on a search for Sanslcrit mss.
With an Index of books, Bombay, 1887.

“Literary Notes. (IV) The Rasaratnakosa, the
Natakaratnakosa and the Samgxta RijaV
ABORI, XIV. 258-263.

“Somadevasuri, author of Nitivdkyam^ita,
Yasastilakachumpu , etc.” N1A, VI. 67-69.

Pur&tattvanihandhkvalL Allahabad, 1937.

History of Hindu Chemistry , etc. Calcutta,
1887.

Ka Ipadrukosa Intr. to (GOS, Baroda, 1928).

Bauddha Gam o Doha (in Bengali). Calcutta
1323 B.S.

“Problems of Identity— Viivarapa, the author
of Balakrida and V iivarupachary a alias
Suresvaracharya,” Festschrift Kane, pp.
405-407.

Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama. New
York, 1908,

“Buddhist Mystic Songs.” DUS , IV. 1 ff.

Astronomic, Astrologie und Mathematic.
Strasshurg, 1889.

“Harishena*s Dharmapariksha in Apabhra-
msa.” ABORI, XXIII. 592-608.

Jinaratnakosa (An Alphabetical Register of
Jain Works and Authors). Vol. I. Poona,
1944.

“Varahamihira and Utpala (in relation to
Sanskrit metres,)” C. K. Raja Presentation
Volume, pp. 141-152.

Geschichte der indischen Literatur. Band III.
Leipzig, 1920.

(B) BE A VIDIAN: TAMIL AND KANNADA:

Attangar (Iyengar)
K. Srinivasa
Aiyangar, S. Krishna-
swam!

Ayyar, 0. V. Nara-
yana

Dxkshxtar, V. R. R.
Hooper, J. S. M.

Tamil Studies. Madras, 1914.

Ancient India and South Indian History . Vol.
II. Poona, 1941.

Origin and Early History of Saivism in South
India. Madras, 1938.

Studies in Tamil Literature and History . 2nd
Ed. Madras, 1936.

Hymns of the Alvars. Calcutta, 1929.

498

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Hymns of the Tamil Saiva Saints . Calcutta,
1920.

The Heritage of Karnataka.

Kannada Sdhitya Charitra (in Kannada). My¬
sore, 1953.

History of Kannada Language. Mysore, 1934
History of Kannada Literature.

Karnataka Kavi Charite (in Kannada).

Tamil Literature . Tiimevelly, 1929.

Studies in Saiva Siddhanta. Madras, 1911.
Some Milestones in Tamil Literature.

Kanarese Literature . Calcutta, 1918.

Jainism and Karnataka Culture. Dharwar,
1940.

CHAPTER X

POLITICAL THEORY, ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION ,

LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS

Original Sources

(i) LITERARY

Balaknda of Visvarapa

See above, under “Dharma&astra” in “Gene¬
ral Bibliography”.

Brihaddharma Purdna

Ed. by. H. P. Sastri, BI. Calcutta, 1887-1897.
Mahdbhdrata See above, under “General Bibliography”.

Manubhdshya of Medhlatithi

See above, under “Dharmasastra” in “Gene¬
ral Bibliography”.

Nxtivdkydmrita of Somesvara

See above, under “Polity” in “General Bib¬
liography”.

Puragas See above, under “General Bibliography”.

Rajatarafiginl of Kalhana

See above under “Historical Works” in “Gene¬
ral Bibliography”.

(ii) INSCRIPTIONS

List of Inscriptions (See above, under “Inscrip¬
tions” in “General Bibliography”)

See above, under Ch. I.

Gaudalekhamald. Rajshahi, 1319 B.S.

See above, under Ch. VI.

Modem Works

Hindu Administrative Institutions in South
India. Madras, 1931.

Bhanjdarkar, D. R.

HlKALAL.

Maitreya, A. K.
Sewell, R.

Aiyangar, S. Krishna -
swami

Kingsbury & Phil¬
lips

Mugali, R. S.

Narasxmhacharya,

Pxllai, M. S. Pnrna-
lingam

Pillai, Nallasvami.
Pillai, Snndaram .
Rice, E. P.

Sharma, S. R.

494

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alteear, A. S.

Beni Prasad

Dikshttar, V. R. R.

Ghoshal, U. N.

Jayaswal, K. P.

Majumdab, R. C.
(Ed.).

Sastri, K. A N.

SUBBARAO, R.

Trepatbi, R. S.
Venkateswara, S. V.

Rdshtrakutas and their times. Poona, 1934.
State and Government in Ancient India . Barba¬
ras, 1949.

The State in Ancient India. Allahabad, 1928.
Theory of Government in Ancient India .
Allahabad, 1927.

Hindu Administrative Institutions. Madras,
1929.

History of Hindu Political Theories. London
1923.

Hindu Polity. Calcutta, 1924; 2nd Ed. Ban¬
galore, 1943.

History of Bengal. Vol. I. Dacca, 1943.

The Pandyan Kingdom. London, 1929.

The Cholas. Vol. II, Part 1. Madras, 1937.
The Theory of pre-Muslim Indian Polity ..
Madras, 1912.

“The Administrative System of the Early
Gahga Kings of Kalihga.” PIHC, III. 187-
194.

See above, under “Histories of the Period” in
“General Bibliography.”

Indian Culture through the Ages. Vol. II.
Mysore, 1932.

CHAPTER XI

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
Original Sources:

(See Epics, Puranas, Philosophy, Dharma-sastra, Buddhist, Jain
under Original Sources and Religion and Philosophy under Modern

Works in General Bibliography.)

(A) GENERAL:

Modern Works

Barnett, L. D. Hindu Gods and Heroes. London, 1923.

Barth, A. The Religions of India (Authorised Eng. trans.

by J. Wood. London, 1882).

Bhandarkar, R. G. Vaishnavism, gaivism and Minor Religious

Systems. Strassburg, 1913; Indian Edition,
Poona, 1928.

Cultural Heritage of India

Published by the Ramakrishna Mission Insti¬
tute of Culture, Calcutta 1937, 1953 etc.
Eliot, Sir Charles. Hindtuism and Buddhism. 3 Vols. London.

1921. New Edition, 1953.

Farquhar, J. N. Outline of the Religious Literature of India.

Oxford, 1920.

Hopkins, E. W. The Religions of India. Boston, 1895.

495

TOE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Xohow, Stan end Religions of India. Copenhagen, 1949.

Tuxen, Paul.

Monies, Williams, M. Religious Thought and Life in India . 4th Ed.

London, 1891.

(B) BUDDHISM:

Original Sources

(See “Buddhist” under “Original Sources”, and “Religion and
Philosophy” under “Modem Works” in “General Bibliography”.)

Bunyiu Nanjio. The Chinese Buddhist Tripifaka . Oxford, 1883.

Modem Works

Avalon, Arthur
Bagohi, P. C.
Rhattacharyya, B.

Boss, P. N.
Bu-stoh.

Goomaraswamy, A.K.

Dahlke, P.

Dasgupta, S. B.

Davxd-Nkel, Ale¬
xandra.

Durr, N.

Gbunwedel, A.
Keith, A. B.

Kern, H.

Mitra, R. I.

Obkkmiller, E.
Poussin, L. de la
Valine

Rhys Davids, Mrs.
C. A. F.

See below, under “Woodroffe, Sir John”.
Studies in the Tantras. Calcutta, 1939.

Indian Buddhist Iconography . Oxford, 1924.
“Glimpses of Vajrayana.” POC, III. 133ff.
“Origin and Development of Vajrayana.” IHQ,

1927. 733-746.

Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities .
Madras, 1923.

History of Buddhism . Trans, by E. Obermiller.
Heidelberg, 1932.

Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism. London,

1928.

Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha ,
London, 1948.

Buddhism and its Place in the Mental Life of
Mankind. London, 1927.

Introduction to Tantric Buddhism. Calcutta,
1950.

Le Buddhisme, ses Doctrines et ses Methodes.
Eng. trans. Buddhism, its doctrines and
methods , by H. N. M. Hardy and Bernard
Miall. London, 1939.

Aspects of Mahaydna Buddhism and Its Rela¬
tion to Hinaydna. London, 1930.

Early Monastic Buddhism . 2 Vols. Calcutta.
See below, under “Taranatha: Edelsteinmine.”
Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon .
Oxford, 1923.

Manual of Indian Buddhism. Strassburg, 1896.
Histoire du Bouddhisme dans U-Inde. Paris,
1901.

Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal. Cal¬
cutta, 1882.

See above, under “Bu-ston.” ' .

Bouddhisme. Paris, 1930.

“Tantrism (Buddhist).” ERE , Xn. 193 f.

Buddhism: Its Birth and Dispersal. London,
1934.

496

GENERAL. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rhys Davids, T. W.

BcRIEFNER, A.

Sen, B. 0.

Sumpa Mkilan Po
Suzuki, B. L.

Takakusu, J.
Taranatha.

Waddell, L. A.
Woodroffe, Sir John

History of Indian Buddhism. London, 1897.

Early Buddhism. London, 1908.

Buddhism: Its History and Literature. New
Ed. London, 1926.

See below, under “Taranatha: Geschichte.”

Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of
Bengal. Calcutta, 1942.

Pag-sam-jon-zang . Ed. by S. C. Das. Calcutta,
1908.

Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism. London,
1907.

Mahay ana Buddhism. London, 1938.

Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy . Plonolulu,
1947.

Edelsteinmine, das Buch von den Vermittlern
der siehen Inspirationen . A us dem Tibeti-
schen libers, v. A. Griinwedel. Petrograd,
1914. Trans, into English (Mystic Tales
of Lama Taranatha) by B. N. Datta. Cal¬
cutta, 1944.

Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indian. Aus
dem Tibetischen libers, v. F.A. von Schief-
ner. St. Petersburg, 1869.

The Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism. London,
1895.

Introduction to Tantra Shastra. 2nd Ed. Mad¬
ras, 1952.

Principles of Tantra. 2nd Ed. Madras, 1952.

Shakti and Shakta. 4th Ed. Madras, 1951.

[Cl BibHographie Bouddhique published by Adrian Maisonneuve.

Paris, 1937.]

(See “Jain” under “Original Sources” and “Religion and Philosophy”
under “Modem Works” in “General Bibliography”.)

Aiyanoar, S. Krishna -
swami.

Altekar, A. S.
Ayyangar, M. S.
Ramaswami and
Rao, B. Seshgiri
Barodia, U. D.

Buhler, G.

Desai, M.

Modern Works

“Jainism in South India.” Atmananda Cen¬
tenary Comm. Vol., 1936.

R&shtrakutas and their times . Poona, 1934.

Studies in South Indian Jainism, Madras
1922.

History and Literature of Jainism . Bombay,
1909,

Vber die indische Secte der Jainas. Vienna,
1887. Eng. trans. (The Indian Sect of the
Jainas) by J. Burgess. London, 1903.

Jaina Sdhityano Samkshipta Itihdsa (in Guja¬
rati) (“Short History of Jain Literature”).
Bombay, 1933.

A.I.K. — 81

497

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Fabquhar, J. N
Fleet, J. F.

Glasbnapp, H.
Guebxnot, A.

Handiqui, K. K

Hayavadanarao, C.
Nahab, P.C.

Nabasimhaohabya,

Pabikh, R. 0.

Rao, B, V. Kbishna.

Rice, B.

Saletobe, B. A.
Sbabma, S. R.

Stevenson, Mrs. S.
Vabdya, C. V.

See above, under “General”.

“Sanskrit and Old Canarese Inscriptions.” IA>
XI-XII.

Der Jainismus. Berlin, 1926.

Essai de Bibliographic Jaina. Paris, 1908.
“Notes de Bibliographie Jaina.” JA, XIV.
48-148.

Repertoire. d’Epicfraphie Jaina . Paris, 1908.
La religion D jaina. Paris, 1926.

Yasastilaka and Indian Culture . Sholapur.
1949.

Mysore Gazetteer . Vol. II.
Jaina-lekha-samgraha. 3 vols. Calcutta, 1918-
1929.

Epigraphia Camatica, II, Introduction.

Kdvyanusdsana by Acharya Hemachandra.

Vol. II,. Part 1. Intr. Bombay, 1938.

“Jainism in Andhradesa.” JAHRS, XII. 185-
196.

Mysore and Coohrg from the Inscriptions .
London, 1909.

Mediaeval Jainism. Bombay, 1938.

Jainism and Karnataka Culture. Dharwar,
1940.

The Heart of Jainism. Oxford, 1915.

History of Medieval Hindu India. Poona,
1921 ft.

(D) VAISHNAVTSM :

Original Sources

(See “Epics and Puranas” under “Original Sources” and “Religion
and Philosophy” under “Modem Works” in “General Bibliography”.)

Modern Works

Aiyangab, S. Krishna-
swami

Bhaxdabkar, R. G.

Fabquhab, J.^N.
Macnicol, N.

Rao, T. A. G.

R ayohaudhubi , H.C.

Eahrly History of Vaishnapism in South India.
London, 1920.

£i% Rdmdnujachdrya . (Natesan) Madras.
Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc , See above, under
“General”.

See above, under “General”.

Indian Theism. London, 1915.

History of &fi Vaishnavas. Madras, 1923.
Materials for the Study of the Early History of
the Vaishnava Sect. 2nd Ed. Calcutta, 1936.

(E) &AIVISM:

Original Sources
(As in Vaishriavism above.)

ABHiKAYAOtJPTA Pararmrthasara . Ed. with trans. and notes by

L. D. Barnett. JRAS , 1910. 707-747.
Adisbbha Paramarthasdra. Ed. by S. S. Suryanarayana

Sastri. Adyar, 1941.

498

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

AiyangaB, S. Krishna-
swami

Ayyab, C. V. Nara-
yana

Chattkkjee, J. C.

Kingsbury, P. and
Phillips, G. E.

Pillai, S. Satchida-
nanda

Sastri, K. A. Nila-
kanta

SUBRAMANIAN, K. R.

Modern Works

Some Contributions of South India to Indian
Culture . Calcutta, 1923. 2nd Ed. 1942.
Origin and Early History of Saivisyn in South
India . Madras, 1936.

Kashmir Saivism. Srinagar, 1914.

Hymns of the Tamil Saivite Saints . Calcutta,
1921.

“The Saiva Saints of Southern India.” Cult .
Her., II. 235-247.

“A Historical Sketch of Saivism.” Cult. Her.,
II. 18-34.

Origin of Saivism and its History in the Tamil
Land. Madras, 1941.

(F) MINOR RELIGIOUS SECTS:

Original Sources

(See “Epics” and “Puranas” under “Original Sources”, and “Religion
and Philosophy” under “Modem Works” in “General Bibliography”.)

Banerji, R. D.

Bhandarkar, R. G.
Bhattasali, N. K.

Chanda, R. P.
Cousens, H.

Fabqtjhab, J. N

Hazra, R. C.

Macnicol, N.
Majumdar, R.C
(Ed.).

Payne, E. A.
Sankalia, H. D
Sastri, H. Krishna.

Modern Works

Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval Sculpture.
ASI, NIS, No. 47. Delhi, 1933.

The Haihayas of Tripuri and their Monuments.
MASI, No. 23. Calcutta, 1931.

Vaishnavism , Saivism etc . See above, under
“General”.

Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical
Sculptures in the Dacca Museum. Dacca,
1929.

Mediaeval Indian Sculptures in the British
Museum. London, 1936.

Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Dis¬
tricts. ASI, NIS, No. 42. Calcutta, 1926.

Mediaeval Temples of the Dakhan. ASI, NIS,
No. 48. Calcutta, 1931.

Somanatha and other Mediaeval Temples in
Kdtkidwdd. ASI, NIS, No. 45. Calcutta,
1931.

See above, under “Religion and Philosophy”
in “General Bibliography”.

Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites
and Customs. Dacca, 1940.

Indian Theism. London, 1915.

History of Bengal. Vol. I. Dacca, 1943.

The Saktas. Calcutta, 1933.

Archaeology of Gujarat. Bombay, 1941.

South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses ^
Madras, 1916.

499

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Schrader, F. 0.
Woodroffe, Sir John

Benekfea, J. N.

Baherji, R. I).

BHATT ACH ARY A , B. C.

Bhattacharyya, B.
Bhat^asaxa, N. K.

OOQMARASWAMY, A.K.

Rougher, A.

Grunwedel, A.

Haveul, E. B.

Jouveau-Bubreutl,

Majumdar, R. C.

(Ed.).

Rao, T. A. Gopinatha
Saras wati. S. K.
Sastri, H. Krishna.

Bendall, C.
Geden, A. S.

Introduction of the Pdhcharatra and the
Ahirhudhnya Samhita. Adyar, 1916.

See above, under “Buddhism”.

(G) ICONOGRAPHY:

Modern Works

Development of Hindu Iconography. Calcutta,
1941.

“Vishnu and Surya — A Study in Cult Icons.”

JISOA, XXIL 55-129; XIV. 1-74; XVI. 47-

100.

Eastern Indian School of Medieval Sculpture .
Delhi, 1933.

Indian Images: Vol. 1. Brahmanic Icono¬
graphy. Calcutta, 1931; Vol. II. Jain Icono¬
graphy. Lahore, 1939.

Indian Buddhist Iconography . Oxford, 1924.

Ed. Sddhanamdla. GOS. Raroda, 1925, 1928.

See above, under “Minor Religious Sects”.

Dance of £iva. With an introductory pre¬
face by R . Rolland. Botnbay, 1948.

The Beginnings of Buddhist Art and other
Essays in Indian and Central-Asian Archae¬
ology. Revised by the author and trans.
by L.A. Thomas and F.W. Thomas. Paris,,
1917.

LTconographie boundhique de V Inde. 2 vols.
Paris, 1900, 1905.

Buddhistische Kunst in Indien. Berlin, 1893
(Eng. trans. “Buddhist Art in India”, by
Agnes C. Gibson. Revised and enlarged by
J. Burgess. London, 1901).

Indian Sculpture and Painting . London, 1908;
2nd Ed. London, 1928.

Iconography of Southern India (Trans, from
the French by A.C. Martin). Paris, 1937.

History of Bengal. Vol. I. Dacca, 1943.

Elements of Hindu Iconography. 2 vols.
Madras, 1914-1916.

“Early Sculptures of Bengal.” JDLy XXX.
1-85.

See above, under “Minor Religious Sects.”

(H) TANTRIK RELIGION:

Modern Works

Catalogue of Buddhist Sansknt Manuscripts
in the University Library , Cambridge.

Cambridge, 1883.

“Tantras.” ERE, XII. 192-193.

500

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Macnicol, N.
Monier-Wiliiams, M.
Sastri, H. P.

Windisch, E. and
Eqoemng, • J.

WlNTERNITZ, M.
WOODROFFE, Sir John

Indian Theism. Oxford, 1915.

Brahmanism and Hinduism. London, 1891.
Catalogue of Palm Leaf and Selected Paper
Manuscripts. Calcutta, 1905.

Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the
Library of the India Office. Part IV. London,
1894.

History of Indian Literature . Vol. I. Calcutta.
1927.

See above, under “Buddhism”.

(I) PARIS:

Kopiy ala; S. H.

Irani, M. S.
Taraporewala ,

I. J.

“Jadi Raxxa and the Kissah-i-Sanj an.”

JBBRAS, XXIII. 349-370.

Studies in Par si History . Bombay, 1920.

“The Story of Sanjan.” POC, X. 68-85.

“The Exact Date of the Arrival of the Parsis
in India.” Festschrift Kane , pp. 506-514.

(J) PHILOSOPHY:
Original Sources

(See under “Epics”, “Puranas” and “Philosophy” under “Original
Sources” and “Religion and Philosophy” under “Modem Works” in

“General Bibliography”.)

Modem Works

Bhattacharyya, H.
D. (Ed.).

Chatterjee, J. C.
Das gotta, S. N.

Deussen, P.

Garbe, R.

Ghate, V. S.

Gro OSSET, R.

Jha, G. N.

Keith, A. B.
Masson-Oursel, P.
Max Muller, F.

Radhakrishnan, S.
Srinivasachari, P.N.

Strauss, Otto.

The Philosophies. Cultural Heritage of India.

2nd Ed. Vol. HI. Calcutta, 1953.

Kashmir &aivism. Srinagar, 1914.

History of Indian Philosophy. 4 vols. Cam¬
bridge, 1932 ft

Outline of the Vedanta System of Philosophy
according to Sankara. Eng. trans.- by J. H.
Woods and C.B. Runkle. 2nd Ed. Cam¬
bridge Mass. 1915.

Philosophy of Ancient India . Chicago, 1897.
The Vedanta . Poona, 1926.

Le Philosophie Indiennes. Paris, 1931.

The Prabhakara School of Purva Mimamsd.
Allahabad, 1911.

Purva Mimamsd in its sources. Benares, 1942.
Indian Logic and Atomism. Oxford, 1921.

Le Philosophie en Orient. Paris, 1938.

Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. London,
1889.

Indian Philosophy. 2 vols. London, 1923, 1927.
The Philosophy of Bhedabheda. 2nd Ed.
Madras, 1950.

Indische Philosophie. Munchen, 1925.

501

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

CHAPTERS XII-XIII
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE
Original Sources
(i) INDIAN:

(See (iii) Puranasand (iv) Dharmasastra; Kalhana in (v) Historical
Works; Halayudha in (vi) Lexicons; Kajasekhara in (xi) Poetics,
&c. and in (xiv) Belles-Lettres; — all under (A) Brahmanieal; Sid-
dharshi under (C) Jain; and Dhanapala under (D) Apabhramsa; —

in “General Bibliography” above.)

Brihadd harm a Purtina

Ed. by H.P. Sastri. BI. Calcutta, 1887-1897.
DharmakQ$d-V yavahdrak&mda

Vol. I, Parts MIL Wai, 1937-39.
Krityakalpataru of Lakshmldhara

Vyavahdra-hdyda. Ed. by K.V.R. Aiyangar.
GOS. Baroda, 1953.

Kuftarvimata of Damodara

Ed. in KM, III. Bombay, 1899.

Ed. with comm, by T.M. Tripathi. Bombay,
1924.

Ed. by Madhusudan Kaul. Calcutta, 1944.
German trans. by J.J. Meyer. Leipzig, 1903.
Pardsara-nuddhaviya Para£ara-smriti with the comm, of Sayana

Madhavacharya. Critically Ed. by V. S.
Islampurkar. 3 vols. BSS. Bombay, 1893-
1919.

Parasara-smriti with the gloss of Madhavachar¬
ya. Ed. with notes by M. Chandrakanta Tar-
kalankara. 3 vols. BI. Calcutta, 1890-
1899.

Paribhdshdprak&sa (part of Viramitrodaya) of Mitramisra

Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Benares, 1906.
Ratirahasya of Kokkoka

Ed. by Devidatta Sarma. 1902.

Ed. with comm, and notes. Bombay, 1922.
SaihskdraprakdSa (part of Viramitrodaya) of Mitramisra

Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Benares, 1906.
Smritichandrikd of Devannabhatta

Ed. by L. Srinivasa chary a. 6 vols. Mysore,
1914-21.

Ed. by J.R. Gharpure. Bombay, 1918.

Eng. trans. by J.R. Gharpure. Bombay, 1948

ff.

Smrityartha$ara of Sridhara

Ed. by Ranganatha Sastri Vaidya. ASS-
Poona, 1912.

Ydjnavalkya-Smriti with the comm, of Apararka. ASS. Poona,

1903-04.

(ii) NON-INDIAN:

(See Ferrand, Relations &c (in General Bibliography, “Arabic”)
especially extracts from Abu’l Faraj Muhammad bin Ishak, Abu

502

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zaidf A1 Ljtakhrl, Ibn al-Fakih, Ibn Khordadbah, Ibn Rosteh, Khuwft-
rizml, Mas’udi, Mutahhar bin Tahir al-Makdisx, Sulaiman and
Ya’kubijalso, Elliot and Dowson, History of India &c., and Hodivala,
= Studies in Indo-Muslim History , as given in General Bibliography,

“Muslim”.)

Original Sources
INSCRIPTIONS:

(See inscriptions in ARSIE, El, IA, MAR, SII, etc.)

Modem Works '

Axyangar, K. V.

Rangaswami
Altekar, A. S.

Banerjee, G.

Chaklajpar, H. C.

I) as, S. K.

Hopkins, E. W.
Indra.

Ghoshal, U. N.

Gupta, K. M.

Jha, Ganganatha

Kane, P. V.

Mackenzie, J.

Pban Nath.

-Sastbi, K. A. Nila-
kanta

Sank alia, H. D.
Subba Rao, N. S.

Vbnkateswara, S.Y.

WARMINGTON, E. H.

Yule, Col, Henry and
Burnell, A. C.

Aspects of Ancient Indian Economic Thought.
Benares, 1934.

Education in Ancient India. 4th Ed. Banaras,
1951.

Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation. Bern
ares. 1938.

Rashprakutas and their times. Poona, 1934.

Hindu Law of Marriage and Stridhana. Tagore
Law Lectures. Calcutta, 1896.

Social Life in Ancient India. Calcutta, 1929.

Educational System of the Ancient Hindus.
Calcutta, 1930.

Economic History of Ancient India. Calcutta,
1925.

Ethics of India. London, 1925.

The Status of Women in Ancient India .
Lahore, 1940.

Contributions to the History of the Hindu
Revenue System. Calcutta, 1929.

The Agrarian System in Ancient India. Cal¬
cutta, 1030.

The Land System in South India between c. 800
A.D. and 1200 A.D . Lahore, 1933.

Hindu Law in its Sources. Vol. I. Allahabad,
1930.

History of Dharma&astra. Vols. II-IV. Poona.
1941, 1946, 1953.

Hindu Ethics. (Religious Quest of India Series,
Oxford University). London, 1922.

A Study in the Economic Condition of Ancient
India. London, 1929.

The Cholas. Vol. II, Part I. Madras, 1937.

The University of Nalanda. Madras, 1934.

Economic and Political Conditions in Ancient
India. Mysore, 1911.

Indian Culture through the Ages. 2 vols. Lon¬
don, 1928, 1932.

The Commerce between the Roman Empire
and India. Cambridge, 1928.

Hobson- Jobson. New Ed. by W. Crooke. Lon¬
don, 1903.

508

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

CHAPTER XIV

COLONIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION

Bagchi, P C.

Bose, P.

Chatter ji, B. R.
Coedes, G.

Das, S. C.

De Boer, T. J.

Francke, A. H.
Goldziher, I.

Grousset, R.

Hitti, P. K.
Kouraiu, G F.

Majumdar, R. C.

Mukherji, P. K,

Oakeshott, W. F.
O’Leary de Laoy
Petech, L.

Sarkar, H. B.

Modern Works

India and China. Calcutta, 1944; 2nd Ed,
Bombay, 1950.

Le Canon Bouddhique en Chine . 2 vols. Paris,
1927 1938

“Sino-Indian Relations.” SIS, I. 65-84; 161-
166.

The Hindu Colony of Cambodia . Adyar, 1927,

The Indian Colony of Champa. Adyar, 1926.

Indian Cultural Influence in Cambodia. Cal¬
cutta, 1928.

India and Java. Calcutta, 1933.

Les Etais Hindouises DTndochine et DTndo-
nesie, Paris , 1948.

Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vols, I-V. Paris.

Indian Pandits in the Land of Snow. Ed. by
N. C. Das. Calcutta, 1893.

“Contributions on the Religion; History, &c. of
Tibet.” JASB, 1881, 187 ff; 1882, 1 ff; 87 ff.

History of the Philosophy of Islam. London,
1903.

Antiquities of Indian Tibet . Calcutta, 1914-26.

Vorlesungen ilber den Islam. Heidelberg,
1910.

The Civilisations of the East — -India (Eng.
trans.). London, 1932.

The Civilisations of the East— -China (Eng.
trans.). London, 1934.

History of the Arabs . 1937.

Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in ancient
and early Medieval Times (Princeton Univ.
Press, 1951).

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East . Vol.
I: Champa. Lahore, 1927; Vol. II; Suvarna-
dvipa. Parts 1 and 2. Dacca, 193.7, 38.

Kambujadesa. Madras, 1944.

Hindu Colonies in the Far East. Calcutta,
1944.

Inscriptions of Kambuja (As. Soc. Monograph).
Calcutta, 1953.

Indian Literature in China and the Far East.
Calcutta, 1931.

Commerce and Society. Oxford, 1936.

Arabia before Muhammad.

A Study of the Chronicles of Ladakh (Suppl.
to IHQ, XIIX-XIV). Calcutta, 1939.

Northern India according to the ShuuChing-
Chu. Rome, 1950.

Indian Induences on the Literature of Java and
Bali. Calcutta, 1934.

504

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

SASTEI, K. A. N.

Titus, M. T>
Wales, H. G. Q.

Foreign Notices of South India. Madras, 1939.
South Indian Influences in the Far East .
Bombay, 1949.

History of Srivijaya. Madras, 1949.

Indian Islam . London, 1930;

The Making of Greater India . London, 1951.

505

A.D.

559-567

605

618-907*

c.625

637

641

662

678

704-774

716

717
722

725

€.730

c.730

c . 730-756
c. 731-796
732

c . 733
c . 733-758
c. 738

c. 739

742-826

c. 743

745

747

c . 747-752
749

e . 750-c . 770
-750-850

c 752

CHRONOLOGY

Guhasena of Valabhi (p. 214).

A victorious Chinese General carries away 1356
Buddhist books from Champa (p. 436).

Tang dynasty in China (p. 444).

Rashtrakuta family immigrates from Lattalura
to Ellichpur in Berar (p. 1).

Defeat of Yazdagird III, the Sasanid king of
Iran, at Qadisiyya (p. 353).

Battle of Nahawand (p. 353).

Jaths of Kikanan resist the Arabs (p. 127).

Ravishena, author of Padmapurdna (p. 183).

Amoghavajra, Tantrik teacher (p. 263).

Settlement of the Iranians at Sanjan, acc. to
Dastur Aspalidiarji Kamdin (p. 354).

Kambuja sends an embassy to China (p. 410).

Kambuja helps an Annamese chief against
China (p. 416).

Jim aid (p. 39).

Rise of the Thai kingdom in Yunnan known as
Nan-chao ( Mithila-rashtra) (p. 433).

Mithila-rashtra throws off the Chinese yoke (p.

422).

Na gab hat a (Pratihara) (p. 20).

Nandivarman Pallavamalla (p. 168).

Sahjaya, successor of Sannaha in Central Java,
(p. 427), conquers Kambuja (p. 416).

Accession of Dantidurga (p. 1).

Dantidurga, Rashtrakuta (pp. 1, 3, 20).

Battle near Navsari in which the Arabs were
worsted (p. 2).

Arabs of Sindh invade the kingdom of the Sain-
dhavas (p. 99).

Cheraman Perumal, last of the Perumals of Ke¬
rala (p. 165).

Dantidurga accompanies the Chalukysf suzerain
in his expedition against Kahchi (p. 2).

Vanaraja Chapa builds Anahilapataka (p. 103).

Death of Vikramaditya II (p. 2).

Devendravarman II, E. Ganga (p. 140).

‘Abbasids supplant the Caliphs of the Umayyad
dynasty (p. 125).

Gopala, Pala (p. 45).

Tibetan kings exercise political domination in
parts of India, acc. to Tibetan. Chronicles (p..
446 k

Dantidurga overthrows the Chalukya emperor

fo. 1).

*The date 618-905 given on p. 60 should be corrected accordingly.

500

CHRONOLOGY

753

753, 771, 773, 778
754

754- 775

755- 797

756

c. 756

757

c. 757-860
c . 758-773
759-765
c.762
c.764

c . 764-e . 799
765-785
c. 765-815

768

768-772

760

c.770
c. 770-810
771

c . 772

c . 773
774

775-785

775-809

c.776

c.778 (or earlier)
778

778

e, 780
780-793

Bappa, the Guhila, is said to have abdicated the
throne (p. 109).

Dantidurga becomes the master of the whole oi
Maharashtra, and assumes imperial titles (p.
2).

Indian embassies to Baghdad (p. 450).

King Ko-lo-fong of Nan-chao (Mithila-rashtra)
defeats the Chinese (p. 433).

Caliph Al-Man§ur (pp, 124, 125, 450).

Khri-sroh-lde-btsan, Tibetan king (pp. 58, 446).

Bhartrivad<Jha, Chahamana ruler, acknowledges
Nagabha|a as suzerain (p. 20).

Hisham appointed governor of Sindh (p. 99).

Prithivindra-varman occupies the throne of
Champa on the death of Rudra-varman (p.
423).

Dynasty of Pan^urahga in Champa (p. 423).

Krishna I, Rashtrakuta (pp. 3, 102).

Agrabodhi VII, Ceylon (p. 169).

Accession of Vajraditya of Kashmir (p. 115).

Death of Vijayaditya I, E. Chalukya (p. 133).

Vishnu vardhana, E. Chalukya (p. 133).

Mahendra II ^ilimeghavarna, Ceylon (p. 169).

N edim j a<Jaiyan (also known as Jatilavarman,
Maranj adaiyan , Pa ran taka, Varaguna I),
Faniya (pp. 157,247).

Krishna I, Rishtrakuta, encamps at Manne (p
160).

Hisham ibn 'Amr at-Taghlibl, governor of
Sindh (p. 115).

Caliph sends an expedition against Kabul (p.
126).

Accession of Jayapltfa of Kashmir (p. 116).

Dharmapala. P5la (pp. 45, 50).

Kambuja king visits imperial court in China
(p. 416).

Incorporation of the whole of the modem Hy¬
derabad State in the Rashtrakuta empire <p.
3).

Death of Krishna I. Rashtrakuta (p. 3).

Javanese raiders burn the sacred temple in
Champa and carry away the image (p. 423 ) .

Caliph Al-Mahdi (p. 127).

Three Caliphates of ‘Abbasids (p. 126).

Arabs send another expedition against Barada
p. 99).

Accession of Vatsaraja, Pratlbara (p. 22).

Date of composition of Kuvalayamkld at Java-
lipura (Jalor) (pp. 21/209).

Erection of the temple of goddess Tara at
Chandl Kalasan by a Sailendra king (p. 446).

Accession of Dhruva, Rashtrakuta (p. 4).

Dhruva, Rashtrakuta (p. 160).

507

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

782

783

785- 790

786- 809
786

787
c. 787

788-812
c 788-820
c. 790

790-794

793

793- 814

794- 795

794-805

795

c.795

c . 796-847

798-804
799''
c. 799

c . 799-847
c.800
c . 800

c.800

c.800-c,1000

801

c.801

802

Bharanindra- varman, the ^ailendra king, has
as his guru Kumaraghosha, inhabitant of

Gau$a (p. 415).

Completion of Earivamsapurdna by Jinasena
at V ardhamanapura (pp. 21, 182).

Indray udha, the ruler of the North (p. 23).

Jayavaraha, of Sauryaman^ala (p. 102).

IJdava or Dappula II, Ceylon (p. 169).

Caliph Harun Al-Rashld (pp. 127, 450, 451).

Caliph sends second expedition against Kabul
(p. 126).

Another Javanese raid in Champa (p. 423).

Chinese emperor makes an alliance with the
Caliph of Baghdad and some Indian princes
for security against Tibetans, acc. to a
Chinese author (p. 446).

^ivamara II, W. Gahga (p. 160).

^ahkaraeharya (pp. 304, 358).

Bhruva, Rashtrakuta, returns to the south from.
Ms northern campaign laden with rich booty
(p* 5).

Mahendra III ^ilamegha varna, Ceylon (p. 169)'.

Indra-varman of Champa renews diplomatic
relations with CMna, and sends presents of
rhinoceros and buffaloes to the emperor
(p. 424).

Govinda III, Rashtrakuta (pp. 8, 160).

Conflict between Magabhata and the Rashtra-

kutas (p. 26).

Agrabodhi VIII, Ceylon (p. 169)..

Chinese Emperor, Te-tsong, receives an auto¬
graphed Buddhist manuscript from the king
of Wu-ch’a (Udra) (p. 64).

Govinda III, Rashtrakffta, becomes the undis¬
puted overlord of the Deccan (p. 6).

Dantiga-Danti-varman, V a j ramegha varman t

Later Pallava (p. 168),

Mu-Khri-btsan-po, Tibetan king (p. 446).

Death of Vishnu vardhana IV of Vengl (p. 8).

Vijayaditya II becomes king of Vengl (pp. 8.
133).

Vijayaditya II, E. Chalukya (p. 133).

Durgasimha, grammarian (p. 190).

Northern campaigns of Govinda III, Rashtra¬
kuta (p. 8).

CMtra vahana II of Aluvakhe$a (p. 164).

Dynasty of Pralambha in Kamarupa (p. 61).

Arrival of Iranian emigrants at Diu, acc. to
Quissa-i-Sanjdn fp. 353).

Accession of Hari- varman, Champa (p. 424).

Jay a- varman II becomes king of Kambuja (p,
417),

508

CHRONOLOGY

802

c.802

802, 807
803

€.804

804- 816

805- 821
808

€.810-850

812

c.813

813- 833

814

814- 878

815- 862

815

817

817-836

817-853

c.820-860

€.821

821-824

824-825

824-844

825

829

c.830

832

833

Govinda III, Rashtrakuta, defeats the con¬
federacy of Paliava, Panglya Kerala, and
Gahga rulers (p. 8) .

Govinda III, Rashtrakuta, defeats Vijayaditya
II and puts Bhixna Salukki on the Vehgi
throne (p. 8).

Pyu king sends embassies to China (p. 433).

King of Champa conquers the two Chinese
districts of Moan and Ai, acc. to Chinese
history (p. 424),

Govinda III, Rashfrakufa, invades Kanchi
(p. 151).

Ral-pa-can, Tibetan king, acc. to Franeke
(p. 79, n. 6).

Dappuia II (or III), Ceylon (p. 169).

Radhanpur grant (p. 133),

Devapala, Pala (p. 50).

Baroda plate (p. 102).

Chippatajayapl^a of Kashmir killed through
the intrigue of his maternal uncles (p. 116).

Caliph Al-Ma’mun (pp. 106, 126, 127, 128).

Death of Govinda III, Rashtrakuta (p. 134).

Amoghavarsha, Rashtrakuta (pp. 8, 11, 31, 161),
190).

^rimara ^rivallabha, Pan$ya (p. 158).

Ins. of Hari-varman of Champa mentioning
invasion of Kambuja by him, and defeat of
China (p. 418).

Vijayaditya II of Vehgi heads a rebellion
against Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha' (p. 9).

Ral-pa-can, Tibetan king (pp. 58, 79, n. 7, 446).

Rajamalla I, W. Gahga (p. 161).

V ikranta- varman III, Champa (p. 424).

Amoghavarsha, Rashtrakuta, becomes a major
and assumes reins of administration (p. 10).

Agrabodhi IX, Ceylon (p. 169).

Origin of the Kollam or Malayalam era (p.
165.

Sena gilameghavarpa, Ceylon (p. 169).

Settlement of Iranians at Sanjan, acc. to
Quissa-i-Sanjan (p. 353).

Harj ara- varman (p, 60).

Amoghavarsha, Rashtrakufa, inflicts a signal
defeat on Vijayaditya II of Vehgi (p. 9).

Death of Karkka of the Gujarat branch of the
Rashtrakutas (p. 10).

King of Nan-chao ( Mithila-ihsht ra ) invades the
Pyu kingdom and plunders the capital city
(p. 433).

Charter by Jaika I, Saindhava king, gs regent
of his brother (p. 100).

Death of NagSvaloka (Nlagabhata II), acc. to
Pr&hMmka»chaHiu (p. 27).

509

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

836,862
c. 841-842

841

842

844-848

844-879

c.845

c . 845-880
c.847
c . 847-872

c.848

848-892

850

c. 850-871

851

c . 853

853-870

853- 880

field

854- 877
c . 855-856

855/56-883

e.857

c. 860

c.860

c . 860-895
c . 860-985
861

862

c . 862-880
868-890

The earliest and latest known dates of Bhojar
Pratinara (p. 32).

King Lakshmanaraja of Dahala-ma^i^ala (p~
87).

Index to the Nyayasutras by Vachaspati (p~
204).

Chandamahasena, of a branch of the Chaha-
irianas at Dhavalapuri (mod. Dholpur) (p~
108).

Ibn Khordadbah (pp. 413, 419).

Sena II, Ceylon (p. 170).

Dhruva I of the Gujarat branch of Rashtra¬
kutas killed in war against Amoghavarsha

(p. 10).

Accession of Akalavarsha, Gujarat branch of
Rashtrakutas (p. 10).

Kokkalla I, Kalachuri (p. 30) .

Death of Yijayaditya II, E. Chalukya (p. 134).

Tellarrerinda Nandivarman— Karripa varman P

Later Pallava (p. 168).

Death of Vishnu vardhana V, E. Chalukya,
after a rule of 18 or 20 months (p. 135).

Vijayaditya III, E. Chalukya (p. 135).

Vigrahapala Narayanapala.

Parakesari Vijiyalaya Choladeva (p. 153).

Sulaim-an’s Arab account of India (pp. 32, 52 r
255, n. 56, 413).

Asaga composes eight works including Var-
dhamdna-charita at Dharala in Choladesa
(p. 183).

Nitimiarga I, W. Ganga (p. 161).

Ppfhvlpati I, collateral line of W. Gahgas (p.
161).

Death of Jay a- varman II, Kambuja (p. 418).

Jaya-varman III, Kambuja (p. 418).

End of the rule of the Karko^a dynasty in
Kashmir, and the foundation of the Utpala
dynasty (pp. 116-7).

Avantivarman, Kashmir (pp. 117, 245, 369).

Date of Jayasimhasuri’s Prakrit comm, on
Upadeiamdld (p. 209).

End of the war between Amoghavarsha and
the Gujarat branch of Rashtrakutas (p. 10).

Amoghavarsha, Rashfmkuta, marries his dau¬
ghter Chandrobalabbe to Butuga, a Ganga
prince (p. 9).

Indra- varman II, Champa (p. 425).

Bhrigu dynasty of Champa (p. 424).

Parabala, Rashfrakufa, rules in Central India
(p. 49).

Embassy from Pyu kingdom visits China (p^
433).

Varaguna varman, Faniya (p. 159).

Vikramaditya I, Bana (p. 163).

510

CHRONOLOGY

c.870

810

870-907
o. 871-907
872-903
872-913
874
c.875

877-889

c„878

c.878

878- 914
879, Oct. 20

879- 890
879-900

879- 926
880

c.880

880- 900

c. 880-900
883

883-902

c.685

886

888

890-907

892-922

893

c.893

c . 896-905
898, 910

899

c.900

Ya’qub ibn Layth conquers Kabul and Zabul
(pp. 112, 126).

Jayaditya II of the Malay aketu dynasty of
Yijayapura (p. 93).

Rajamalla II, W.* Gahga (p. 161).

Aditya I, Chola (p. 153).

^affarids (p. 128).

Njipatuhgavarman, Later Pallava (p. 168).
R§naka II, Saindhava (p. 101).

Ya’kubi (p. 419).

Indra-varman II of Champa sends an embassy
to China (p. 425).

Indra-varman, Kambuja (p. 420).

Banas and Vaidumbas defeat W. Ganges and
Nolambas at the battle of Soremati (p. 163).
Death of Amoghavarsha I, Riashtrakuta, and
the accession of his son Krishna II (p. 11).
Krishna II, .Rashtrakuta (pp. 11, 12, 31, 88).
Epoch of the Ne wan era (p. 58-9).

Udaya II (or I), Ceylon (p. 170).

‘Amr ibn Layth (p. 113).

Raghavadeva, Nepal (p. 59).

Uddyotana becomes an Acharya (p. 296 ) .
Pallavas defeat Pandyas at &ripurambiyam
near Kumbhakonam (pp. 152, 159).
Marasimha II, collateral line of W. Gahgas

(p. 161).

Parantaka Viranarayaija Piaa^dya (p. 159).
Death of Avantivarman, Kashmir (p. 117).
Sankaravarman of the Utpala dynasty of
Kashmir (p. 112).

Death of Bhoja (p; 33).

Agguka IV, Saindhava (p. 101).

End of the reign of Guoaka-Vijayaditya, E.
Chalukya (p. 88).

Kasyapa IV Srlsahghabodhi, Ceylon (p. 170 ) .

inscription (p; 136).

Chalukya-Bhlma X (p. 136).

Earliest known date of Mahendrapala I, Pratl-
hara (p. 33).

Balavarman, the Chalukya, in Saurashfra (p.

101).

Aditya I, Cho}a, defeats Aparajita, Pallava ip.
152).

Jayasiihha- varman , Champa (p. 425).

Known years of Balitung (Dharmodaya MahS-
Samfehu), Java (p. 428).

Avanivarman ruling as a vassal of Pratthfira
Mahendrapala (p. 101).

Raja§ekhara (p. 181).

Talcher plate of Sivakaradeva (p. 77).

Death of Ya^o-'varman, Kambuja (p. 421).

511

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

c . 900-c . 920
c . 900-925
900-940

902

903

904 (or 905)

904, 915

905-910

906

907

907-917.

907-935

907-953

c.908

c. 911-971
c .912
914

914

914-922

914

c.915

915-916
c. 915-935
c.916

916

917

917- 918

918- 930
c.920

920

921

922

Maravarman Rajasimha II, Pandya (p. 159).

Harsha, Chandelia (p. 84).

Brithvipati II, collateral line of W. Gangas (p.
*161).

Ibn al-Faklh (p. 413).

Ibn Rosteh (p. 419).

San-fo-tsi (Sailendra empire) sends an em¬
bassy to China (p. 414).

Known dates of Jaika II, Saindhava (p. 101).

Bhadra-varman III, Champa (p. 425).

Queen Sugandha deprived of her power, and
Partha, ten-year old son of Nirjitavarman,
placed on the throne of Kashmir (p. 119).

Accession of Parantaka I, Chola (p. 170).

Last known date of Mahendrapala (p. 33).

Kiasyapa V, Abhaya gilameghavama, Ceylon
(p. 170).

NStimiarga II, W. Gahga (p. 161).

Parantaka I, Chola (pp. 154, 171).

Death of Narayanapala, Bala (p. 53).

Indra-varman III, Champa (p. 426).

Accession of Mahipala, Pratlhara (p. 35).

Death of Krishna III, Rashtrakuta, and acces¬
sion of Indra (p. 12).

Queen Sugandha of Kashmir advances towards
the capital to regain her power (p. 119)".

Indra III, Rashtrakuta (pp. 12-13).

Indra III, Rashtrakuta, performs iul&purmha
(p. 399 n. 255).

Dharanivaraha, the Chapa ruler (p. 103).

Accession of Dakshottama in Mataram (p.
428).

Battle of Vejlur in which the Cholas defeat the
Pandyas and the Sinhalese (p. 154).

Parantaka Chola defeats the Vaidumbas of
Renandu and uproots the Banas with the aid
of Frith vipati XI, W. Ganga (p. 155). ‘

Visit of A1 Mas’udi to India (p. 35).

^ivagupta, Somavamsf (p. 146).

AM Zaid Hasan, Arab writer (p. 413).

Destruction of Kanauj by Rashfrakufas (p.
35).

A great famine breaks out in Kashmir (p. 119).

Dappula XII (or IV), Ceylon (p. 170).

Dappula IV (or V), Ceylon (p. 170).

Cholas defeat and expel Rajasimha II, Pandyp
(p. 154).

Traditional date of the death of Nathamuni
(p. 312).

Nirjitavarman of Kashmir deposes Partha and
assumes royalty (p. 119).

Death of Indra III, Rashtrakuta, and accession
of Amoghavarsha II fp. 13).

512

CHRONOLOGY

c.922

c.922 end

922-929

923

c.925

c. 927-936
c.928
929

929

c.929

930

930-933

930-936

932

933

933-942

935-946

935- 970
936

936

936- 939

937

939

939-948

Death of Chalukya-Bhima I (p. 136).

Vijayaditya IV' succeeds his father Chalukya-
Bhlma I (p. 137).

Death of Vijayaditya IV, E. Chalukya, after a
reign of six months (p. 137).

Amma I, alias Vishnu vardhana, succeeds his
father Vijayaditya IV (p. 137).

Amma I, E. Chalukya (p. 137).

Death of Nirjitavarman after placing another
son Chakravarman on the throne of Kashmir
(p. 119).

Accession of Yasovarman or Lakshavarman,
son of Harsha, Chandella (p. 84).

Govinda IV, Rashtrakuta (p. 137).

End of the kingdom of Mataram, Java (p. 427).

Rule of Tala Vikramaditya (II) and Bhima II,
E. Chalukya (p. 137).

Kanthika-Vijayaditya IV succeeds his father
Amma I, E. Chalukya (p. 137).

Accession of Sindok in Eastern Java (p. 430).

Assassination of Bhima II after a rule of eight
months (p. 137).

Udaya II (or II), Ceylon (p. 171).

Malia or Yuddhamalla (II). E. Chalukya (p.
138).

Munjala composes Laghumanasa (on mathe¬
matics) (p. 200).

Devasena, author of Nayachakra and other
works (p. 216).

Sena III, Ceylon (p. 171).

Period of the rule of Bhima II, Chalukya,
according to a record (p. 138).

Janamejaya Mahabhavagupta, Somavaihsi (p.
147).

Amoghavarsha III overthrows Govinda IV,
and occupies the Rashtrakuta throne (p. 14).
First Parsi settlement at Sanjan (p. 353).

Amoghavarsha III, Rashtrakuta (pp. 13, 14,
162).

Butuga II ousts Rajamalla III, W. Ganga (p
161).

Death of Uddyotana (p. 296 ) .

Chakravarman of Kashmir loses life at the
hands of robbers (p. 119).

Unmattavanti of Kashmir places Suravarman
II on the throne af cer declaring him as his
son (p. 120).

End of the Utpala dynasty in Kashmir (p. 120).

Accession of Yasaskara, Kashmir (pp. 120,
244).

Death of Amoghavarsha and accession of his
son Krishna III (p. 14).

Yasaskara, Kashmir (pp. 120, 369).

518

.T.K. — 33

939-967

940

941

941 (or 942)

942
942

942-950

942-994/5

c.943

c.944

946

947

948

948-949

949

950

950-953

950-958

950-1000

951

915, 953

c.953

953-954

953-957

953-968

953-969

955
c.956

956
956

957- 973

958- 971

958-972

THE AGE? OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Krishna III, Rashtrakuta (pp. 14, 15,* 139, 162,
171, 190).

Death of Prithvlpati II, collateral W, Ganga
line (pp. i.55, 162).

Pampa composes Adi Pur ana and Pampa Bhd -
rata (p. 224).

Harsha-varman succeeds his father Jaya-var-
man IV, Kambuja (p. 421).

Completion of Pasmaha-chariu by Padmakirti
(p. 219).

Bhatripatta, Guhila king (p. 109).

Udaya III (or IV), Ceylon (p. 171).

Mularaja, Chaulukya (p. 105).

Krishna III, Rashtrakuta, and Butuga, Ganga,
capture Kanchi and Tanjore (p. 14).

Accession of Rajendra-varman and removal of
the capital back to Yasodharapura, Kambuja
(p. 421).

Amma II succeeds his father Chalukya Bhlma
II (p. 138).

Last known date of Sindok, Eastern Java (p.
430).

Yasaskara of Kashmir poisoned by his atten¬
dants (p. 120).

Devapala, Pratlhara (p. 37).

Battle of Takkolam in which Cholas were de*
feated and their crownprince Rajaditya was
killed (pp. 14, 155, 159, 162, 163).

Death of Parvagupta, Kashmir (p. 113).

Sena IV, Ceylon (p. 170).

Kshemagupta, Kashmir (p. 113).

Dhanga, Chandella (p. 38).

Indra-varman III of Champa sends an embassv
to China (p. 426).

Known dates of Allata, son of Bhartripatta,
Guhila (p. 109).

Death of Parantaka Chola (p. 156).

Vinayakapala II, Pratlhara (p. 37).

Gan^araditya, Chola (p. 157).

Rashtrakuta interregnum in Tondamandalam
(p. 156).

Mahendra IV, Ceylon (pp. 171, 210, 212).

Mahlpala II. Pratlhara (p. 36).

Badapa, son of Yuddhamalla, drives out Amma
II (p. 139).

Krishna III, Rashtrakuta, places Badapa on
Vengi throne (p. 15).

Construction of the temple of Harshanatha by
Simhanaja, Chahamana (p. 107).

Sundara Chola or Parantaka II, Chola (p. 157).

Indra-varman III of Champa sends seven em¬
bassies to China (p. 426).

Abhimanyu, Kashmir (p. 114)*

514

CHRONOLOGY

c 959
960
c.960
960

960-974
960-1279
916, 962

c.963

964

965

966

c. 966

.967

968

969-979

970

c. 970-1000
971, 72, 74, 75

971
971

971
c.972

972

972 Sept.
972-973

972-979

973

Somadeva composes Yasastilaka-champu (pp.
188, 295).

San-fo-tsi (Sailendra) sends an embassy to
China (p. 414).

Beginning of the rule of Song dynasty in China
(p. 422).

Maha Pumna by Pushpadanta (p. 198).

Marasimha III, W. Gahga (p. 162).

Song dynasty in China (p. 444).

San-fo-tsi (Sailendra) sends embassies to China
(p. 414).

Second Rishtrakuta expedition led by Krishna
III into northern India (pp. 15, 38).

300 Chinese monks start for India on a twelve
year pilgrimage (p. 444).

Completion of Maha Purdna by Pushpadanta
(p. 218).

157 Buddhist monks pay imperial homage to
the holy places in India in pursuance of the
appeal by the Chinese emperor (p. 444).

Bhattotpala’s commentary on BrihaUsamhitd
(p.* 200).

Accession of Khottiga, Rashtrakuta (p. 15).

Dinh Bo Linh, Annamese chief, founds an in¬
dependent kingdom to the north of Champa
(p. 426).

Death of Rajendra-varman, and accession of his
son Jaya-varman V, Kambuja (p. 421).

Sena V, Ceylon (p. 171).

Danamava slays his younger brother Amma II
(p. i.39).

Yayati Mahasivagupta, SomavaihsI (p. 147).

San-fo-tsi sends embassies to China (p. 414).

Chamimtjaraja of Jhalwar (p. 96).

Regular shipping house opened at Canton (p.
414).

44th Indian monks visit China (p. 444).

Taila II, Chalukya, puts an end to the Rashtra¬
kuta supremacy in Kuntala (p. 86).

Death of Abhimanyu, Kashmir (p. 121).

Slyaka, Paramara, captures and plunders the
Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed (pp. 15, 96,
218).

Death of Khottiga, Rashtrakuta (p. 15).

Dhanapala composes Paiyalachchhl (p. 187,
218).

Paramesvara-varman of Champa sends no less
than six embassies to China (p. 426).

Dharmadeva, a monk of Nalanda, received by
the Chinese emperor with great honour (p.

444).

Vigraharaja II, Chahamana (p. 107).

515

973

973- 985

974
c.974

974- 995

974-985

975
975

977

978- 1036

978

979

979- 1027
c.980

980

980,83

980- 1015
982

982

982-1011

983

984

985

985-1016

985-1024

987

c.988

989

c.989

990

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANABJ

Taiia II, Chalukya, rebels against Karkka.
Eashtraku|a (p. 16),

Ja^a Choda-Bhima kills Danamava in battle
and makes himself king of Vehgi (p. 139).

Uttama Chola (p. 157).

Taiia defeats Mhrasimha, Gahga (p. 16).

Death of Marasimha, W. Gahga (p, 164).

Composition of Mritasanjivini by Haiayudha
in honour of Muhja, Paramara (p. 190).

Rachamalla or Rajamalla IV, W. Gahga (p.
162).

Death of Tribhuvana, Kashmir (p. 121).

Vijayasiihha composes Bhuvaruisundan-katha
(p. 210).

Saktikumara, Guhila (p. 109).

Vajradaman (p. 86).

Bhaskara Ravivarman (p. 165).

Chamunda Raya composes charmindardya
Parana (p. 162).

Naval expedition of Paramos vara- varman of
Champa (p. 426).

Death of Dinh Bo Linh, Annamese chief (p.
425).

Mahendra V, Ceylon (p. 172).

Birth of Dlpahkara (Atisa) (p. 448).

Didda kills Bhlmagupta and ascends the throne
of Kashmir (p. 121).

San-fo-tsi sends embassies to China (p. 414).

Vajrahasta Aniyankabhlma, Gahga (p. 143).

Chinese emperor appoints a Board of Trans¬
lators with three Indian scholars at the head
(p. 444).

Le Hoan, Annamese chief, returns with an
immense booty from Champa (p. 426).

Chamunda Raya erects a basti at &ravana
Bejgola (p. 162).

Board of Translators translate more than two
hundred volumes (p. 444).

Chamunda Raya executes a colossal statue of
Gomatesvara at ^ravana Belgola (p. 162).

Udayana composes Tattvasuddhi and Laksha-
ndvali (p. 205 ).

Accession of Rajaraja I, Chola (p. 156).

Rajaraja Chola (p. 144).

Rakkasa Gahga, W. Gahga (p. 163),

Dhamrnaparikkhd of Harishena (p. 220).

Accession of Mahipala I, son of Vigrahapaia
II, Pala (p. 55).

Accession of Vijaya Hari-varman (II) at
Vijaya (p. 427).

Sabuktigln defeats the confederacy of Hindu
chiefs near Lamghan (p. 86).

Java invades San-fo-tsi (Sailendra) (pp. 415
431).

516

CHRONOLOGY

991

991-1015

992

993

995

999

c. 999-1011
c. 1000

c. 1000

c. 1000
c, 1000

1001

1003

1004
1006

1007

1008

1014

1015

&ridhara Bhatla composes Nydyakandali (p.
205),

Period of the literary activity of Abhinava¬
gupta (pp. 206, 301).

Le Hoan, Annamese chief, releases a number
of Cham prisoners (p. 427),

Javanese envoy visits Chinese court (p. 431).

Abhinavagupta composes Bhairava-stotra (p.
194),

Ranna composes Ajita Pur&na (p, 225).

Close of the reign of Mularaja Chaulukya
who abdicated the throne in favour of his
son Chamundaraja (p, 105).

Jayapala, Shahi, annexes the kingdom of
Lohur (p. 114).

Durlabharaja, Chahamana (p, 107).

Rajaraja conquers Vehgl from Jata Choda-
Bhlma (p. 140).

gaktivarman becomes ruler of Vehgl (p. 140).

Jsaktivarman, son of Danarnava (p. 140).

Soddhala, author of Udayasundarlkatlm (p.
189),

End of the reign of Sindhuraja, Paramara .
99).

Bhatta Jagaddhara and Chhichhubhatta from
Kashmir (p. 191).

Ugrabhuti, grammarian (p. 190).

Padmagupta alias Parimala, author of Nava-
sdhasdnkacharita (p. 184).

Death of Jaya-varman V, Kambuja (p. 421).

Death of Sembiyan Mahhdevl, wife of Ganda-
raditya Chola (p. 156).

Death of Dharmadeva, a monk of Nalanda, in
China (p. 444).

San-fo-tsi (^ailendra) sends an embassy to
China without any hindrance from Java (pp.
414, 431).

Death of Didda of Kashmir, and accession of
Samgramaraja (p. 121).

Cholas capture Talakad (p. 163).

Destruction of Java by a great catastrophe
according to a record of Airlangga (p. 432).

Nirbhaya rules jointly with Rudra in Nepal
(p. 59).

Death of Dharmavamsa of Java (p. 432).

Close of the reign of Chamundaraja, Chau¬
lukya, according to Gujarat chroniclers (p.
105).

Dharmaparlkshd of Amitagati (p. 220).

Chola embassy visits the imperial court at
China (p. 445).

Abhinavagupta composes Pratyabhijndvimar -
sini (p. 194).

517

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

1015- 1016

1016- 1019
1019-1038
1022

1027-1039

1031

1033

1036

1038, April 9

1039-1042

1042-1046

1046-1048

1048-1054

1053

1054- 1055

1055- 1110
1069

1077

1079

1080-1101

1123-1140

1159

1178

1210-1236
c. 1211

Kamarnava, Ganga (p. 143).

Gun^ama, Ganga (p. 143).

Madhukamarpava, Ganga (p. 143, 144).

Three Bodh-Gaya inscriptions refer to the con¬
struction of stone stupas by three Chinese
monks (p. 445).

Vikramabdhu, Ceylon (p. 173).

Accession of Vyasa, Kalachuri (p. 94).

Another Choja embassy to China (p. 445).

Bodh-Gaya ins. recording the construction of
a stupa in honour of emperor T’ai-tsong (p.
445).

Visit of nine Indian monks to China (p. 445).

Close of the long and intimate cultural inter¬
course between India and China (p. 445).

Coronation of Vajrahasta Anantavarman,
Ganga (p. 141).

Mahallnaklrti, Ceylon (p. 173).

Jagatlpala, Ceylon (p. 173).

Parakrama or Par§kramapan$ya, Ceylon ( p.
173).

Lokesvara, Ceylon (p. 174).

Death of Dipahkara or Atisa (p. 449).

Kesadhatu Ka£yapa, Ceylon (p. 174).

Vijayabahu I, Ceylon (pp. 174, 211).

Namisadhu’s commentary on Rudrata’s Rcivya-
lamkdra (p. 186).

Chola embassy to China (p. 445).

King Sodhadeva, Kalachuri (p. 94).

Harsha, Kashmir (p. 113).

Dhananjaya, Srutaldrti, author of Ndmamalq,
(p. 184).

Sarvananda, commentator of Amarako&a (p.
190).

Chou Ku-fei, Chinese author, refers to Quilon
as an important centre of trade with China
(p 445 )

Sultan Iltutmish (p. 114).

Muhammad ‘Aufi (p. 113).

518

GENEALOGY

1 . Rashtrakutas of Malkhed

Karkka I

Indra I 2. Krishna I

1. Dantidurga 3. Govinda II 4. Dhruva

Stambha Karkka 5. Govinda III Indra (of

Gujarat branch)

6. Amoghavarsha I (or Sarva)

7. Krishna II d. Chandrobalabbe (m. Butuga)

' l '

Jagattunga

8. Indra III 11. Amoghavarsha III

l l

I l l I l

9. Amoghavarsha II 10. Govinda IV 12. Krishna III 13. Kho^iga Nirupama

' l ' l

X 14. Karkka II

15. Indra IV

2. Rashtrakutas: Gujarat Branch

1. Indra

2. Karkka Suvarnavarsha Govinda

3. Dhruva I Dharavarsha

4. Akalavarsha

5. Dhruva II

Govinda

6. Dantivarman

7. Krishnaraja.

519

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

3. The Pratlharas

1. Nagabhata I

2. Kakkuka

3. Devaraja

4. Vatsaraja

5. Nagabhata II (or Nagavaloka)

6. Ramabhadra

7. Bhoja (Prabhasa, Adivaraha, or Mihira)

DehanagadevI

9. Bhoja II

= 8. Mahendrapala = MahldevI (or Mahldevl)
(Mahendrayudha,

Nirbhayanarendra,
or Nirbhayaraja)

10. Vinayakapala I
(Mahlpala. Kshitipala or
Herambapala)

11. Mahendrapala II 12. Devapala

13. Vinayakapala II

14. Mahlpala II

15. Vijayapala

♦

16. Rajyapala

17. Trilochanap&la
18 (?) Yasahpala.

(N.B. — For the different views about the relationship of kings
Nos. 13-15, cf. above, p. 37 f).

4. The Palas

Dayitavishnu

Vapyata

. I

2. Dharmapala

1. Gopala

3. Devapala

Vakpala

Jayapala

4. Vigrahapala I

520

GENEALOGY

5. Narayanapala

6. Rajyapala

7. Gopala II

8. Vigrahapala II

9. Mahlpala I

1. Salambha (or Pralambha)

2. Harjara-varman

3. Vanamala-varman

4. Jayamala (Viravahu)

5. Bala-varman
♦

(? Tyagasimha)

1. Raghavadeva

2. Jayadeva

3. Vikramadeva

4. Narendradeva
♦

5. Gunakamadeva I
*

6. Udayadeva

7. Nirbhayadeva and Kudradeva

7. Karas of Utkala (See above, p. 63)

8. Bhanjas of Khinjali (See above, p. 69)

9. Bhanjas of Khijjinga (See above, p. 74)

19. Sulkis (See above, p. 77)

5. Kamarupa

6. Nepal1

521

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

11. Tungas

Raja Jagattuhga
Salanatunga

Gayatfatunga

12. Mayuravamsa

Uditavaraha

Tejavaraha

Udayavaraha

13. Nandas (See above, p. 78)

14. Chandellas of Kharjuravahaka

1. Nannuka

2. Vakpati

3. Jayasakti (alias Jejjaka)

(d. Natta=m. Kokkalla I)

. . — j

4. Vijayasakti (alias Vijjaka)

5. Rahila

6. Harsha

7. Yasovarman (alias Lakshavarman)

8. Dhahga

9 Ganda

15. Kalachuris of Tripurl

1. Kokkalla (m. Natta, d. of Ch and ell a Jayasakti)

! - I ~~~ 1

2. Sankaragana (alias Sankila) Arjuna d. (=m. Rashtrakuta Krishna II)

l ' I I

3. Balaharsha 4. Yuvaraja I (alias d. (=m. Rash^rakuta

Keyuravarsha) Jagattunga)

5. Lakshnianara j a

_ ! _

■ ■■■■■ ■ - . . — » - — ■ ■ — - - ■ - — ■ ■ I — ■ .1 .m.. . ■

6. 6ahkaragana EC 7. Yuvaraja II

8. Kokkalla II

522

GENEALOGY

16. Kalachuris of Sarayupara.2

1. Rajaputra

2. &ivaraja I

3. Sahkaragsqia I

4. Gunambhodhideva (altos Guixasagara I)

5. Ullabha 6. Bhamanadeva I

7. ^ankaragana II (alias Mugdhatunga)

8. Gunasagara II

S. ^ivaraja II Bhamana 12. Vyasa

I l

10. Sahkaragana HI 13. So^liadeva

11. Bhlma

17. Malayaketus of Vijayapura.

1. Maharaj adhiraj a Jayaditya I

2. „ Bharmaditya

3. „ Jayaditya H

18. Paramaras of Malava.

1. Upendra ( alias Krishnaraja)

_ _ I _ .

r i

2. Vairisimha I Pambaraslmha • (ruled in Vaga$a)

3. Slyaka 1

4. V&kpati I

5. Vairisimha II ( alias Vajra^a)

6. Slyaka II (alias Harsha)

I l

7. Munja (alias Utpala, 8- Sindh uraja (alias

alias Vakpatiraja) KuinaranSrayaja, alias

I ] Navasahaganka)

I 1 i ( ,

Arpoiaja Chandone #. Bhoja Dusala

528

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Paramaras of Yagada.

pambarasimha

Dhanika

Kamka or Chachcha
Chancapa

Saindhavas of Saurashtra.

1. Pushyadeva

2. Krishna raj a I

3. Agguka I

4. Kanaka I

! I

5. Krisknaraja II 7. Jaika

l ‘ J

6. Agguka II |

8. Chamundaraja

11. Agguka IV

12. Jaika II

Chalukyas of Saurashtra.

1. Kalla

3. X

4. Vahukadhavala

5. Avanivarman I

6. Baiavarman

7. Avanivarman II (alias Yoga)

Varahas of Suryaman<Jala.

Mahavaraha

Jayavarlha

Chapas of Vardhamana.

1. Vikramarka

2. Ad^aka

3. Pulakesi

9. Agguka HI

10. Kanaka II

Yuvaraja Jaika

Mah alia

4. Dhruvabhata

524

5. Dharanivaraha

GENEALOGY

24. Chapas of Anahilapataka

1. Vanaraja

2. Yogaraja

3. Ratnaditya

4. Kahemaraja

5. Aka^adeva

6. Bhuyadadeva (alias Bhuyagad adeva .
alias Samantasimha)

25. Chaulukyas of Mattamayura

1. Simhavarman

2. Sadhanva

3. Avanivarman

d. Nohala (=m. Kalachuri Yuvaraja I)

26. Chaulukyas of Anahilapataka

1. Mulara j a

2. Chamundamja

. _ L_ _

I I

3. Vallabharaja 4. Durlabharaja

27 . Chaulukyas of Lata

Barappa

Gongiraja

28. Chahamanas of &akambhari3

1. Vasudeva

2. Samanta

3. Piimatalla

l '

4. Jay a raj a

5. Vigraharaja I

7. Gopendraraja

6. Chandra raj a I

8. Durlabharaja

525

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

9. Guvaka (alias Govindaraja I)

10. Chandrarajja II (alias Sasinripa)

i i

11. Guvaka II d. Kalavatl (m. king of Kanauj)

12. Chandana

13. Vakpatiraja

]

14. Simharaja Vatsaraja Lakshmana (founder of the

Naddula branch)

15. Vigraharaja II 16. Durlabharaja ( alias Durlahghyameru)

29. Chahamanas of Nad$u!a

1. Lakshmana

_ L _ 1 _

I !

2. ^obhita Vigrahapala

3. Baliraja 4. Mahendra (alias Mahendu)

5. Asvapala Anahilla

30 . Chahamanas of Dholptir

1. Isuka

2. Mahisharama

3. Chan^amahasena

31 . Chahamanas of Partabgarh

1. Govindaraja

2. Durlabharaja

3. Mahasamanta Indr ana j a
520

GENEALOGY

32 . Guhilas of Mewar4

1. Khommana I ( alias Bappa, alias Kalabhoja)

2. Mattata

3. Bhariripatta I

4. Sixhha

5. Khommana II

6. Mahayaka

7 . Khommana III

8. Bhariripatta II

9. Allata

10. Naravahana

11. §alivahana

12. Saktikumara

Ambaprasada 6uchivarman Naravarman Anantavarman KIrtivarman

33. Guhilas of Dhod5

Guhila I

1. Dhanika

2. Auka

3. Krishna

4. ^ahkaragana

5. Harsha

6. Guhila II

7. Bhatta

8. Baladitya

34. Tomaras

Jaula

1. Vajrata

2. Jajjuka

527

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Purnaraja Devaraja 3. Gogga

Rudrena

35. Hindu Shahis

1. Kallar (alias Lalliya Shahi)

2. Samanta

3. Toramana (alias Kamaluka )

4. Bhlma

Is ht a pa la

5. Jayapala

6. Anandapala

36. Kashmir; Karkota Dynasty

1 . Lalitaditya Muktaplda

_ ! _

I I

2. Kuvalayapuja 3. Vajraditya Bappiyaka

i ‘ i I

4. Prithivyaplda I 5. Samgramaplda I

6; 8 Jayaplda (alias Vinayaditya)

: I

7. Jajja (usurper)

_ l

i i

9. Lalitaplda 10. Samgramapida (alias Prithivyaplda)

• •

11. Chippata Jayaplda (alias Brihaspati) son of 1)

■

12. Utpalaka and 4 others (maternal
uncles of 11)

13. Ajitaplda (gr. son of 3)

14. Anangaplda (son of 10)

15. Utpalaplda (son of 13)

16. Avantivarman
528

GENEALOGY

37. Kashmir: Utpala Dynasty

Utpala (or Utpalaka)

Sukhavarman

— ,

1. Avantivarman Suravarman

I I

i i

2. Sankaravarman (^=5. Sugandha) Sukhavarman

_ I _ _ l

3. Gopalavarman 4. Samkata 7; 8 Nirjitavarman ( alias Pahgu)

r ■ ' i i

6; 11 Partha 9, 12; 14 Chakravarman 10. Suravarman I

I . i

15. Unmattavanti 13. Sambhuvardhana (usurper)

16. Suravarman II

17. Yasaskara

38. Kashmir: Yasaskara Dynasty

Prabhakaradeva

■I

1. Yasaskaradeva

2. Sarhgramadeva

3. Parvagupta

39. Kashmir: Parvagupta Dynasty

Abhinava

Sarhgramagupfca

1. Parvagupta

2. Kshemagupta (=7. Didda)

3. Abhimanyu

5. Tribhuvana 6. Bhlmagupta

7. Didda (w. of No. 2)

8. Samgramaraja (nephew of No. 7)
529

4. Nandigupta

A.I.K. — ‘>L

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

40. Kashmir: Kingdom of Darvabhisara and Lohara6

Khasa Nara

Naravahana

Phulla

Satavahana

Chanda

Chanduraja

Simharaja o£ Lohara

[

Udayaraja

Kantiraja

Gopala

d. Didda (m. Kshemagupta)

41. Chamba: Mushana Dynasty

1. Ajita-varman

2. Suvarna-varman

3. Lakshml-varman

4. Mushana-varman

5. Harhsa-varman

6. Sara-varman

7. Sena-varman

8. Sajjana-varman

8A. (? Mrityuhjaya-varman)

9. Sahilla-varman

10. Yugakara-varman

11. Vidagdha-varman

12. Dodaka-varman

Salavahana

Soma-varman

Asa^a

530

GENEALOGY

42.

43.

44.

Kumaun-Garhwal : Pauravas of Brahmapura.

1. Vishnuvarman I

2. Vrishavarman

3. Agnivarman

4. Dyutivarman

5. Vishnuvarman il

Kings of Kumaun and Garhwal

1. Nimbara (m. NasudevI)

2. PMP Ish^aganadeva (m. Vegadevl)

3. PMP Lalitasuradeva

4. Bhudevadeva

1. Salonaditya (of a new dynasty)

2. Ichchhatadeva

3. Desatadeva

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

4. Padmatadeva

l '

5. Subhiksharajadeva

1. Vijayaditya I

2. Vishnuvardhana IV

3. Vijayaditya II Bhima-Salukki Nripamdra

4. Vishnuvardhana V (alias Kali Vishnuvardhana, etc.)

5. Vijayaditya III Ayyaparaja Vikramaditya (I) Yuddhamalla I

! I

6. Chalukva Bhlma I 10. Tala (or Tadapa, etc.)

_ j _ i

I j 13. Malla or Yuddhamalla

7. Vijayaditya IV 11. Vikramaditya (II) \

16. Badapa 17. Tala (II)

8. Amma I 14. Chalukya Bhlma II

9, Vijayaditya V 12. Bhlma II 19. Danarnava 15; 18. Amma II Kama

: r

20. Ja|a Choda Bhlma f

21. Saktivarman

531

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

45. Eastern Gangas

1. Devendravarman II

2. Raj endravarman I

3. Anantavarman II 4. Devendravarman III

_ _j _ _

i i

5. Rajendravarman II 6. Satyavarman 7. Anantavarman III

8. Bhupendravarman Marasimha

9. Devendravarman IV

46. Greater Gangas (Earlier Account)

1. Gunamahamava

2. Vajrahasta

_ ! _

I i i

3. Gundama 4. Kamamava 5. Vinayaditya

6. Vajrahasta-Aniyankabhlma

f I I

7. Kamamava 8. Gundama 9. Madhukamarnava

• • • •

47. Greater Gangas (Later Account)

1. Virasimha

1 1 i i ,, i

2. Kamamava I 3. Danamava Gunarnava I Marasimha Vajrahasta

4. Kamamava II

5. Ranamava

l '

6. Vajrahasta II 7. Kamamava III

8. Gunarnava II (Gunamahamava in the
preceding account)

_ _ _ ! _

r~. r i i . i

9. Potankusa X 11. Gundama 12. Kamamava IV 13. Vinayaditya

I I

10. Kaligalahkusa 14. Vajrahasta III (Vajrahasta-Aniyankabhlma,

No. 6 in the preceding account)

532

GENEALOGY

48. Gangas of §vetak?

Jayavarman

Samantavarman

1. Mahmdravarmari

2. Prithvlvarman

_ _j _

i I

3. Indravarman 4. Danarnava

K ailas a

Bhupendravarman

Devendravarman

49. Kadambas of Jayantyapura

Niyamava

Bhlmakhedi

Dharmakhedi

! I

Udayaditya Bhlmakhedi

50. Somavarrisls of Kosala

6ivagupta

Janamejaya Mahabhavagup I

Yayati Mahasivagupta I

51. Pallavas7

1. Nandi- var man II Pallavamalla

2. Danti-varman

3. Nandi- varman III Tellarrerinda

4. Nripatunga-varman

5. Aparajita

583

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

52. Chojas of Tan j ore

1. Vijayalaya

2. Aditya I

i — I

3. Parantaka I Kannaradeva

1 _

l - 1 — p— - - , _

Rajaditya 4. Gandaraditya Arikesari Uttamasili 5. Arinjaya

7. Utiama Chola 6, Sundara Chola (or Parantaka II)

i _ I _

Madhurantaka Gandaraditya

Aditya II 8. Rajaraja I

53. Pandyas8

1. Maravarman Rajasimha I

2. Nedunjadaiyan (Parantaka, Ja^ila, or

Maranj adaiy an)

3. §rimara ^rivallabha

' l

4. Varaguna II

5. Parantaka VIranarayana (brother of 4)

6. Maravarman Rajasimha II

7. Vira Pandya

54. Western Gangas: Main Line

1. Srlpurusha

_ I _ .

i i n ~n „

2. Sivamara II Vijayaditya Duggs agella

M .JL. .i.,

(Collateral line)

4. I^Itimarga I

_ A _

! 1

5. Rajamalla II Butuga I

6. Nitimarga II

i ’ r a

7. Narasimha 8. Rajamalla III 9. Bufiiga XI

_ l

i i .

10. Maruladeva 11. Marasirhha III

12. Rachamalia (or Rajamalla IV)

584

13. Rakkasa Gahga

GENEALOGY

55. Western Gangas: Collateral Line

Sivaimra

l " l

Marasimha Prithivlpati I

' !

Marasimha II

Prithivlpati II

• %■

Butuga II of the Main. Line

56 . B arias

Vikramaditya I Bana or Banavidyadhara

Vijayaditya

Vikramaditya II
Vikramaditya III

57. Nolambas

Sihgapota

Polachora

Mahendra I

NItimarga II (Mahendrantaka)

\ |

Nanni Nolamba

58. Vaidumbas

Irigaya

Ganda Trine tra
' •

gandayan Tiruvayan I

Sandayan Tiruvayan II alias ^iikan^ha

585

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

59 . Ceylon

1. Agrabodhi VI

2. Agrabodhi VII (brother of 1)

3. Mahendra II Silameghavarna (son of 1)

4. Udaya (or Dappula II)

5. Mahendra III Silameghavarna

6. Agrabodhi VIII (brother of 5)

7. Dappula II (or III) (brother of 6)

8. Agrabodhi IX

9. Sena Silamegha (brother of 8)

10. Sena II (nephew of 9)

11. Udaya II (or I) Silameghavarna (brother of 10)

12. Kasyapa IV Srisanghabodhi (brother of 11)

13. Kasyapa V Abhaya Silameghavarna (son of 10)

14. Dappula III (or IV) (probably stepbrother of 13)

15. Dappula IV (or V) Silameghavarna (probably brother of 14)

16. Udaya HI (or II) (nephew of 10)

17. Sena III (probably brother of 16)

18. Udaya IV (or III)

19. Sena IV

20. Mahendra IV Srisanghabodhi (probably brother of 19)

21. Sena V

22. Mahendra V (brother of 21)

23. Vikramabahu

24. Kirti

25. Mahalanaklrti

26. Vikramapandya

27. Jagatlpala

♦

Parakramapandya (? son of 26)

60. Kambuja

1. Jaya-varman II

2. Jaya-varman III

•

3. Indra-varman

4. Yaso-varman.

5. Harsha-varman I 6. Isana-varman II

7. Jaya-varman IV (husband of a sister of 4)

8. Harsha-varman II

9. Rajendra-varman (son of another sister of 4)

10. Jaya-varman V

536

GENEALOGY

61 . Champa: Dynasty of Panduranga

1. Prithivlndra-varman

2. Satya-varman (sister’s son of 1)

3. Indra-varman (brother of 2)

4. Hari-varman (sister’s husband of 3)

5. Vikranta-varman III

62. Champa: Bhrigu Dynasty

1. Indra-varman II

2. Jayasiihha-varman

3. Jayasakti-varman

4. Bhadra-varman III

5. Indra-varman III

6. Paramesvara-varman

7. Indra-varman IV

8. Lu’u-Ky-Tong (Annamite usurper)

9. Vijaya £rl Hari-varman II

10. Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Sri

63. Central Java: Kingdom of Mataram

1. Sannaha

2. Sanjaya

3. Balitung (Dharmodaya Mahasambhu)

4. Dakshottama

5. Tulodong

6. Wawa

64. Eastern Java: Dynasty of Sindok

1 . Sindok (Sri Isana-Vikrama Dharmottungadeva)

_ ' !

2. Sri fsanatungavijay^ (daughter of 1)

3. Sri Makutavarhsa-vardhana

Dharmavamsa

537

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

NOTES ON GENEALOGY

1. Cf. Bendall’s Historical Introduction to Sastri’s Catalogue of Palm-leaf and
selected nap er MSS belonging to the Durbar Library , Nepal, p. 21.

2. According to Bh. List , p. 403, Vyasa (No. 12) was the son of Sankaragana III
No. 10) and step-brother of Bhima (No. 11).

3. Cf. DHNI, II. 1062, 1137. Contra , Bh. List, p. 381, where Purnatalla (No. 3) is
omitted, and Vindhyanripati is inserted between Nos. 13 and 14.

4. Cf. Bh. List, pp. 388-9.

5. Cf. DHNI, II. 1208. Bh. List, pp. 390-1, shows no relationship between Nos. 2
and 3.

6. Cf. Stein, RT, I, Introduction, App. II, p. 145.

7. Cf. K. A. N. Sastri, History of India, I. 300.

8. Cf. op. c it., p. 299.

538

INDEX

’Abbasid Caliphs, 125, 126, 127, 128, 152.
Abboka, 205.

Abhayadeva, 293.

Abhayagirivihara, 175.

Abhayakaragupta, 273.

Abhidhamma, 210, 211, 212.
Abhidhana-ratnamala, 189, 376, 377, 384,
387, 389, 390, 400, 401, 405.
Abhidharma, 274.

Abhidhdvrttimatrika , 195.

Abhimanyu (k. of Kashmir), 114, 120, 121.
Abhixianda, 183.

Abhinanda (Gauda), 183, 184.

Abhinava, 120.

Abhinavagupta, 179, 182, 183, 191, 192,
194, 195. 206, 231 (n), 301, 304, 363 (n).
Abkhas, 91, 101, 102/104 213, 214, 215.
Abliisamaydlankara, 271.
Abhisamaydlankaraloka, 274.
Abhisamayavibhanga, 268.
Abhisarikdvanchitaka (or bandhitaka ).
179.

Abhisheka, 319.

Abhitvaramdna , 243.

Abu (Mount), 94, 97, 104, 108, 298.
Abu-al- Ala’al-ma’arri, 452.

Abu Zaid Hasan, 403, 405, 413. 414.
Achalapura, 135, 220.

Acharyas, 258, 259, 311, 313, 334.

Addb u l Muluk wa Kijayat ul Mamluk,
114.

Adam’s Bridge — See also Setu, 1.
Addaka, 103.

A^danaka-desa, 103.

Adhdrakarikds, 207.

Adhikdrins, 246.

Adhijakshas, 243.

Adi-Bhanja, 74.

Adi Buddha~See also primordial Buddha,
Adinatha, Vajra, 262, 263, 266, 267,
278.

Adigamans (of Tagadur), 158, 164.
Adinatha — See also primordial Buddha,
Adi Buddha, Vajra, 262.

Adinatha, Sri (Jain), 296.

Adipurdna, 11, 183, 224.

Adi-sakti, 310.

Adisesha, 207 , 231(n), 301.

Aditya(s) (god), 335, 336, 350.

Aditya I (Chola k.), 12, 152, 153, 154,
159, 164, 165, 167.

Aditya II, 157, 159.

Aditya Purdna, 366, 388, 409 (n).
Adityagrihas, 334.

Adivaraha (Pratlhara. Bhoja I), 32.
Advaita- Vedanta, 302, 304, 313, 360.
Advayasiddhi, 269.

Advayavdda, 266.

Aeneid, 225.

Afghanistan, 113, 115.

Agama, 316, 317.

Agamanta £aivism, 310.

Agamapramanya, 206.

Agamas, (Saiva), 308, 317, 324, 338, 349,
438.

Agamism, Tamil, 338.

Agastya, 419, 428, 438.

Agguka I, 99, 100.

Agguka II, 100.

Agguka III, 100.

Agguka IV, 101.

Aghani, 452.

Aghata, 97, 109, 110.

Aghora-murti, 308, 310.

Agni, 237, 331, 336, 363 (n).

Agnikula, 39.

Agni Purdna, 203, 238, 254(n), 255(n),
332, 372, 376, 389, 399 (n), 401, 402,
409(n).

Agnita, 299.

Agnivarman, 125.

Agnivesa, 199.

Agra, 111.

Agrabodhi VI, 169.

Agrabodhi VII, 169.

Agrabodhi VIII, 169.

Agrabodhi IX, 169.

Ahar, 97, 110.

Ahavamalla, 227, 377.

Ahirnsd, 258, 294.

Ahmadabad District, 105.

Aihole caves, 329, 330, 332, 334.

Airavata -mandala, 78.

Airlangga, 432.

Aiyangar, S. K. Comm. Vol 56(n).
Aja-EIkapada, 311.

Ajanta (sculpture), 176, 177.

Ajapala, 148.

Ajita, 210;

Ajita Maitreyanatha, 271.

Ajitanatha, 297.

Ajitaplda, 116.

Ajita Purdna, 225, 291.

Ajita-Sdnti-stava, 210.

Ajitasena, 290.

Ajita-varman, 122.

Ajmere, 27, 87, 108, 313.

Aka^adeva (Chapa k.), 103.
Akala-jalada, 180.

Akalarika, 288, 293, 354, 264(n).
Akalavarsha (Gujarat Rashfrakuta),
10.

Akala-varsha (Krishna I), 3.
Akalavarsha (Krishna II), 11.
Akalavarsha (Krishna III), 14.

589

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Akdsagarbkasutra, 275.

Akr uresvara - vishaya , 40 ( n ) .

Akshapatala, 244.

Aksharabhyasa, 366.

Aksharasvikriti, 366.

Akshobhya, ’281, 282, 283 , 284, 285, 288.
Alaka, 183.

Alakhana, 112, 118.

Alakshml, 344.

Alamkdra, 191.

Alamkarasarasamgraka, 191.
Alamkdrasarvasvo, 195.

Alamkdrasastra, 191.

Alas grant, 133.

Alas plates, 18 (n.).

Ala vi-rash tra, 422.

Alheruni’s India, 453 (n).

Al-Birunl. 113, 131 (n), 200, 413, 450.
Alfazari, 450.

Algebra, 451.

All, 424.

At-Idrisi, 127.

Alillaha — See also Pajjhatikd, 217.

A1 Istakhrl, 18(n), 128.

Al-Jahlz, 452.

Alla 239, 241.

Allahabad, 36.

Allahabad pillar inscription, 124.

Alla$a (Guhila k.), 109.

Al-Mahdi, 127.

Al-Ma’mun, 106, 126, 127, 128.

Al-Mansur, 125, 126, 127, 450, 452.

A1 Mas’udI, 17, 35, 128, 242, 255 (n), 389,
391, 392, 398(n), 402, 404, 405, 413,
414.

Almora, 123, 124, 125.

Alor, 127, 128.

Alptigin, 122.

Altekar, Dr. A. S., 40(n), 41 (n), 43(n),
105, 140, 177 (n) , 255(n), 288, 411(n)
Alunganam, 249.

Aluvakheda, 164.

Alvars, 227, 228, 258, 292, 312.

Alwar, 37.

Ama, 290.

Amalanathippiran, 227.

Amara, 199, 316.

Amaradatta, 189.

Amarakosa, 189, 190, 199, 316.

Amaravatl — See also ^ridhanyakataka,
175, 262.

Amdtyas, 241.

Ambaprasada (Guhila), 110.

Ambashthas, 372.

Ambavadi-ris/iat/a (District), 143.
Ambavalli (in Farlakimedi District), 143.
Ambika, 299, 300, 340, 341.

Ambur Inscription, 167.

Amitabha, 279, 280, 281, 282, 287.
Amitagati, 98, 220.

Amma I (E. Chalukya k.), 13, 137.
Amma (raja) II, 15, 138, 139, 291.
Amoda (plates), 130(n).

Amoghakalasa, 70.

Amoghasiddha, 282, 284, 286.
Amoghavajra, 263.

Amoghavarsha I (or Sarva)— See also
Nripatunga, 8-11, 12, 17, 28, 30, 31,
51, 57(n), 87, 88, 95, 134, 149, 151,
161, 166, 168, 190, 200, 223, 290, 291,
294, 363(n), 407.

Amoghavarsha II, 13, 18 (n), 137.
Amoghavarsha III, 43-14, 89, 162.
Amoghavarsha, (Munja), 97.
Amoghavritti, 11, 190, 294.

Amraoti District, 220. .

‘Amr ibn Layth, 113.

Amritabhanu, 183.

Amritachandra, 294.

Amrita*guhya, 274.

Amritakara (monastery), 272,
Amritakumbha, 270.

Amru bin Jamal, 99.

Amurtta-sadakhya, 310.

Anahilanagara, 104.

Anahilapataka, 91, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105.
Anahilapattana, 104.

Anahilapura, 104.

Anahilavada, 104, 289, 290.

Anahilla (Chahamana), 108.

Anakapalie Inscription, 136.

Ananda, 187, 193, 210, 211.

Anandagarbha, 274.

Anandagiri, 345, 365(n).

Anandakathd, 193.

Anandapala (Shahiya), 114.
Anandavardhana, 117, 181. 185, 186, 191,
193, 194, 195, 197, 198.

Anangaplda, 116.

Anangavajra, 266, 269.

Ananta (scholar), 446.

Ananta (Vishnu), 125, 142.

Anantadeva, 354.

Anantagochara, 107.

Anantavarman, 110, 150.

Ananta. -varman II, 140, 141.
Ananta-varman-Chodaganga, 141, 142,

145.

Ananta-varman (also called Kolahala),
142, 144.

Anargha-rdghav a, 180, 181.

Anartta, 24, 41 (n).

Anehalagaehchha, 296.

Andhaka, 183.

Andhakasura, 309.
Andhakasuravadha-murti, 309.

Andhaka vadha, 342.

Andhra (desa), 24, 25, 86, 88, 138, 163,
291 370.

Ahgaj 9, 11, *53, 57(n), 86, 401.

Ahgaddi, 70.

Angas, 152.

Ahgiras, 373, 395(n).

Angirasas, 334.

Angkor, 416, 417, 420, 421, 441.

Angkor Thom, 417, 420.

Angul, 68, 71.

Angul plate, 67.

Ahguiimalaparitta, 360 ( n ) .

Aninditapura, 416, 419.

Aniruddha, 332.

AnkidevI, 138.

540

INDEX

Anklesvar taluk, 40(n),

Annam, 414, 416, 422, 426.

Antarala. 176.

Antarvedi, 323.

Antiquities of Tibet, 79(n).

Antirigan CP., 81(n).

Antroli-Chharoli plates, 41 (n).
Anugraha-murti, 307.

Anunyasa, 190.

Anuradhapura, 172, 174, 175, 176.
Anuruddha, 211.

Anuttarayoga, 263, 265, 268.
Anuttarayoga tantrOr-See also Yoga
tantra , 260, 264.

Aparajita (Pallava king), 153, 159, 166,
167.

Aparajita (Silahara k.), 98.

Aparajita (Buddhist pantheon), 284, 287,
345, 348.

Aparanta, 99.

Apararka, 203, 370, 392(h), 393(n), 394
(n), 395 (n), 396(n), 398(n), 399(n),
409(n).

Apashmarapurusha, 306.

Appar, 292.

Arab account of India, 32.

Arab Geographers f Knowledge of South¬
ern India, 56(n).

Arab Governors of Sindh, 87.

Arabia, 402.

Arabic, 449, 450, 451, 452.

Arabs, 19, 20, 21, 32, 40, 42(n), 52, 99,-
100, 106, 109, 115, 125-9, 165, 171,
352, 377, 380, 382, 386, 389, 391, 401,
402, 403, 404, 405, 408, 413, 414, 415,
419, 423, 444, 446, 451.

Arabs in India, history of, 125-129.
Arakan, 432.

Arama, 147.

Aramudi, 58, 116, 131 (n).

Aranyaraja (Paramara), 97.

Arapachana, 281.

Arasalar, 152.

Arathi, 79 (n), 243.

Arbuda, 323.

Arcot Dt., 14, 142, 166, 312.
Ardhamagadhi, 213.

Ardhamantfapa, 176.

Ardhanarlsvara, 305, 330, 332.
Ardhanarlsvara- murti, 306.

Arichit, 159.

Arikesari, 224, 225.

Arikesari Maravarman, 158.

Arikesarin, 189.

Arikesarin II (Chalukya king), 137.
Arikulakesari, 155.

Ann 452.

Arihjaya Chola, 155, 157, 164, 165.

Arisil, 152.

Arithmetic, 451.

Arjuna (legend), 307.

Arjuna (Kalachuri prince), 89.
Arjunacharita , 194.

Arkonam, 335.

Arokiaswami, M., 165(n).

Arthasastra, 186, 443.

Aruna, 350.

Aryabhata II, 200.

Arya-desa, 120, 369, 419
Aryadeva, 359, 360(n)

Aryamba, 304.

Aryavarta, 35, 323.

Asaga, 183.

Asahaya, 204.

A sana- Vishnu, 313. .

Asanga, 259, 260, 266, 268, 360(n).
Asapuri, goddess, 107.

Asata, 123.

Ascharya-Chuddmani (or Chuddmani),
180.

Ashta-Lakshml, 341.

Ashtanga, 451.

A <:hta settle

Asia, Central, 261, 263, 405, 409, 444, 445.
Asia, South-East, 409, 412.

Asitahga, 308.

Aska, 73.

Asni Inscription, 40(n), 42(n).

Asokanta Marlchl, 284.

Asoka-srimitra, 274.

Assam, — See also Uddiyana, 50, 53, 58,
60-61, 323, 335, 361(n), 404.

Asutosh Museum, Calcutta University,
277, 352.

Asvaghosha, 215, 360(n).

Asvapala (Chahamana k.), 108.

Atakur Inscription, 156.

Atanadyaparitta, 360(n).

Athmallik State, 71.

Atichandika, 344, 364 (n).

Atiriktanga Bhairava, 308.

Atlsa, 448, 449, 453(n).

Atisaya-dhavala (Amoghavarsha I), 8.
Atkinson, E. T., 132 (n)

Atmatattvaviveka , 205.

Atreya gotra, 141.

Atri, 142, 373, 395(n), 452.

Attili Inscription, 136.

Attimebbe, 292.

Attock, 112.

Auka, 110.

Aurangabad Dist. (Mulaka), 17 (n).
Ausanasa-smriti, 373, 395(n).
Avalokitesvara, 176, 187. 261, 262-263,
277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 311, 341,
361 (n).

Avalon, 326, 361 (n).

Avanijanasraya, 2.

Avani-naranan, 151.

Avanisulamani, 158.

Avanivarman I, 101.

Avanivarman II, (Yoga), 101, 102, 103.
Avanivarman Yogaraja II, 96.
Avanivarman (Chaulukya k. of Mat-
tamayura), 90,. 104.

Avanti, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 46, 95, 106,
213, 323, 390,

Avanti, 213.

Avunti-bhubhrit, 21.

Avantisundari, 180, 368.

541

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

- A vanti- carman (k. of Kashmir), 116,
117, 119. 178, 182, 183, 187, 193, 195,
206, 245, 363 (n), 369.

Avantivarman (Maukhari), 178.
Avatdras, 258.

Awadh (Oudh), 32, 33.

Ayodhya, 173.

Ayogava, 373.

Ayo-vel, 158.

Ayuktas, 255 (n).

Ayyaparaja, 135.

Ayyappa (k.. of Nolamba-rashtra), 137,
138.

Ayyar, V. Venkatasubba, 165 (n), 184.

Babylonians, 450.

Badal Pillar Inscription, 55.

Badami caves, 329, 330, 331, 313, 332.
Badami Chalukyas — See Chalukyas of
Vatapi.

Badapa (k. of Vengl), 15, 139, 140.
Baddega, 135, 136, 137.
Baddhapadmdsana, 276, 277, 281.
Baden-Powell, 241.

Badnawar, 22, 41 (n).

Badulla Buddha, 176.

Badyema-Maharaja, 140.

Bagala, 344.

Bagchi, Dr. P. C., 216, 231 (n).

Bagenad, 14.

Bagesvar, 123.

Bagesvar inscription, 123, 124.

Baghdad, 35, 128, 446, 449, 450, 451, 452.
Baghelkhand, 90.

Bagmati (river), 47.

Bahlika, 405.

Bahraich, 93, 94.

Bahugrama, 369.

Bahur (place), 156, 369.

Bahur Plates, 152. *

Baihaki, 113.

Baijnath (city), 123.

Bairhatta, 334.

Bakarganj Dt., 54, 330.

Balabhadra, 200.

Balabharata, 180, 181.

Balabodhihi, 191.

Baladeva (deity), 341.

Baladeva (king), 205.

Baladliikrita, 240, 244, 245.

Baladhyaksha, 243, 244.

Baladhuri, 127.

Baladitya (Guhila k.), 111.
Bala-Ganapati, 345.

Balaghat District, 88, 135.

Balaharsha (Kalachuri k.), 89.

Balakrida, 203.

Balaprasada, 131 (n).

Balaputradeva, 52, 274, 413, 415.
Balarama, 331, 332.

Bdlardmayana, 180, 181.

Balarjuna, 150.

Balasore, 61, 69.

Balavarman, 101.

Balavarman (k. of Kamarupa), 60, 61.
Balavatdratarka., 275.

Balesvar, temple of, 124.

Balhara, 17.

Balharas of Manklr, 171.

Balhikd, 213.

Bali, 332, 430, 431, 434, 435.

Balipura, 291.

Baliraja (Chahamana), 97, 108.

Balitung, 428.

Balkh, 405.

Ballaha-raya, 17.

Ballaladeva Velabhata, 139.

Balmer, 97.

Bamra, 78.

Bana, 183, 185, 186, 187, 209, 217, 316,
398(n).

Banadhiraja, 155, 161.

Banaras, 8, 36, 86, 105, 403.

Banaras CP. cf Kama, 110.

Banas, 151, 152, 155^ 161, 163, 164, 166,
256 (n).

Banavasi, 14, 92, 162, 225, 255(n), 291.
Banavidyadhara — See also Vikramaditya
I (Bana), 163, 166.

Banda District, 83, 130 (n).

Banerjee, P., 80 (n).

Banerji, R. D., 76, 80(n), 81(n), 362(n),
363 ( n ) .

Bangadh Grant of Mahlpala, 55.
Bahkeya, 10.

Bankura District, 331.

Banswara, 95.

Ba Phnom hill, 416.

Bappa, 109.'

Bappabhatti, 185, 293.

Barabhum, 297.

Barabudur, 416, 436, 440, 441.

Barada (Barda), 99.

§arah, 28, 29. 40(n), 41(n).

Baramula, 118.

Barappa, 97, 98, 99, 104, 105.

Barbara, 370.

Barda hills, 99, 100.

Bargaon, 79(n).

Bari Kot, 114.

Barmak family, 451, 452.

Baroda plates, 18(n), 41(n), 102.

Barton Museum, 102.

Barua, B. M., 362(n).
Barupunandu-Vis/iaya, 139.
Basantanadeva, 123.

Basav/anal, Prof. S. S., 231 (n).

Bashar, 106, 109, 128.

Basra, 402, 405.

Bastar State, 98, 135.

Basti, 94.

Battambang, 417.

Baud, 69, 71, 149.

Baud copper plate, 73, 81(n).

Baud plates of Tribhuvana-MahadevI II
(alias Prithvlmahadevi), 19(n), 148.
Bauddhachdra, 323.

Ba\ iddhudhi kkdra , 205 .

Bauddha Gan O Doha, 231 (n).

Bauddhas, 373.

542

INDEX

Bauka (Pratihara k. of Jodhpur), 27,
29, 30.

Ba’urah, 242.

Bavan, 113.

Bayana Inscription, 43 (n), 397(n).
Begumra Grant of Indra III No. I, 42(n).
Begumra Grant of Krishna, 42(n).
Begumra plates, 11, 42 (n).

Belgaum district, 221, 330.

Belgola, 295.

Belvalkar, 230(n).

Belvola, 14.

Benares, 130 (n).

Bendall, 59.

Bengal — See also Bhangala, Vanga

Vangala, 22, 23. 31, 33, 42(n), 44-57.
61, 62, 65, 85, 91, 106, 178, 183, 191,
205, 242, 244, 257, 288, 270, 271, 273,

274, 276, 279, 286, 287, 289, 296, 297,

300, 306, 307, 308, 314, 315, 328, 329,

334, 336, ,339, 340, 343, 344, 346, 347,

348, 349, 35^ 360(n), 361 (n), 364(n),
390, 400, 404, 410(n), 412, 415, 436,
448.

Bengal Asiatic Society’s CP. of Vina-
yakapala, 40 (n).

Bengal, Bay of, 403, 446.

Berar, 1, 2, 12, 46, 47.

Berhampore, 73.

Besnagar Garudadhvaja, 314.

Betwa (River), 85, 96.

Bezwada, 139.

Bhadda, 217.

Bhadra, 114.

Bhadrakall, 344.

Bhadra-varman III, 425.

Bhaga, 274.

Bhagalpur, 49, 86, 401.

Bhagalpur Copper Plate, 55.
Bhagavad-gita, 304.

Bhagavatl, 28, 32, 257.

Bhdgavati Samhita, 335.

Bhagavritti, 190.

Bhaglratha, 307.

Bhaglrathl, 20, 140.

Bhaguri, 189.

BhagyadevI, 54.

Bhairava, 320.

Bhairava (s), 302, 305, 308.

Bhairava -murti, 308.

Bhairava-stotra, 194.

Bhairavi, 320, 344.

Bhaja, 333.

Bhakamisra, 91.

Bhaktamarastotra, 185, 229 ( n) .

Bhakti, 258, 296.

Bhallata, 186.

Bhallaiasataka, 186.

Bhamaha, 191, 192, 196, 214, 217.
Bhamanadeva (Kalachuri k. of Sarayu-
para), 36, 93, 94, 95.

Bhamatl, 204, 205, 230 (n).

Bhamo, 433.

Bhana, 182.

Bhandagarika, 245.

Bhandak Plates, 3.

Bhandarkar, D. R., 37, 41 (n), 43(n),
80(n), 81(n), 102, 132(n), 230(n).
Bhcmdarkar’s List, 80 (n), 81(n).

Bhandi, 22, 41(n).

Bhangala, See also Vangala, Vanga,
Bengal, 45, 268.

Bhanja, 149.

Bhanjabhum, 74.

Bhanjabhumi, 74.

Bhanja families, 73.

Bhanjas, 62, 68, 69, 76, 78.

Bhanjas of Khijjinga, 75-76.

Bhanjas of Khinjali, 69-74.

Bhanjas of Vanjulvaka (Khinjali),
81 ( n ) .

Bharadvaja gotra, 151.

Bharasaha, 63.

Bharat, 114.

Bharata, 179, 192, 196, 213, 214, 217, 218,
224, 397 (n).

Bharataguru, 184.

Bharata-Natyasastra, 363 (n) .
Bharata-varsha, 224.

Bharcitavarsha (Bengali Journal), 57 (n).
Bhdratavenbd, 151.

Bharatiya Jyotisha Sdstra, 230(n).
Bharatpur, 333, 397 (n).

Bharavi, 178, 182.

Bharhut, the stupa of, 315, 330.
Bhatripatta I (Guhila k.), 109.
Bhartripatta II, 109, 131 (n).
Bhartrivaddha, 20.

Bharuchi, 204.

Bhasa, 215, 381.

Bhasantanadeva, Sri , 123.

Bhasarvajna, 205.

Bhashyas, 354.

Bhaskaracharya, 200, 360, 365 (n).
Bhaskaradatta, 178.

Bhaskara Ravivarman, 165.
Bhaskara-varman (k. of Kamarupa), 60,
63.

Bhasvat, 85.

Bhatinda, 112.

Bhatta (Guhilot k.), 36, 111.

Bhatta (Poet), 116.

Bhaitacharya, Dr. D. C., 230 (n).
Bhattacharya, P., 255 (n).

Bhattacharya, V., 231 (n).

Bhattacharya, Dr. Benoytoshi 265, 323,
361(n), 262(n).

Bhatta Halayudha, 98.

Bhatta Mimamsa, 204.

Bhattanathaswami, 229 (n).

Bhattanayaka, 194, 195.

Bhatta-Pedi, 148.

Bhaitaputras, 397(n).

Bhatta Somesvara DIkshita, 91.
Bhattasali, N. K., 347, 348, 362(n), 363
(n), 264(n).

Bhattenduraja, 194.

Bhattis, 41 (n).

Bhaitotpala, 200.

Bhaumas of Orissa, 63, 69.

Bhdva, 320.

Bhavabhadra, 273.

543

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Bhavabhuti, 181, 193, 204.

Bhavagana (Chalukya princess), 17 (n).
BhavanI, 185.

Bhava-varman, 416.

Bhavisayatta, 393 (n).

Bhavisayattakahd s 219, 367, 395(n).
Bhavishya Pur ana, 254(n), 335, 409(n).
Bhavnagar, 102.

Bhayaharastotra, 229(n).

Bhavyaklrti, 273.

Bheddbheda doctrine, 360.

Bheraghat, 342, 343, 346.
Bhiksha$ana-murti, 305, 308, 363(n).
Bhilladitya, 20.

Bhillamaia, 19, 97.

Bhilsa, 85, 97.

Bhlma (or Bhimata), 179.

Bhlma (E. Chalukya k.), 12, 133, 134,
138.

Bhlma II (son of Amma I), 137.

Bhlma (Kalachuri k. of Sarayupara),
94.

Bhima (legendary), 186, 226.

Bhlma (Shahi k.), 113, 114, 120.
Bhlmagupta (Kashmir k.), 121.
Bhimakesvara, 113.

Bhimakhedi (son of Dharmakhedi), 143,
145.

Bhlma Salukki, 8, 133, 134.

Bhlmasena, 116.

Bhima-varman, 168.

Bhinmal, 97, 108.

Bhishak, 372.

Bhlshana, 308.

Bhogapati, 243.

Bhoja (Poet), 179, 181, 184, 205.

Bhoja (country), 46.

Bhoja (Paramara k.), 99, 105, 185.

Bhoja I (Pratlhara k.), 10, 11, 12, 27, 28-
32, 33, 36, 39, 40(n), 42(n), 51, 53,
82, 87, 93, 107, 108, 110, 111, 130(n),
240, 241, 290.

Bhoja II (Pratlhara k.), 13, 33, 34, 35,
37.

Bhojakas, 334.

Bhopal, 7, 13.

Bhor State Museum Plates, 18(n).

Bhota, 85.

Bhrigu Dynasty, 424-426.
Bhrigukachchha, 105, 107.

Bhrikutl, 262, 279, 280.

Bhringl, 340.

Bhudevadeva, 124.

BhudevI, 285, 314.

Bhuktis, 240, 243, 245.

Bhumara temple, 330.

Bhumat District, 110.

Bhumi — See also Prithiv! and Vasu-
dhara, 283.

Bhumili, 99.

Bhumilika, 99.

Bhumisparsa-mudra, 346.
Bhupendra-varman (son of Kailasa),
145.

Bhupendra-varman Marasiriiha, 141.
Bhunas, 63.

Bhurisresh^hi, 205.

Bhiisparsa ( mudra ), 276, 277.
Bhusukupada, 1 266.

Bhutambilika, 99, 100, 101.
Bhuvanaditya, 103.

Bhuvanakosa, 180.

Bhuvanasundarikathd, 210.

Bhuvanesvara temples, 337, 352.
Bhuvanesvan, 344, 347.

Bhuvaneswar Inscription of Uddyota-
kesarin, 147.

Bliuyadadeva, 103.

Bnuyagadadeva, 103.

Bihar, 33, 47, 51, 53, 55, 57(n), 257, 270,
276, 279, 296, 307, 328, 334.

Bija, 103.

Bija, 326.

Bija-mantra, 324.

Bijapur Dist., 16, 221, 397 (n).

Bijja, 138.

Bijoli Rock Ins., 131(n).

Bilaspur District, 88, 146, 330.

Bilhari, 90, 91.

Bilhari inscription, 89, 90, 130(n).
Binh-Dinh, 427.

Binka, 147.

Biyah (River), 114.

Bkah-hgyur, 449.

Boddiya, 139.

Bodh-Gaya, 211, 276, 278, 333, 445.
Bodhibhadra, 273.

Bodhicharyavatara , 265, 275.

Bodhichitta, 261, 265, 266.

Bodhimitra, 448.

Bodhisattvas, 265.

Bodhisattvas (images), 175, 261, 262, 264,
278, 279, 281, 282.

Bodhivamsa — See also Mahabodhivarhsa,
211.

. Bogra, 315.

Bolyasaka, 118.

Bombay, 47, 352, 353, 403.

Bombay Gazetteer, 140.

Bon religion, 446, 447, 448.

Bonai, 77, 78.

Bonai Grant (No. 1), 77, 82(n;.

Bonai Grant (No. 2), 77, 82(n).
Bonthadevi (Kalachuri princess), 91.
Boston Museum, 176.

Brahma, 237, 239, 276, 280, 299, 308, 311,
313, 318, 329, 330, 331, 332, 335, 336,
338, 339, 342, 343, 345, 347, 350,
364(n), 418, 435, 436, 440.

Brahma Prajapati, 399.

Brahma Parana, 332, 376, 387, 388,

396(n).

BrahmacharinI, 343, 364(n).

Brahmadeya, 152.

Brahmagupta, 200, 450.

Brahman, 263, 318, 337, 358, 359, 360,
437.

Brahmanabad, 127.

Brahmanddhikara , 244.

Brahmananda, 362(n).

Brahmanas, 374.

Brahmdncla Parana, 373.

544

INDEX

BrahmanI, 340.

Brahmapala (k. of Kamarupa), 61.
Brahmapura, 122, 125.

Brahmaputra (River), 61.
Brahmaputra-mandak, 123.
Brahma-Sarasvati, 338.

Brahmcisiddhi. 204.
Brahmasirasclihedaka-murti, 308.
Brahma- sputa- siddhanta , 450.
Brahmasutras, 204, 206, 304, 360.
Brahmaur, 122.

Brahmavaivarta Purana, 203.

Brahma- Vishnu-Siva-Surya, 332.

Brdhmx, 222.

Brdhmx Samhitd, 335.

Brantas, 430.

Brihaddharma Furdna, 237, 238, 254(n),
255(n), 372.

Brihad-Gachchha, 185.

Brihanmanasa, 200.

Brihannaradiya Purana, 203.

Brihaspati (Chippatajayapl^a), 116.
Brihaspati (deity), 352.

Brihaspati (writer), 205, 370, 373.
Brihat-Gautamxya Tanira, 322.
Brihat-kathd, 187.

Brihat-kathd-mahjarx, 187.
Brihat-samhitd, 125, 198, 200, 316, 340,
351.

Brihat-srayambhu-purana, 272, 362 (n).
British Museum, 177, 331.

Broach, 8, 20, 40(n), 41 (n), 105.
Bromton, 449.

Bsam-yas, temple of, 447.

Bstan-hgyur, 449.

Buddha (s), 287, 258, 260, 263, 266, 267,
276, 277, 322, 355, 356, 361 (n).
Buddha (image), 175, 261, 264, 277, 278.
Buddha Dipamkara, .211.

Buddhaghosha, 212, 231(n).
Buddhaguhya, 272, 447.

Buddha jnanapada, 271, 272, 273, 275.
Buddhakapala-tantra, 268.

Buddha, Kasyapa, 278.

Buddha, primordial — See also Adi Bud¬
dha, Adinatha, Vajra, 262,
Buddhasanti, 273.

Buddha, ManushI, 278.

Buddha Vairochana, 262, 266, 267.
Buddha, Vajrdsana, 277, 278.

Buddhism, 49, 52, 162, 169, 172, 257,
259-288, 319, 327, 338, 346, 354, 355,
364(n), 420, 421, 425, 453(n).
Buddhism, Tantrik, 263, 264.

Buddhism of Tibet, 362(n).

Buddhists, 322, 330.

Buddhist temple, 331.

Buddhodaya, 268.

Budha, 352.

Budhasvamin, 187.

Biihler, 229(n), 363 (n).

Buliasa, 118.

Bumzu, 113.

Bundelkhand, 7, 14, 15, 38, 83, 84, 351.
Burdwan, 348.

Burgess, 330.

Burma, 332 , 406, 410(n), 422, 432-433.
Burmans, 433.

Bu-ston, 270.

Butuga (Pr. of Gahgavadi), 9, 14, 15,
290., 292.

Butuga I, 161.

Butuga II (the Western Gahga Chief),
155, 156, 161, 162.

Caliph, 100, 446.

Cambay, 134, 403, 410(n).

Cambodia, 317, 404, 405, 416, 442.

Canton, 402, 414, 431, 445.

Central India, 296, 297, 330.

Ceylon, 8, 157, 159, 169-177, 210.
fine arts, 174, 177.
political history, 169-174.

Ceylonese sculpture, 175.

Chachcha (Paramara Kurhka), 96.
Chahamanas, 43 (n), 83, 84, 106-109, 128,
180, 241, 395 (n).

Chahamanas of Broach, 19, 20, 40(n).
Chahamanas of Dholpur, 108.
Chahamanas of Lata, 106.

Chahamanas of M§lava, 84.

Chahamanas of Na^dula, 97, 108, 109.
Chahamanas of Partabgarh (S. Raj-
putana), 31, 37, 108.

Chahamanas of Sakambharl, 22, 27, 38.

39, 104, 105, 106-108, 111, 112.
Chaidyas, 148.

Chakra, 243.

Chakradharpur (Daspalla) CP. of
Ranabhanja, 81 (n).

Chakrakufa (city of), 135.
Chakrapanidatta, 199.

Chakrasambara man&ata, 268.

Chakra -varman, 119, 120.

Chakrayudha, 6, 7, 24, 25, 26, 46, 47,
56(n).

Chaiukya-Bhlma I, 136.

Chalukya-Bhlma II, 137.
Chalukya-Chandra (£aktivarman), 140.
Chalukyakulalamkara, 2,
Chalukya-Narayana (Saktiyarman), 140.
Chalukyarjuna, 133.

Chalukyas, 440.

Chalukyas, The Eastern, 11, 12, 16, 86,
88, 89, 133-140, 142, 149, 150, 161,
247, 290, 291, 328.

Chalukyas of KalyanI, 16, 91, 92, 223,
245, 328.

Chalukyas of Le (Ve) mulava^a, 140.
Chalukyas of Saurashtra, 25, 99, 101-102,
162-241.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami), 1, 2, 3,
16, 17(n), 245.

Chalukyas of Vemulavatfa, 13, 35.
Chalukyas, the Western, 377, 297 (n).
Chalukya temples, 345.

Chamba (country), 122.

Chamba, the Hill States of, 122-3.
Chambal (River), 108, 128.

Chameka, 139.

A.I.K. — 3

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Champa, 289.

Champa, 402, 413, 414, 418, 419, 420, 421,
422, 423-427, 431, 434, 436, 437, 442,
443.

Champaner, 289.

Champu, 178, 188.

Chamunda, 339, 340, 344, 348.
Chamundaraja, 96, 298.

Chamundaraja (Chaulukya k), 92, 99,
105, 106.

Chamundaraja (Saindhava k.), 100, 101.
Chamunda Raya, 162, 290.

Chamunda Raya Purdna, 162.

Chamundl 340, 348.

Chanaka, 360(n).

CliEnslcyci 279

Chanda (iconography), 308, 344, 364(n).
Chanda (Khasa k.), 117.

Chanda District, 98.

Chan^aghanta, 343.

ChandaJkausika , 181.

Chandalas, 372, 373.

Chandalas, 213.

Chandamhasena (Chahamana k.), 108.
Chandana (Chahamana k.), 107, 112.
Chandana (Paramara k.), 97.
Chandanayika, 344, 364 (n).

Chandapa (Paramara k.) 99.
Chandarupa, 344, 364(n).

Chandavatl, 344, 364(n).

Chandellas, 36, 37, 38, 42(n), 43(n), 53,
57(n), 83-87, 88, 89, 130(n), 241, 242,
328, 399 (n).

Chandellas of Bundelkhand, 32, 35.
Chanderi (Narwar), 36.
Chandesanugraha-murti, 307.
Chandesvara, 398(n).

Chandgan, 149.

Chandi Banon, 441.

Chandi Kalasan, 440.

Chandi Mendut, 440, 441.

Chandi Pavon, 440.

Chandi Bari, 440.

Chandi Sevu. 440.

Chandi temples, 439.

Chandi, 339, 347.

Chandi, 339.

Chandika, 340, 341, 344, 387.

Chandimau, 307.

Chandisataha, 185.

Chandogra, 343, 364(n).

Chandra (deity), 352.

Chandra (Poet), 219.

Chandra Kings of Bengal, 54, 91.
Chandraditya, 166, 167.

Chandradvipa (Bakarganj Dt.), 54.
Chandraghanta, 364(n).

Chandragrama, 149.

Chandraguhyatilaka, 271.

Chandragupta, 7.

Chandragupta II, 178, 179.

Chandrahah (River), 114.

Chandrakirti, 259, 448.

Chandrapida, 245.

Chandraprabha, 281, 297.

Chandraraja I (Chihamana k.), 106.

Chandraraja II, 107.

Chandrasena, 219.

Chandra treya (Chandella k.), 83.
Chandrehi, 90.

Chandrikd, 194.

Chandrobalabbe, 9, 161.

Chanduraja (Khasa k.), 85, 117.
Changal inscription, 427.

Chanpaka 122, 123.

Chapas, 102-103, 241, 289.

Chapas of Anahilapataka, 103.

Chapas of Vardhamanapura, 25, 99, 100,

101.

Chapis, 102.

Chapotkatas, 103.

Charaka-samhita, 199, 450, 451.
Charmanvatl (River), 108.

Charydpadas, 266.

Charyds, 259, 262, 264, 266.

Char yd, tantra, 268.

Chatsu, 111.

Chatsu Inscription of Baladitya, 40(n),

111.

Chatura, 306.

Chaturanana Pandita, 165.

Chaturbhdni, 182.

Chaturbhuja temple, 85.
Chaturddasa-gana, 152.

Chaturmukha, 220.
Chaturvarga-chintdmani, 339.
Chaturvimsatimaia, 203.
Chaturvamsati-Jinastuti — See also Tir-
thesastuti and Sobhanastuti, 185.
Chaturviiiisati-murtis, 305.

Chauddagram, 334, 339.

Chauhans (See Chahamana).

Chaul, 386.

Chauiukyas of Anahilapataka, — See

Chaulukyas of Gujarat.

Chauiukyas of Gujarat, 38, 39, 91, 99,
103, 104, 105, 344.

Chauiukyas of Lata, 97, 99, 105-106.
Chauiukyas of Mattamayura, SO, 91, 104.
Chaumuha, 217.

Chaupdi-Doha, 217.

Chauroddharanika, 243.

Chausant Yoginl temple, 342.

Chavadas, 102.

Chavotkatas, 102.

Chavunda Raya, 225.

Chdvundaraya Purdna , 225.

Chedi (country), 84, 85, 87, 90, 92, 104,
340.

Chedis, 11, 13, 14, 18(n), 31, 36, 148, 189.
Cheedivalasa grant, 141.

Chenab, 112, 117, 118.

Chera, 154, 155, 158, 304.

Cheraman Perumal, 165.

Chevur, 159.

Che~yi, 445.

Chhandahsutra, 190.

Chhandombudhi, 224.

Chhandonusasana , 198.

Chhatarpur State, 83.

Chhatrdvali, 175.

Chhattisgarh, 135, 146.

546

INDEX

Chhaya, 349.

Chhdyd-ndtaka , 182.

Chhichhubhatta, 191.

Chhinnamasti, 287, 344.

Chicacole Grant, 144.

Chidambaram, 155, 157, 165, 306, 313,
332, 350, 363 (n).

Chikmagaiur inscription, 223.

China, 60, 260, 281, 382, 397(n), 402,
404, 405, 409, 413, 414, 415, 416, 419,
420, 422, 424, 425, 426, 431, 433, 444-
446.^

Chlnamsuka, 384, 405.

Chinese annals, 414, 415, 416, 422, 424.
Chinese silk, 385, 405.

Chingleput Dist., 14.

Chippataj ayapi^a, 116.

Chitaldrug, 163, 164.

Chitor, 110, 220.

Chitorgadh, 310.

Chitra kavya, 196.

Chitrakuta, 14, 37, 77, 110, 130(n).
Chitrav, 230 (n).

Chitravahana II, 164,

Chittagong, 54.

Chittalaparvata — See also Situlpahuva,
174.

Chittamdtra — See also Vijnaptimdtratd,
266.

Chitta-vajra, 265, 266.

Chittralekha, 397 (n).

Chodagafiga, 150.

Chok Gargyar, 421.

Chola bronzes, 401.

Choiaraja, 170.

Choias, 12, 14, 15, 16, 51, 135, 138, 139,
140, 144, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158,
162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171,
172, 174, 176, 177(h), 247, 248, 312,
328, 329, 374, 396(n), 406, 408, 415,
445.

Choias, 165(n), 256 (n), 411(n).

Choias of Tan j ore, 153-157.

Choias of Uraiyur, 153.

Chou Ku-fei, 445.

Christianity, 165.

Chronicles of Ladakh, 58.

Chuddmani, (or Ascharya-Chud&mani).
180.

Chulla Dhammapala, 210-211.

Chukhala, 194.

Coedes, M., 410 (n), 444.

Coimbatore, 154, 158, 164, 343.

Colair lake, 139.

Coleroon, 153.

Colombo Museum, 175, 176.

Comilla, 54.

Conjeeveram Inscription, 143.

Comorin, Cape, 8, 155, 337, .340.
Coomaraswamy, A. K., 307, 343, 362(n),
363 (n).

Cordier Catalogue, 269, 449.

County -gavunda, 246.

Cousens, 333.

Cowell, 363(n).

Cranganore, 165.

Csoma de Coros, 449.

Cuddappa, 142.

C unbum, 149.

Cunningham, 58.

Cutch, 104.

Cuttack, 62, 68, 79 149, 285, 362(n).
Cuttack Museum Ins. of 6ubhakara, 64.

Dacca, 345, 348, 349.

Dacca Museum, 280, 283, 285, 307, 308,
347.

Dadu. 216.

Dagaba, 175, 176.

Dah Parvatiya, 335.

Dahala, 7, 135, 146, 148, 242.

Dahala -may4ala, 87, 89, 90.

Dai-co-viet, 422.

Dakinls, 316.

Daksha, 378, 430.

Dakshindchdra, 320, 323.
Dakshindchdra-tantraraja, 322.
Dakshina-Gahga, 134.

Dakshina-Kosala, 88, 148.
Dakshina-Muhammadpur — See also Tip-
perah, 330.

Dakshina-murti, 305, 306.

Dakshinaradha, 205.

Dakshina-Tosala, 148, 149.

Ddkshinatyd, 213.

Dakshinyachihna — See also Uddyotana-
suri, 209.

Dakshottama, 428.

Damara, 317.

Damaras, 117, 119, 120, 121.
Damayantikathd — See also Nalachampu,
188.

Dambarasirhha, 95, 96.

Damila, 172.

Damilas, 173.

Damodara, 181.

Damodaragupta, 116, 186.

Damshtrasiva, 169.

Dana (Danamava), 140.

Danarnava, 138, 139, 140.

Danamava (son of PrithvI- varman) ,
145.

Danamava (Brother of Kamamava, son
of Virasiihha), 142, 143.

Danasila, 274.

Dance of £iva, 363 (n).

Danda, 336.

Dan^aka, 103.

Dandaka (composition), 185.
Dandandyaka, 240, 244, 245, 255(n).
Dandtapasika, 240, 241, 243.

Dantfasakti, 243.

Dantfl, 336, 349.

Dandika, 243.

Dandi-Mohadevi, 64, 68.

Dan^in, 192, 196, 214, 217, 224.
Dantapura, 143.

Danti, 217.

Dantidurga, 1-3, 17 (n), 18 (n), 20, 21, 23,
41(n), 99, 151, 167, 168, 399(n).

547

THE AGE .OP IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Dantiga, 6, 168,

Dantila, 397(n).

Dantivarman— See Dantidurga
Daniivarman (Pa Hava k.) 4, 151, 152, [

166, 167, 4

Dantura, 341, 348, 364(n)

Dappula, 189,

Bapnula II— See also tldaya, 189, 177 (n).
Dappula HI, 169, 170, 177 (n).

Dappula fV $§ilameghavarna, 170, 171.
Dappula V Silameghavama, 170, 171.
Darads, 112.

Darbhapani, 50, 56(n).

Darduka, 180,

Darika, 268, 361(n).

Darvabhisara, 112, 118, 122
Das, S. C., 323.

Dasabhuja-sita-MarTchi, 338.

Dasagrdmika , 243.

Da&a-Maha vi dy as, 344.

D&sapamdhika, 243.

Dasapura, 108,

Dasarathi Rama, 332,

Dasama, 323.

Dasairupaka, 179, 196,

Dasavaiara. Cave inscription of Ellora, 1,
Dasavaiara temple, 330, 331, 332.

Das Gupta, Dr. S. N., 365 (n).

DaspalJ.a plates of J^atrubhanja, 150.
Dathanaga, 212.

Dattaka, 397 (n).

Dallas, 147, 148,

Dattatreya, 313, 331, 363(h).

Dattha, 212,

Da’ud, 106,

Dauhsadhasadhanika , 243.

Daulatabad Plates, 18(n).

Daulatpura Copper-plate of Bhoja, 29,
40(n), 41 (n),

Daybul, 405,

Dayitavishnu, 44,

De, S. C., 80(n), 193.

De„ S, K,, 288{n), 229(n), 230(n), 231 (n).
Debal, 401, 402.

Be Boer, T. J., 453 (n).

Deccan, 25, 27, 35, 45, 48, 51, 88, 91, 92,
mf 97, 111, 133, 160, 257, 288, .290,
306, 313.

Decimal notation, 450.

Dehanagadevi, 33 34.

Delhi, 4, 85, 111,' 112.

Delmal. 331, 332,

Deogarh, 83, 297.

Deoil Plates, 43(n), 57(n).

Desafadeva, 124,

DesI, 213.

Best Bhdshds , 213,

Devabhadra, 187,

Desigana, .291.

Deul-Sind, 410(n).

Devabhadra, 293,

Devabhahja, 73.

Devadatta, 275.

Devaditya, 230(n)„

Devales, 176, 177,

Devananda I, 78, 82(n).

Devananda II (Vilasatuhga), 78
Devapala (Pala k.) 9 , 27, 28, 30, 39, 48,
49, 50-52, 54, 56(n), 60, 67, 68, 76,
83, 84, 270, 274, 361(n), 395(n), 412.
Devapala (Pratihara k.), 33, 34, 37, 84,
85, 107, 109.

Devapaladeva, 415.

Devaraja, cult of, 417, 41.8, 421.

Devaraja (Pratihara), 21, 28.

Devaraja (Tomara), 111.

Devarashtra, 138,

Devarddhi, 296.

Devasamgha, 189.

Devasena, 216.

Devasena, 344.

Devasena-Kalyanasundara-murti, 349.
Devasimha, 428.

Devasthali, 228(n)f 230(ni).

Devasuri, 205.

Devata kotuva , 175.

Devavatara, 276.

Devayana, 344.

Devendra Chakravartl (Title of Paran-
taka), 155.

Bevendragani, 293.

Devendra-varman (gvetaka king), 144.
Devendra-varman II, 140.
Devendra-varman III, 141.
Devendra-varman IV, 141.
Devendra-varman (son of Vairahasta
Aniyahkabhlma), 144. a
DevI~~S.ee also Sakti. 320, 328, 330, 339,
345, 347, 348.

Devlchandragupta, 179.

Devi Gosvamini, 67.

Devikavacha, 364(n).

Devl-mahatmya , 339, 364(n)»

I Devisataka, 185. 193, 2S0(n).

Dewai, 113.

Dhahila, 219.

Dha j aggaparitta, 360 ( n) .

Dhakkada-Bani, 395(n),

Dhalaga’ 138. "

Dhalbhum, 79.

Dhamma-Parikkhd, 220,

Dhanahjaya (poet), 98, 179, 181, 182, 184,
187, 196.

Dhanahjaya ^rutaklrti, 184,

Dhanapaia, 185, 187, 188, 219, 290, 293,
394(n), 395 (n).

Dhanapalapanchdsikd , 230 (n ) .

Dhanapati, 393(n).

Dhanaslia, 448.

Dhanasrldvlpa, 274.

Dhanesvarasuri, 290.

Dhahga, 38, 85, 87, 399(n).

Dhanika (Guhila), 110,

Dhanika (Paramara). 96.

Dhanika (poet), 192, 196.

Dhanin, 452.

Dhanva, 117.

Dhanvantari, 199.

Dhanvantari (god), 452,

Dhanvantari Nighantu, — See also Ni~
ghantu, 189, 190,

Dhanya, 452,

548

INDEX

Dhar, 94,

Dhara, 36, 93, 94, 95, 185, 187, 190, 218,
Dharadatta, 147,

Dharadatta II, 148.

Dharala, 183,

Dharanldhara, 412,

Dharanlndra - varman, 415,

Dharanis—See also Mantrapadas, 261-
262, 289, 279, 326.

Dharanivaraha, 101, 103, 104, 131 (n).
Dharasiva, 218,

Dharavarsha (Rashtrakuta Dhruva), 4.
Dharesvara, 254,

Dharma (k.), 25, 56(n), 101.
Dharmachakramudra, 278, 277, 281.
Dharmadasagani, 209.

Bharmadeva, 444.
Dhaima-dharrn.i~vinisch.aya , 275.
Dharmaditya (Malayaketu k.), 93.
Dharma- Kandarpa (another name for
Janamejaya Mahabhavagupta), 147.
Dharmokara, 274.

Dharmakaradatta, 272,

Dharmakhedi, 73, 143, 144, 145.
Dharmakirti, 194, 259, 267, 268. 360(n),
447.

Dharma -MahadevI, 64, 68, 69.

Dharma maharaja, 246,

Dharmamitra, 268.

Bharmapala, 4, 5, 6, 7*, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 32, 39, 45-50, 51, 52, 56(e), 93,
101, 106, 110, 127, 242, 271, 272/273,
274, 335, 361 (n), 395(n), 412, 421, 446.
Dharma-Pariksha, 220.

Dharmapuri, 158.

Dharmasana, 248.

Dharmasantighosha—See also &antarak-
shita, Pan^ita Bodhisattva, 271.
Dharmasastra, 152, 436, 443.

Dharma-setu, 412.

Dharma-srlmitra, 272.

Dharma -sutras, 371.

Dharmavaloka, 189.

Dharma- vamsa. 431, 432.

Dharmodaya Mah&sambhu, 428.
Dharmottamd; 194,

Dhar mottara T 364 ( n ) .

Dhar war district, 221, 391.

Dhatri, 296, 350.

Dhdtupdtha , 190.

Dhdtupradipa, 190.

Dhauli Dhar, 122,

Dhavagarta, 87, 110, 130(n).

Dhavala, 294.

Dhavala (Rashtrakuta k, of Hastikimdi ),
97, 103, 105, 107,“ 131 (n).
Dhavalabhumi, 79,

Dhavala kings of Orissa, 79.

Dhavalapuri, 108,

Dhenkanal (State), 68, 78, 82 (n).
Dhenkanal plate. 67.

Dhillika, 111.

Dhod, 86, 110.

Dholpur, 108, 333.

Dhora (Prakrit form, of Dhruva), 4.
Dliritipura, 71,. 145, 149.

Dhrivananda, 82(n),

Dhruva (Rashtrakuta k), 3-6. 15, 16,
23, 24, 26, 31, 32, 39, 45, 51, 56(n),
133, 135, 151, 360, 168.

Dhruva I (Gujarat Rashtrakuta), 10, 30,

31.

Dhruva XI (Gujarat Rashtrakuta), 10.
Dhruvabhata, 103.

DhruvadevI, 179.

Dhruvananda (Vilasatunga), 78, 82(n).
Dhumar Lena Cave— Ellora, 330.
Dhumavatl, 344.

Dhumrakali, 344,

Dhurtakhy cilia, 208, 220, 293,
Dhurtavitasariivdda , 182,

Dhvani, 191.

Dhvanydloka, 181, 185, 191, 193, 194, 197.
Dhyana , 284.

Dhyam-Bodhisattvas , 278, 279, 280, 281.
Dhyani-Buddhas, 267, 278, 280, 281, 282.

284, 285, 287,

Didda, 113, 114, 120, 121.

Didwana, 106.

Dieng Plateau, 440,

Digambara Canon, 288.

Digambaras, 290, 295, 299, 300,

Digbhanja, 10, 74
Diggajas, 346.

Digha Nikdya, 260.

Dikshd, 319.

.Dikshit, 230(n), 364(h).

Dilwara temples, 298.

Dina j pur, 54. 297, 332, 335, 344, 347, 349,
351.

Dinaya, 428.

Dinh Bo Limb, 426
Dirmaga, 259.

DIpahkarabhadra, 273.
Dipahkara-Srljhana, 273, 448, 449.
Dipavamsa und Mahdvarhsa, 231 (n).
Disabhahja, 70, 74.

Disabhahja, of Sitabhinji, 74, 75, 81 (n).
Diu, 353,

Divakara Bhatta, 438,

Divya, 330,

Divyabhdva, 319.

Djawaga, 402.

Doab, 4, 5, 7.

Dodaka-varman, 123,

Doha, 216.

Dolmkosa, 216, 268, 361 (n).

Dohas, 266,

Dompara Eaj, 79,

Dong Duong, 436, 442.

Draksharama inscription, 145.

DraupadI, 226.

Dravida, 15, 50, 51, 370,

Dravidas, 213.

Drdvidi, 213.

Dravidian languages and literature, 219-
228,

Dravidians, 221.

Dravidian sculpture, 177,
Dravyakirandvalt, 205,

Dridhabala, 199,

1 Droharjuna, 136.

549

(

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Duggamara (son of &rlpurusha)» 160.
Duhsasana, 226.

Dula-Deo, 332.

Dul-va, 274.

Dungara (country), 122.

Dungarpur, 95.

Durga/s, 153, 286, 318, 329, 330, 331, 334,
335, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 344, 347.
Durgaprasada, 229(n).

Durgaraja, 139.

Durgas, the nine, 364(n).

Durgd-saptasatl, 341.

Durgasimha, 190, 191.

Durjanaehandra, 273.

Durjayabhahja (of Khihjali), 73.
Durjayabhahja I ( alias Digbhanja of
Khijjihga), 75.

Durjayabhahja II (of Khijjihga), 75.
Durlabharaja ( Chahamana of Parta-
garh), 108.

Durlabharaja I (Chahamana k. of
Sakambharl), 22, 106.

Durlabharaja II (Chahamana k. of
J§akambharl) , 107, 108.

Durlabharaja (Chaulukya k.), 105.
Durlanghyameru (Chahamana Durla¬
bharaja II), 107.

Durvasa, 90.

Durvimta, 223.

Duryodhana, 225, 226.

Dusala (Paramara), 97.

Duta, 243.

Dutangada, 182.

Dutta, B., 453 (n).

Dutta, K., 79(n).

DutthagamanT, 175.

Duval — See also Ghatta, 217.
Dvadasaditya, 350.

Dvapara yuga, 423.

Dvaraka, 46.

Dvdrapati, 244.

Dvaravatl, 432.

Dvcsharati, 266.

Dvisandhdna — See also Raghava-pan$a-
vlya} 184,

Dynastic History of Northern India, 140.
Dyutivarman, 124.

Early Sculpture of Bengal , 364(n).
Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval
Sculpture, 276.

Edgerton, F., 231 (n).

Egypt, 129, 162, 260, 339.

Ekadasa-Rulras, 311.

Ekajata, 284, 285, 341.

Ekdngas, 119, 120, 244.

Ekapada-trimurli, 331, 332.

Ekavira, 158.

Eklingaji (country), 110.
Elamahchi-Kalihgadesa, 136, 139.
Elephants, 306, 309, 310, 332, 337.
Ellichpur, 1, 10, 135, 220,

Ellora (Elura), 3, 10, 17, 306, 307, 308,
309, 328, 330, 331, 332, 333, 337, 344,
347, 348, 349, 364 (n).

Ellora plates of Dantidurga, 17 (n),
18(n), 40(n)

Elphinstone, 128.

Esotericism, growth of, 260.

Euphrates, 450.

Europe, 260.

Fardaghan, 113.

Far East, the, 314.

Faridpur, 350.

Farquhar, 363 (n).

Ferrand, 396(n), 397(n), 410(n).

Firishta, 86, 112, 114, 131(n).

Five M’s, 321.

Fleet, J. F., 41(n). 42(n), 70, 134, 136,
140, 245, 363(n).

Food and Drink, 387-389.

Francke, 78 (n), 453 (n).

Fu-nan, 416, 442.

Fyzabad Museum, 298.

Gachchhas , 288, 296.

Gada-Yuddha — See also Sahasa-Bhlma
Vijaya, 225, 226, 227.

Gadhinagara, 86.

Gadun, 113.

Gaharwa ins., 91.

Gajalakshnu, 146, 330, 341, 344, 345, 347.
Gajapura, 393 (n).

Gajasataka, 160.

Gajasura, 309.

Gajasurasamhara-murti, 309.

Gajayana, 428.

Gamagamika, 243.

Gambhiravajra, 268, 274.

Ganapati, 284, 330, 344, 346, 347, 410(n).
Ganapatyas, 322, 345, 349.

Ganas, 251.

Gandak (river), 93, 94.

Ganda — Mahendra, 138.
Gandamartan^aditya (Temple of), 14,
15.

Gandanarayana, 139.

Gandaraditya, 155, 156, 157, 158.

Ganda Trinetra, 164.

Gandhani inscription, 296.

Gandhara, 46, 111, 333.

Gandharadhi, 149.

Gandharvas, 260.

Gdndharva (marriage), 375.

Gandhata, 70, 149.

Gandhatapatl, 149.

Gandhavamsa, 210.

Ganesa, 286, 324, 329, 330, 331, 335, 337,
'338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 345, 346,
348-349, 352.

GanesanI, 341.

Ganesvarl Samhita, 335.

Ganga (goddess), 142, 305, 307, 330, 341,
343.

Ganga * (River), 5, 6, 22, 27, 35, 36, 49.
56(n), 58, 84, 95, 213, 272, 446.

550

INDEX

Ganga chiefs, later, 163.
Gangadhara-murti, 305.

Gangadvara, 20.

Ganga Era, 73.

Gangaikondacholapuram, 152, 312.
Ganga-Pallavas, 369.

Gangaridae, 150.

Gangas, The, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14,
15, 16, 26, 38, 51, 57 (n), 134, 135, 159,
_ 167, 246, 290.

Gangas, Eastern, 62, 140-141.

Gangas, Greater, 141-144.

Gangas of Kalinga, 66, 68, 89, 136.
Gangas, Later Eastern, 140.

Gangas of Orissa, Eastern, 142.

Gangas of Svetaka, 62, 66, 76, 144-145.
Gangas of Talkad, 165(n).

Gangas, Western, 138, 152, 154, 155, 159,
160-161, 163, 164, 292.

Gangas of Mysore, Western, 142.
Ganga-sagara, 106, 446.

Gangavadi, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 133, 142, 160,
161, 162, 163, 246.

Ganga-Yamuna Doab, 23, 34, 45.
Gangdhar inscription, 316, 348.

Garigeya, 142.

Ganita, 366.

Ganitasdra, 200,

Ganitasdrasamgraha, 11, 200, 291, 294.
Ganitaskandha, 200.

Ganjam District, 62, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72,
73, 142, 149.

Ganjam grant of Jayavarmadeva, 66, 63,
80(n), 81(n).

Ganjam plate cf Dandi-MahadevI,
80(n).

Ganjam plate of Sasanka, 65, 8Q(n).
Gara inscription, 145.

Garbhagriha, 176.

Garga, 56(n), 392(n), 395(n)

Gargya, 371.

Garhwal, 47, 123, 124, 125.

Garhwal, history of, 123-125.

Garu^a (Iconography), 146, 299, 313,
314.

Garuda Purdna, 203, 237, 238, 254 (n),
255 (n), 310, 335.

Gauda (country) (desa), 85, 89, 91, 92,
93, 106, 111, 115, 116, 183, 189, 273,
322, 323, 390, 415, 444.

Gauda Abhinanda, 206, 323.
Gauda-Kayastha, 395(n).
Gaudalekhamald , 55 (n).

Gaudapada, 364 (n).

Gaudas, 11, 22, 23, 25, 45, 48, 53, 54,
55 (n), 57(n), 85.

Gaudasamgha, 189.

Gaulmika, 243.

Garni (deity), 347.

Gaurl (Kara Queen), 64, 68.

Gautama, 252, 276, 277, 278, 377.
Gavunglas, 246.

Gayada I, 64, 67, 77.

Gayadatunga, 77.

Gedige, 176.

Geigfer, 173, 177(n), 212.

Genesis, Book of, 225.

Geschichte des Buddhismus, 360 (n).
Ghassan, 128.

Ghate, 229(n).

Ghatika, 152.

Ghatiyala, 346.

Ghatnagar, 351.

Ghattd, — See also Duval. 217.

Ghazni, 86, 113, 115, 128.

Ghontavarshika, 108, 109.

Ghosh, A., 81 (n).

Ghosh, J. C., 41(n).

Ghoshal, U. N., 255(n).

Ghoshrawa Stone Ins., 56 (n).

Ghotarsi, 108, 109.

Ghumli, 99, 100.

Gilgit, 261.

Gilgit Manuscripts, 361 (n).

Girnar-tlrtha, 290.

Gita, 312.

Gltagovinda, 181, 198.

Gltd-Samgraha, 206.

Glan-dar-ma, 448, 453(n).

Godavari (river), 98, 140, 221.

Godavari District, 139.

Gode, 230(n).

Gogga (Tomara k.), Ill, 112.
Goggahakahd, 217.

Goggahana, 217.

Gogra, 93, 94.

Gojjiga (Rashtrakuta k.), 137.

Gokarna, 47, 56(n).

Gokarnasvamin, 142.

Gokarnesvara, 142.

Golaki-matRa, 90.

Gcldziher, 453 (n).

Gomati (river), 123.

Gomedha, 299, 300.

Gomma^esvara, 162, 225, 290, 295, 298.
Gomukha, 299.

Gond tribe, 78.

Gonda District, 297.

Gondamas, 77, 78, 79, 82(n).

Gond^svar^, 335.

Gondrama, 78.

Gongiraja, 99, 106.

Gop, 333.

Gopagiri, 86.

Gopala (Khasa k.), 117.

Gopala I (Pala k.), 44-45, 49, 55 (n), 65,
242, 244, 267, 270, 271, 361(n).
Gopala II, 53, 55, 57(n), 85, 89.

Gopalan, R., 165 (n).

Gopalavarman (Kashmir k.), 113, 118,
131(n), 132(n).

Gopendraraja, 106.

Goplnatha DIkshita, 391 (n).

Gorakhpur District, 31, 93, 94.
Gorakshanatha, 346.

Gotama (Buddha), 211.

Gough, 363 (n).

Govardhana, 184.

Govinda, 180.

Govinda II (Rashtrakuta k.), 3-4, 18(n),
133, 160.

551

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Govinda III, 5-8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18(n),
24, 26, 27. 30, 39, 41(n), 48, 51, 56
(n), 86. 94, 95, 110, 134. 151, 155, 166,
168.

Govinda IV, 13-14, 18(n), 137, 138,

399 (n).

Govindaraja (Chahamana of Par tab-
garh), 108.

Govindaraja I (Chahamana k. of ^akam-
bhari), 106, 107,

Govindaraja (Rashtrakuta), 333.
Grahamatrika, 287.

Graharipu. 91, 101, 102, 104.

Grahayaga, 351.

Grdmakutas, 246, 247, 255(n).

Grama mahattar as, 255 (n).

Grdmapati, 243.

Great Temple, 337, 401.

Greek/s, 450, 451.

Grihastharaindkara, 398 (n)„

Grihya-sutras, 371.

Gudimallam, 166, 334.

Gudjra, 404,

Guha (or Gab as), 63.

Guhadeva-pataka, 63, 69.

Guhasena, 214.

Guhesvara-pataka, 63, 69.

Guhila II. 31, 42(n), 111.

Guhilas, 25, 30, 31, 36, 38, 43(n), 87, 97,
109-111, 396(n).

Guhilas of Dhod, 110-111.

Guhilas of Mewar, 109-110.

Guhilots, — See Guhilas.

Guhya, 265.

Guhyakas, 351, ,

Guhyasamuja 282, 263, 265-266, 267, 269, I
271, 361 (n).

Guhyasidahi, 269.

Guilds, 251.

Gujarat, 2, 7. 10, 21, 24, 31, 41(n), 89, 91;
96. 99. 107, 134, 135, 162, 208, 245,
246, 331, 332, 334, 336, 338, 342, 344,
345, 401, 402, 403, 408.

Gujarat Chroniclers, 103, 105.

Gujarat (Punjab), 117, 118.

Gumli, 338. ,

Gunabhadra, 180, 183, 291, 294,
Gunachandra, 179.

Gunadhya, 187, 443.

Gunaka-Vijavaditya II (Eastern Cha-
lukya k.), 88
Gunakama, 59.

Gunakamadeva, 59.

Gunakiranavall, 205.

Gunamahalnava, 141, 142, 143.
Gunambhodhideva (Kalachuri k. of 5a-
rayupara), 31, 93.
Gunapriya-dharmapatni, 430, 435.
Gunarnava (brother of Kamamava and
son of Virasirhha), 142.

Gunarnava (son of Kamamava), 143.
Gunasagara I (Kalachuri k, of Sa rayu¬
para ) , 93.

Gunasagara II (do.), 94,

Gunavarma I, 224.

Gunijama (son of Vajrahasta), 142.

Gundama (brother of Fotahkusa), 143,
'145.

Gundaya, 136.

Guntur, 136.

Gupta dynasty, 44.

Gupta empire, 39
Gupta sculpture, 176.

Guptas (Imperial), 71, 244, 245, 311, 314,
Guptas, later, 182.

Gurgaj, 344.

Gurgi, 90, 344,

1 Gurjara country, 92.

| Gurjara country (Punjab), 118.

I Gurjara Prat'iharas, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 16, 19~ 43, 45, 46, 47, 48; 50, 51,
53, 56, 57(n), 83, 84, 86, 87, 93, 95,
101, 107, 108, 112, 127, 128, 129,
130 (n), 131 (n), 135, 189, 240, 241,

273, 290, 328, 396(n), 404.

Gurjaratra (C. and E. Rajputana), 29,

30.

Gurjaras, 1, 11, 19-41, 48. 50, 52, 84, 91,

110, 112.

Gurjaras of Nandipuri, 2, 19, 40(n).
j Guru , 269.

Guvaka I (Chahamana k. of {§akam-
bhari), 27, 106, 109,

Guvaka II (do.), 87, 108, 112.

Gwalior, 27, 28, 38, 43(h), 8Ss 86, 240,
242, 290.

Gwalior Inscription of Rhoja, 21, 22, 24,
25, 40 (n), 135.

Gwalior Inscription of Bhoja dt. v, 933,
40(n), 56(n).

Gwalior State, 331.

Haddaia Copper Plate, 42(n).

Hah, 114.

Haidarabad (Smdh), 127.

Haihaya monuments, 338, 341.

Haihaya Salve temples, 345.

Haihayas, 87, 133, 242,

Haiyungathal CP., 61, 79(n).

ITakam, 127.

Halayudha, 187, 189, 190.

Halebid, 295.

Hamirpur District, 84.
Hammira-Mahukdvya^ 131(n).
Hamsa-varman, 122,

Harhsesvara temple, 81 (n).

Hamvira, 86.

Handiqui, Dr., 363 (n).

Handrat, 114,

Hansi Fort, 333.

Hansot plates, 40 (n).

Hanuman, 333.

Hanuman-nataka, 181.

Haraha Ins. 77.

Haras Stone Inscription. See Harsha
Stone Inscription.

Haravarsha Yuvaraja, 183.

Haravijaya, 179, 183,

Haribhadra (Buddhist author), 49, 271,

274,

552

INDEX

Harihhadra (Jain), 207. 208, 209s 219, 220,
288, 293, 296.

Hariehandra, 19.

Haridra-Ganapati, 345,

Hari-Hara, 258, 305, 330, 332,
Hariharalaya, 417, 418,
Hari-Hara-Pitamaha, 313,
Hari-Hari-Harlvahanodbhava Lokesvara,
279

Harikela, 54, 88,

Harinigamesi, 349,

Harischandra (legendary), 181.
Harischandra (writer), 216.

Harisena, 42(nj.

Harishena, 187, 220.

Harltl, 300, 342.

Iiarivamsa, 182, 224, 316.

Hari-varman, 418, 424.

Harivamsa Pur ana , 217, 218, 219, 294.
Harivilasa, 180.

Hariyadevi, 109.

Hariyana, 111, 112.

Harjara (k. of Kamarupa), 53, 60, 61,
79 (n),

Harjara -varman, see Harjara,

Harkand, 403.

Harmikd, 175.

Harpocrates, 313.

Harsha (Haras) stone Inscription, 40 (n).
Harsh a, ad versary of Kokkalla I, 130 (n).
Harsha (Chandella k.), 36, 84, 111,

130 (n), 179.

Harsha tk. of Kamarupa), 60.

Harsha (Siyaka II, Paramara), 95.
Harsha-charita , 41 (n).

Harshadatta (father of Simhadatta), 148,
Harshanath, village, 107.

Harshanatha, temple of, 107,

Harsharaia (Guhila k.), 30, 31, 36, 87,
110, l30(n).

Harsha-vardhana, 4, 22, 23, 39, 182, 186,
217,

Harsha- varman I, 421.

Harsha- varman II, 421,

Harsola grant, 94.

Harun Al-Rashld, 127, 450, 451, 452.
Haruppesvara, 61.

Hasan district, 298.

Hastikundi, 97, 103.

Hastimaila, 155, 161, 180.

Hastinapura, 225,

Hataras kotuva, 175.

Hatha-yoga, 266,

Ha veil, E. B,, 362(n), 363(n).

Hayagrlva, 279, 280, 283,

Hayagrlva avatdra (image), 313, 314,
364(n).

Hayagrlva, Saptasatika, 282, 283.

Hazara, 118.

Hazra, R. C,, 230(n).

Helios-Mithra, 333.

Hemachandra, 180, 192, 195, 198, 208,
215, 216, 293,

Hemadri, 339, 340, 343.

Henjeru (Hemavati), 164,
Heramba-Ganapati, 346, 349.

j Herambapala (Pratihara k.), 33, 34, 85,
I Heruka, 273, 274, 282, 283, 286, 287.

I Hetutattva-upadesa, 275,

! Hevajra-tantra, 268, 268,
j Hillebrandt, 179,

j Himalaya, 7, 24, 26, 33, 41(n), 47, 50, 51.

57 (n), 90,, 93.
j Himavat, 213,

1 HInayana Buddliism, 259. 264, 267, 273,
436.

j Hind, 17,

! Hindagaie, 177.

\ Hindol, 68.

; Hindol plate, 64.

| Hindu numerals, 450.

! Hindu Revenue System , 255(n).

Hindu Rites and Customs , Studies in the
Puranic Records on, 230(n).
i Hiranyadama, 417, 438.

! Hiranyagarbha (ceremony), 1, 2, 20.
Hiranyakasipu, 311,

Hiranya-varman, 168,

Hisham, 99, 126.

Hisham ibn 'Ami' at-Taghlibl, 115.
Hissar District, 333.

Historical Inscriptions of South India ,
140, 165 (n).

History of Hindu Chemistry, 230(n).
History of Hindu Mathematics , 453 ( n) .
History of Medieval Hindu India , 363 (n).
History of the Arabs, 453.

History of the Philosophy of Islam ,
453(n).

Hitopadesa , 181.

Hitti, P. K., 453 (n).

Hiuen Tsang, 19, 125, 360(n).
i Hoan, 424,

Hob son -Job son, 410(n).

Hodivala, 353, 354, 364(n), 395(n),

396(n), 397 (n).
i Hoernle, 79 (n).

] Homa, 264,

: Hooghly District, 82 ( n ) .

! Hoysala, 164, 223,

| Hridayadarpana , 195,

| Hridayasiva, 91.

I Hridaya- sutra, 326.

Huai-wen, 445,

Hultzsch, 173, 177(n), 229(n),
Huna-mandala, 96, 97, 99, 101.

Hunas, 50,' 51, 97, 109, 374.

Hunter, 76.

I Hushkapura, 119.

Hyderabad State, 1, 3, 10, 133.
Hyderabad Western, 221,

I Ibn al-Faklh, 386, 3&9, 397(n), 404,
410(n), 413, 423.
i Ibn Haukal, 386, 401, 446, 452.

’ Ibn Khaldun, 392.

) Ibn Khordadbah, 391, 397(n), 398(n),

493 404 412 419

| Ibn Rosteh, 397 (n), 398 (n), 403, 413, 419.
s Ibn Said, 405,

558

A.I.K. -8G

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ibrahim Shah, Nawab, 219.

Ichchha-sakti, 310.

Ichchhatadeva, 124.

Iconography oj Buddhist and Brahmani -
cal Sculptures in the Dacca Museum,
362(n), 363(n).

Ida, 325.

Idar State, 331.

Ikshvaku, 142.

Illusion, 359.

Iltutmish Sultan, 114.

Indaparaja, 137.

Indian Historiography , The Beginnings
of, and other Essays, 255(n).

Indian Islam, 453 (n).

Indian Logic, 361 (n).

Indian Museum, Calcutta, 276, 280, 285,
286, 297, 307, 334, 344, 346, 349.
Indian Review, 365 (n).

Indian Sculpture and Painting, 362(n),
363(n).

Indian Sect of the Jainas, 363 (n).

Indies, East, 52, 414.

Indo-China, 414, 422, 423.

Indo-China, Art in, 441-442.

Indo- Javanese Art, 439-442.

Indonesia, 281, 286, 432.

Indonesian art, 282.

Indra (god), 237, 418.

Indra (s. of Dhruva), 5, 7, 9, 10.

Indra (grandson of Krishna III), 16.
Indra (Guparat Rashirakuta k.), 24, 26,
Indra (writer), 217.

Indra I (Rashprakuta), 1, 17 (n).

Indra HI (Rishtrakuta), 12-13, 15, 16,
18(n), 35, 36,' 56(h), 84, 89, 95, 111,
137, 188, 399 (n).

Indra IV, 162.

Indra'-bhadresvara, 424.
Indra-bhogesvara. 424.

Indrabhut^ 266, 268, 269, 270, 361(n).
IndradevI, 419.

Indradityadeva, 109, 131(n).

Indragiri, 298.

IndranI, 340.

Indra-paramesvara, 424.

Indra-prasadaka, 420.

Indrapura, 417, 425, 427.

Indraraja (k. of Kanauj), 23, 116.
Indraraja (Chahamana of Partabgarh),
108, 109.

Indra-tataka, 420.

Indra-varman, 145, 365 (n), 419, 420, 421,
422, 423, 424, 438.

Indra-varman, H, 424, 425.

Indra-varman HI, 425, 426, 443.
Indra-varman IV, 426.

Indra -viman aka, 420.

Indra- yana, 420.

Indrayudha, 4, 21, 22, 23, 25, 46.
Indukara, 199.

Indumitra (Indu), 190.

Inscriptions of Bengal, Some Historical
Aspects of the, 255(n).

Inscriptions of Kambuja, 364 (n).

Iran, 352, 353, 354, 449.

Iranians, 352, 353, 354.

Irawadi, 433.

Irda CP., 57 (n.).

Isa (6iva), 143.
isana, 310.

Isanadayah, 310.

Isanatungavijaya, Sri, 430.

Isanavarman (Maukhari k.), 77
Isana- varman II, 421.
isana-Vikrama Dharmottungadeva, Sri,
430.

Ishtadevata, 326.

Ishtaganadeva, 123.

Ishtapala, 114.

Ishtpal, 114.

Islam, 17, 126, 165.

Istakhrl, 446.

isuka (Chahamana), 108.

Isurumuniya, 174, 176.

Isvara, 299.

Isvaradatta, 182.

isvara-Kesava-Samarottunga, 428.
Isvara-Kesavotsavatunga, 428.
Isvarakrishna, 204.

Isvara-varman, 166, 167.

Jabala, 323.

Jabalipura, 97.

Jacobi, Dr. Hermann, 179, 219, 393 (n).
Jatfi Rana, 354,

Jaffna — See also Ceylon and Nagadvipa,
171.

Jagaddhara Bhatta, 191.

Jaganmata, 318.

Jagannatha (Pan^ita), 194, 197, 198.
Jagannathamahgalam, 172.

Jagannatha temple, 315.

Jagatlpala — See also Virasilamegha, 173.
Jagattunga (Govinda III), 6.

Jagattunga (Rashirakuta pr.), 13, v18(n),
53, 89.

Jagattunga (Tunga k.), 76.

Jagesvara, 344.

Jahazpur District, 110.

Jaika (Saindhava k.)", 100.

Jaika II (Saindhava »k.), 101.

Jain gurus, 289.

Jain, H. L., 41(n), 363(n).
Jaina-lekha-sarhgraha, 363 (n).

Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, 363(n).
Jainism, 162, 257, 288-300, 319, 326, 328,
336, 364(n),

Jainism and Kamatak Culture , 363 (n).
Jains, 373.

Jaipal (Shahi k.), 114.

Jaipur, 46, 106, 107, 108, 111.

Jaipur (Dhenkanal), 78.

Jajilpara CP., 57 (n).

Jajja, 115, 116.

Jajjapa, 96, 101.

Jajjuka (Tomara k.), 111.

Jajpur, 68, 81 (n), 340.

Jakkiabbe, 292.

554

INDEX

Jakkisundarl, 292.

Jala, 323.

Jalandar, 114, 122.

Jalandhara — See also Jala, 323.

Jalauka, 244.

Jalhana, 184, 394(n).

Jalendra, 269.

Jalor, 19, 21, 97, 108.

Jama Masjids, 452.

Jambhala, 176, 282, 283, 285.

Jambudvlpa, 58, 446.

Jambumali (river), 102.

Jammu, 122.

Jdnakiharana, 196.

Janamejaya Mahabhavagupta I (son of
Sivagupta), 147, 150.

Janapadsi, 417.

Janjgir, 340.

Jantavura (Dantapura or Jayantya-
pura?), 143.

Janavallabha (Govinda III), 6.

Jan gull, 284.

Japa , 264, 269.

Japan, 44, 260.

Jara, 83 (n).

Jarta-desa, 102.

Jasahara-chariu, 218.

Jatacharya, 209.

Jata-Choda-Bhima, 139, 140, 143, 149.
Jataka, 230(n).

Jatakamald , 188.

Jaths, 127.

Jatila (another name for Nedunja-
daiyan), 157.

Jatilavarman (another name of Nedunja-
daiyan), 157, 158.

Jatila Par an taka, 247.

Jaula (Tomara k.), 111.

Jaunpur, 219.

Java, 288, 412, 415, 416, 417, 419, 423,
425, 427-432, 434, 436, 439, 440, 441,
442.

Javalipura (Jalor), 21.

Javanese sculpture, 281, 282.
Jayabandhu, 223.

Jayabhadra, 273.

Jayabhanja, 72.

Jayadeva (poet), 184, 198.

Jayadeva II (k. of Nepal), 58.

Jayadevi 116.

Jayadhavala 294.

Jayaditya I (Malayaketu k.), 93, 333.
Jayaditya II (do), 93.

Jayadratha dynasty, 99.

Jaya Indra-varman Maharajadhiraja,
grl, 425.

Jayamala (k. of Kamarupa), 61, 79(n).
Jayananda, 79.

Jayanta, 183.

Jayanta (k. of Pundravardhana), 58,
115.

Jayanta (writer), 205, 364(n).
Jayantabhatfa, 183.

Jayantyapura, 143; 145.

Jayapala (cousin of Pala k. Devapala),
50, 131 (n).

Jayapala (Shahi k.), 86, 114, 115.

Jayapida (k. of Kashmir), 58, 115, 118,
131(n), 183, 186, 187, 191, 193.
Jayapura, 78.

Jayaraja (Chahamana k.), 106.

Jayarama, 220.

Jayasakti, (Chandella k.), 83, 88.

Jayasi, 217.

Jayasimha (Orissa feudatory), 77.
Jayasirhha III, 291.

Jayasiihhasuri, 209.

Jayasirhha-varman, 425.

Jaya-stambha, 78.

Jaya-varaha (or Varaha), 21, 102.
Jayavarman, 66, 68, 145.

Jaya-varman II, 414, 416-419, 421, 423,
438.

Jaya-varman, III, 416-419.

Jaya-varman IV, 421.

Jaya-varman V, 421.

Jeja, 83.

Jejabhukti, 83.

Jejakabhukti, 242.

Jejjaka, 83.

Jelklabad, 52, 113.

Jetarl, 275.

Jetavana, 211.

Jetavanarama, 175.

Jethwai grant, 133.

Jews, 165.

Jeypore (Visakhapatnam Dt.), 77.
Jhaiawar State, 96, 97.

Jhansi District, 7, 13, 33, 83, 297.

Jhelum, 112, 114, 117, 340.

Jhota, 20.

Jhusi Copper Plate, 43(n).

Jimutavaihana, 204.

Jina, 258, 296, 297, 298.

Jinabhata, 207.

Jina-Kanchl, 299.

Jinamitra, 274, 448.

Jinarakshita, 272.

Jinaratnakosa, 229(n), 230(n).

Jinasena (author of Adipurana ), 11, 294,
363(n).

Jinasena ( Harivarhsa Purana), 21, 22,
182, 219, 291, 294, 363(n).
Jinendrabuddhi, 190.

Jndna, 259.

Jhanagarbha, 267.

Jnana-murti, 306.

Jndnapanchamikathd, 209.

Jnanasakti, 310.

Jnanasiddhi, 269, 361 (n).

Jnanasrimitra, 273, 274.

Jodhpur, 19, 20, 25, 27, 97, 105, 107, 108,
110, 333, 346.

Jodhpur Inscription, 29, 40(n).

Jodhpur Pratiharas, see under Pratl-
haras of Jodhpur.

Jogasaru , 216.

Joindu, 216.

Jouveau-Dubreuil, 152, 165(n).
Jubbulpore, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 135, 146,
148, 342.

Junagadh, 91, 101, 102.

A.I.K.— 37

555

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

J unaid, 20, 39.

Jura, 38.

Jura stone inscription, 89.

Jurada grant, 72, 73.

Juzr, 32, 242.

Jyeshtha, 344.

Jyeshthakayastka , 243.

Jyotihsastra , 200.

Kablr, 216.

Kabul, 46, 112, 124, 126.

Kabulistan, 113.

Kachchha, 102, 104, 107, 270, 323.
Kachchhapagh§tas, 38, 242,

Kadamba chief, 73, 143, 144, 145.
Kadamba Udayaditya, 145.

Kadamhari, 183, 184, 187, 209, 398(n).
K&dambari-Kathasara, 183.

Kadambas, 145, 151, 290, 291, 340.
Kadambas of Jayantyapura, 141, 145, 246.
Kadaroli Temple, 330.

Ka^ava, 158.

Kadavaha, 217.

Kadeyaraja, 135.

Kadungon, 158.

Kaduvetti Muttarasa, 164. -
Kadvar, 330, 332.

Kahla Plate of Kalachuri Sodhadeva,
40(n).

Kahlur, 114.

Kailasa, 145.

Kailasa temple, 17.

Kailasanatha temple, 337.

Kaira Dist., 17(a), 31, 32, 96, 105.
Kaithal, 336.

Kajaragrama — See also Kata r a gam, 174.
Kakatlyas, 291.

Kakka (Pratlhara of Jodhpur), 25, 29.
Kakkuka, 21, 30.

Kala (motif), 439.

Kala— -See also Yama, 283, 309, 340.
Kalabhadra, 344.

Kalabhairava, 330.

Kalabhoja, 109.

Kalabhras, 158.

Kdlachakra tantra, 268, 275.
Kalachumbaru (Inscription), 138.
Kalachuris, 30, 34, 38, 43(n), 53, 83, 87-
94, 130(n), 133, 135, 146, 148, 180.
Kalachuris of Gorakhpur, see Kala¬
churis of Sarayupara.

Kalachuris of Sarayupara, 32, 36, 87,
93-94.

Kalachuris of Tripling 87-92, 94, 97.
KSladi, 304.

Kala-Gandika, I31(n).

Kalah, 4i£

Kalaha (or Kanada)-stambha, 77.
Kalahandi State, 150, 343.

Kalahasti, 154.

Kaiah-bar, 403, 413.

Kalaketu, 347.

Ka)akkad, 158.

Kala-Makara, 439;

Kalambas, 323.

Kalanjara, 14, 27, 29, 37, 41(n), 43(n),
84, 89.

Kalanjara, lords of, 85.
Kalanjara-mandala, 41 (n), 83.

Kalani Tissa, 212.

Kalantaka-murti, 283.

Kalapa — See also katantra grammar, 190.
Kalaratri, 343, 364(n).

Kalari, 283.
i Kalari -murti, 309.

Kala (Kamal a) varman (Shahi k.), 113.
Kalavatl, 107.

Kalhana, 113, 115, 116, 131 (n), 191, 193,
244 245

Kali, 286, 308, 344.

Kali age, 316, 366, 375, 388.

Kali, Dakshina, 329.

Kali-Bit^arasa, 135.

Kalidasa, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191, 216.
Kaligalankusa, 143.

Kalighatta, 96.

Kalika, 321, 344.

Kalila and Dimna, 450.

Kalindas, 323.

Kalindl (River), 85, 438.

Kalinga, 1, 7, 11, 24, 25, 35, 51, 57(n), 63;
74, 76, 89, 136, 139, 141, 142, 144, 159s
322 415.

Kalihganagara 140, 143, 145.

Kalingas, 66, 171, 174.

Kalingatluparani, 145.

Kalin jar, 83, 130(n).

Kali varman, 139,

Kali-Vishnuvardhana, 135.

Kaliya, 91.

Kali-yuga, 320.

Kalki, 351.

Kalla, 101.

Kailar, 112.

Kailasa, 195, 206, 301, 363(n).

Kalluri, 369.

Kalpa, 317.

Kalya, Svetavaraha, 317.

Kalpadrukosa, 230(n).

Kalya-kramas, 269.

Kalpi, 13.

Kalugahga, 173.

Kalutara, 173.

Kalyanakalasa I, 70.

Kalyanakalasa H, 70.

Kalyana-kataka, 103.

Kalyanamandira, 229(n).
Kalyana-rajadeva, 123.

Kalyana-rakshita, 272.

Kalyana-sundara- murti, 305, 306, 336,
349.

Kalyana-varman, 200.

Kalyaniya Thera, 212.

Kama, 138.

Kamadeva — See also Pradyumna, 314.
Kamakandala, 187.

Kamakhya, 323.

Kamalarakshita, 273.

Kamalaslla, 272, 364(n), 447.
Kamalavardhana, 120.

556

INDEX

Kamalatmika, 344.

Kamalu, 112, 131 (n).

Kamaluka (Shahi k.), 113, 118.
Kamandaka, 232.

Kamantaka-murti, 309.

Kamamava (son of Danamava), 143.
Kamarnava (brother of Potankusa), 143.
Kamarnava (son of Ranarnava, 143.
Kamarnava (son of Vajrahasta-Ani-
yafikabhlma), 142.

Kamarnava (son of Virasimha), 142.
Kamarnava (son of Vajrahasta), 142.
Kamarupa, 58, 61-62, 63, 80(n), 243, 322,
323, 403, 404.

Kamarupasasanavali, 255(n).

Kamasutra , 386, 443.

Kambakaya Grant, 145.

Kambala, 268, 323.

Kamban, 228.

Kambay, 386, 402.

Kambha (or Stambha) Ranavaloka, 5,
168.

Kambojas, 50, 51, 54, 85, 323, 405.
Kambuja, 414, 415, 416, 423, 424, 425, 427,
432, 436, 437 , 438, 441, 442, 443.
Kambuja of the land, 416.

Kambuja of the water, 416.

Kambupurl, 420.

Kamdin, Dastur Aspandiarjl, 353.
Kamka (Paramara), 96, 99.

Kampanesa, 244.

ICampa-varman, 166, 167.

Kampheng Phet, 422.

Kanada (or Kalaha) -stambha, 77.
Kanakabhanja, 73.

Kanakamanjarl, 397(n).

Kanakamara, 218.

Kanakasena Vadiraja, 183.

Kanara, 221.

Kanarese, 11, 35, 38, 136, 145.

Kanarese Literature , 231 (n).

Kanauj, 4, 5, 7, 13, 22, 23, 25, 27, 32, 33,
35, 38, 46, 47, 49, 51, 56 (n), 86, 90, 95,
103, 110, 173, 187, 200, 241, 290, 390,
404.

Kanchana-stambha, 77.

Kanchl (puram), 1, 4, 8, 14, 15, 86, 133,
135, 139, 151, 152, 156, 157, 167, 337,
369.

Kanchuka, 84.

Kanda, 316..

Kandahar, 125.

Kandarage, 255 (n).

Kandar-athithan, 227, 228.

Kane, 230(n), 256(n).

Kandy, 176.

Kane Festschrift, 230(n).

Kangra (valley), 46, 85, 118, 122, 340.
Kanhapada, 216.

Kanheri caves, 353.

Kanhu, 266.

Kahkala-murti, 305, 308, 363 (n).
Kannada (country), 245, 246, 391.
Kannada (language), 160, 162, 220-227,
288, 290, 292, 294.

Kannada Language, History of, 231 (n).

Kannada origin of the Rashtrakutas,
17(n).

Kanna^as, 221.

Kannara (Chola pr.), 12.

Kannara (Krishna I, Rashtrakuta k.),
18(n),

Kannara (i.e. Krishna III, Rashtrakuta
k.), 138, 173.'

Kannaradeva, 154, 156.

Kantha, 104.

Kanthika-Vijayaditya (or Kanthika-
Beta), 137, 138.

Kanthakot, 104, 107.

Kantideva (k. of Vahga), 54, 88.
Kantipura, 59.

Kanvayana (Gotra), 142.

Kanyakubja, 27, 29, 38, 41(n), 42(n), 116,
390.

Kanyakubja- hhukti, 41(n).

Kapardin II (^ilahara king of Konkan),
88

Kapila, 176, 374.

Kapilabala, 199.

Kapisa, 405.

Kapisayana, 405.

Kapphanabhyudaya, 182.

Kara Dynasty, 147.

Kara Inscription, 43 (n).
Karakanda-chariu, 218.

Karall, 344.

Karana, 372, 374, 395(n).

Karana-kdyastha , 395(n).

Karariatilaka, 200.

Karandai Plates, 167.

Karandavyuha, 261, 262, 263, 361 (n).
Karatoya (river), 61.

Karavandapuram, 158.

Karas, 62, 63-69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77,
78, 80(n), 81(n), 82(n), 148, 149.
Karavlrapur#,- 124.

Kar-gyu-pa sect., 275.

Karhld plates, 18 (n), 89.

Karikala, 153.

Kdrikds, 194.

Karitalai, 91.

Karivarsha (Sahilla-varman), 122.

Karka II (Gujarat Rashb*akuta), 41(n).
Karkka, 2, 134.

Karkka (Gujarat Rash^rakuta), 8, 10, 26,
41 ( n ) , 95.

Karkka II, 15-16.

Karkota dynasty, 115-7.

Karma, 258.

Karman , 312.

Karma- sadakhya (-sadatattva), 310.
Karmastkdnas, 244.

Karma tantra, 264.

Karmukarjuna, 139.

Kama (Kalachuri k.), 91.

Kama (Rashtrakuta k.), 139.

Kama! District, 110, 384.

Karnapa, 117.

Karnataka (army), 1.

Kamata (k, ka) (country), 3, 16, 24, 101,
109, 130(n), 136, 221, 293, 295, 323,
411(n).

557

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Karnataka, The Heritage of, 231(h).
Karnatas, 90, 172.

Karpuramanjari , 180, 386, 391, 396(n).
Kartripura, 124.

Kartri-sadikhya, 310.

Karttikeya, 264, 324, 329, 330, 331, 341,
342, 343, 344, 345, 349, 364{n).
Karttikeyanl, 340, 344.

Karttikeyapura, 123, 124.
Karuna-srimitra, 274.

Karunatar, 221.

Kasara, 331.

Kashgarh — See also Utftfiyana, 323.
Kashipuri temple, 336.

Kashmir, 58, 85, 90, 91, 112, 113, 115-
121, 126, 131 (n), 186, 187, 191, 193,
195, 200, 206, 244, 245, 258, 259, 268,
270, 272, 273, 274, 304, 333, 337, 345,
360(n), 369, 396(n), 404, 447.
Kashmir, History of, 115-121.
Kashmirian Poets, 183, 186.

Kasika (Banaras), 86.

Kdsikdvritti, 315, 425.

KasikhaTufa, 371,

Kasmirl warriors, 85.

Kasyapa (writer), 199.

Kasyapa I, 176.

Kasyapa IV Srlsahghabodhi, 170.
Kasyapa V Abhaya £ilameghavarna, 170.
Katak&dhUa, 247.

Katantra grammar — See also Kalapa,
190.

Kataragam — See also Kajaragrama, 174.
Kathai, 118.

Kathasaritsdgara , 187, 443.

Kathiawar (d), 22, 25, 32, 33, 35, 36,
41 (n), 46, 99-103, 296, 330, 333, 342,
353, 374.

Katisama, 306.

Katmandu, 60.

Kaftirai, 166, 167.

Katyayana, 232, 370.

Katyayana-Smriti, 366.

Katyayaiu, 339, 340, 343, 364(n).

Katyur, 124.

Katyuri king, 124.

Kaula, 322, 373.

Kauldchdra , 320, 321, 323.
Kaalajhanardirnaya, 322.

Kaulam Malaya, 403.

Kaumari, 339, 344.

Kaun^inya, 416.

Kau&ambl, 41 (n).

Kautilya, 186, 239.

Kavanur, 156.

Kaveri (region), 151, 152, 153, 158.
Kaveri (river), 4, 221, 403.

Kavi, 333.

Kavindravachana- samuchchaya, 187.
Kaviparamesh{hi, 223.

Kaviprasasti , 395 (n).

Kavirahasya, 190.

Kaviraja, 180.

Kavirdjamarga, 11, 221, 222, 223, 224, 294.
Kaviratna, 291.

Kdvya, 182.

Kavyadarsa, 224.

Kdvyakautuka, 194, 195.

Kdvydlamkdra, 186, 191, 192, 214.
Kdvydlamkarasutravritti, 193.
Kdvyamtmdihsd , 180, 181, 195, 385, 389,
400, 403, 404, 405.

Kavyanaya, 194.

Kdvyardkshasa — See also Rakshasa -

kdvya, 186.

Kayasthas, 118, 372, 374, 395(n).
Kayasthas of Bengal, 395(n).

Kayotsarga, 297, 298.

Kedara, 47.

Kedaramisra, 50.

Kedu (plain), 440.

Keith 182, 184, 186, 193, 228(n), 229(h),
230(n).

Keonjhar, 68, 74, 75, 76, 77.

Kerala, 8, 35, 154, 155, 157, 158, 164, 165,
170, 172, 322, 323, 390.

Kesadhatu Kasyapa, 174.

KesinI, 281.

Ketu, 297, 352.

Keyuravarsha (Yuvaraja I, Kalachuri
k,), 89.

Khadgatunga, 82 (n).

Khadgavaloka, 2.

Khadi-mandalor— See also Twentyfour
Pergannas, W. B., 279.

Khadipada Ins., 64, 81 (n).

Khajuraho (Khajraho), 83, 85, 130(n),
313, 328, 331, 332, 333, 334, 343.
Kliajuraho Ins., 42 (n), 90.

Khajuraho Inscription of Dhahga, 43 (n).
Khalimpur copper plate, 45, 55.
Khandagiri, 333.

K haruiakliddyaka, 450.

Khandaraksha, 243, 255(n).

Khandesh. 2.

Khandhaparitta, 360(n).

Khanfu, 402.

Khan-hoa, 421.

Kharagiri, 159.

Kharasan— -Mandali, 354.
Kharataragachckhapatfdvali, 296.

Khari, 336.

Kharjuravahaka, 83.

Kharparadeva, 123.

Khasarpana, 279.

Khasas. 85, 116, 118, 120.

Khatiknattara, 401.

KJhed-Brahma, 331.

Khema (Elder), 211.

Khemappakarana—See also Paramattha -
dipa, 211.

Khera, 331.

Khe^aka (Kaira Dist.), 17(n), 31, 32, 96,
105.

Khichiiig, 70, 76, 334, 337.

Khijjihga, 69, 74.

Khifijali, 69.

Khihjali, Lord of, 71.

Khmer, 404, 417, 419, 423.

Khola, 243, 255(n).

Khommana I (Guhila K.), 109.
Khommana II (Guhila K.), 106, 109.

558

INDEX

Khommana III, 109.

Khorasan, 354.

Khottiga (deva), 15, 96, 218.
Khri-Sron-lde-btsan, 58, 79(n), 271, 446,
447.

Khulna, 330.

Khumm&na-Rdso, 106.

Klchaka, 186.

Kichakavadha, 186.

Kielhorn, 80(n), 81(n), 112, 130(n),

131(n).

Kikanan, 126.

Kim river, 21, 40(n), 41(n).
Kinderkheda, 333.

Kinjili, 73.

Kinsukad, 14.

Kira (country), 46, 47, 90, 122.

Kiradu, 97.

Kiranapura, 88, 89, 135.

Kiranavall, 205.

Kiranpur, 135.

Kiras, 122.

Kirata, 24, 25, 56(n).

Kiratarjuna, 307.

Kirilin, 93.

KIrti, 173, 174.

Klrtilata, 219.

KIrtisena, 182.

Klrtisirhha, 219.

Klrtivarman II (Chalukya), 2, 3.
KIrttimukha, 439.

Kirttinarayana (Govinda III), 6.
Kirttinartiyana (Indra III), 13.
Klrttivarman (Guhila), 110.
Klrtyagrabodhi, 170.

Kishanganga valley (Kashmir), 112.
Kochchatfaiyan, 158.

Kodalaka (Kodaloka), 82 (n).
Kodan^arama, 154.

Ko^umbalur, 154. 157.

Koh Ker, 421.

Koil-ndnmanimdlai, 228.

Kokkalla I, 11, 30, 34, 35, 83, 87, 88, 93,
107, 110, 130(n).

Kokwalla II, 91, 105.

Kolahala (also called Ananta-varman),
142.

Kolahalapura, 142.

Kolanu, 139.

Kolar, 142, 161.

Kollam era, 165.

Ko-lo-fong, 433.

Konarak, 334, 352.

Korigoda, 62, 66, 68.

Kongudesa, 152, 154, 158, 159, 164.
Konkan, 3, 88, 189, 246.

Konkana, 323, 370.

Konow, 180, 182, 229(n).

Konur, 330,

Ko-Perunjinga, 153.

Koppana, 292, 295.

Koranganatha, 329.

Kosala, 1, 7, 62, 86, 88, 91, 105, 135, 146,
148, 149, 276, 323.

Kotalipada, 350.

Kotaragama, 176.

Kotas. 291.

Kojtabhanja, 75.

Kottapdla, 240, 243.

Kovils, 176, 177.

Kra, Isthmus of, 413, 422.

Kratha, 86.

Krishna (god), 314, 331, 332, 360, 438.
Krishna (Guhila k.), 110.

Krishna (river), 137.

Krishna I (Rashtrakuta), 3, 18(n), 102.
131(n), 133, 160.

Krishna II(do), 10, 11-12, 18(n), 31, 34,
35, 53, 57 (n), 88, 89, 130(n), 135, 136,
149 155 291.

Krishna III (do), ' 14-15, 16, 37, 38, 43(n),
(n), 84, 89, 95, 110, 139, 155, 156,
162, 171, 173, 188, 218, 292, 369,
397 (n).

Krishnacharin, 268.

Krishnadeva Raya (of Vijayanagar,) 163.
Krishna District, 57 (n).
Krshnamachariar, 229(n), 230(n).
Krishnadeva Agamavaglsa, 362 (n).
Krishnaraja (Gujarat Rashtrakuta), 11,
12.

Krishnaraja (or Upendra, Paramara k.),
94.

Krishnaraja I (Saindhava k.), 99.
Krishnaraja II (Saindhava k.) 100.
Krishnraja HI, 190.

Krishnarshi, 209.

Krishnasamayavajra, 273, 275.

Krishna vena, 133.

Krishnayamari-tantra, 268, 269.
Krishnesvara (temple of), 14, 15
K’ri-sron-lde-btsan, 79, (n).

Krittikas, 342.

Krittivnsa, 309.

Krityakalpataru, 236.

Kriya-sakti, 310.

Kriyas, 259, 262, 264, 266.

Kriya tantra, 264, 268, 271, 272.

Krodha, 308.

Krodharajas, 264.

Kshemagupta (k. of Kashmir), 113, 114,
119, 396(n).

Kshemankaradeva, 63.

Kshemaraja (Chapa k.), 103.
Kshemendra, 182, 184, 187, 195/ 229(n).
Kshemlsvara, 181.

Kshetrapa, 243.

Kshlra (scholar), 116.

Kshlrasvamin, 190.

Kshitigarbha, 290.

Kshitipala (Pratlhara k.), 33, 34, 36, 37,
84.

Kualu, 82(n).

Kubera (— Vaisravana), 237, 283, 299,

300, 342.

Kudamukku, 152, 159.

Kukkanur, 343.

Kukkuri, 268.

Kukku^apada- giri, 278.

Kula, 251.

Ku IcCkundalinx, 325.

Kulalikdmnaya, 323.

559

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Kulanayika, 320.

Kularnava T antra, 321.

Kulasekhara, 184, 185,

Kula-stambha, 77, 82 (n).

Kulottunga, 145,

Kulu (country), 122.

Kuluta (country), 122.

Kulutas, 35.

Kumara, ,299.

Kumaraghosha, 415.

Kumara-gupta I, 348.

Kumaralabdha, 360(n).

Kumar andrdy ana (Paramara Sindhu-

raja), 98.

Kumarapala, 208.

Kumarasambhava, 191.

Kumarila, 204, 259, 312, 329, 354, 357.
Kumarpur, 334.

Kumaun, 123-125.

Kumayun, 344.

Kumbha, 230.

Kumbhakonam, - 152, 159, 167.

Kumurang plate, 68.

Kundahar, 126.

KundakadevI (Kalachuri princess), 89.
Kundakunda, 294.

Kundavvai, 161, 163.

Kun^i, 336, 349.

Kundur, 255(n).

Kuhjaramalla (title of Parantaka), 155.
Kun Pandya, 292.

Kuntaka (poet) — See also Kuntala, 191,
194, 195, 197, 198.

Kuntala (country), 86.

Kuntala (poet) — See also Kuntala, 182,
191.

Kuntalas, 35, 92.

Kuppanayya (son of Makariyaraja), 139.
Kuppanayya (s. of Turkkiya-Yajvan),
139.

Kurma Purana, 203, 332, 335, 367.
Kurnool District, 149.

Kurram, 247.

Kuru, 46, 47.

Kurukshetra, 85, 122, 323, 336.

Kurukulla, 341.

Kurukullasadhana, 269.

Kuruna^u, 158.

Kurus, 85.

Kushmanda, 343, 364 (n).

Kushmandini, 299.

Kusumahiura I, 63, 67.

Kusumahara II, 64.

Kusumanjali — See also Nydyakusuman-
j ali 206.

Kutch, 102.

Kuttanxmatam, 186, 367, 380, 381, 382,
385, 389, 397(n), 398(n).
Kuvalayamald , 21, 209.

Kuvalayaplda, 115.

Kuvera, 176.

Lacote, ,187.

Lad Khan’s temple, 334.

La^ahachandra, 185.

Lagaturman, 112.

Laghman, 115.

Laghumanasa, 200.

Laghuvritti, 191.

Laghu-Vyasa, 367, 371.

Lahara District, 117.

Lahora, 289.

Lahore, 114, 131 (n).

Lakha, 104.

Laksha, 102, 104.

Lakshandvall , 205, 231 (n).

Laksha varman (Chandella Yasovarman),
84.

Lakshmana (Chahamana), 107, 108.
Lakshmana (a general), 148.

Lakshmana (Kachchhapaghata), 86.
Lakshmanagupta, 194.

Lakshmanaraja (k. of Dahala-mandala),
87.

Lakshmanaraja (Kalachuri k.), 91, 105,
130(n), 147.

Lakshmanasena, 347.

Lakshmi — see also Sri, 283, 314, 318, 329,
338, 340, 341, 342, 344, 362(n).
Lakshmi (Kalachuri princess), 89.
Lakshmldhara, 236.

LakshmI-Ganapati, 345, 346.

Lakshmlkara, 64.

Lakshmlihkara, 269, 270.
LakshmI-Narayana, 338.

Lakshmlndra Bhumlsvara Gramasvamin,
Sri, 425.

Lakshmi- varman, 122.

Lalullsa, 337.

Lala Bhagat, 333.

Lalatatilaka, 306.

Lalita, 306.

Lalita, 344.

Lalitaditya-Muktaplda, 58, 115, 117, 126,
183 244

Lalitahara I, 64, 67.

Lalitahara II, 64.

Lalitapl<^a, 116.

Lalitasuradeva (king), 123, 1224.
Lalitasuradeva (poet), 184,.

Lalitavajra, 268, 269, 362(n).

Lalitavistara, 261, 360 (n).

Lalliya Shahi, 112, 113, 118.

Lalmai Hills, 54.

Lama ism, 447.

Lamghan, 86, 115.

Lanka — See Ceylon.

Lankapurl, 269.

Laiikesvara cave, 333.

Laos, 416, 418.

Lara Jongrang, 428, 440, 441.

Lata, 1, 11, 19, 20, 24, 90, 91, 97, 104,
105, 109, 136, 189, 323.

Latas, 90.

Lattalura, 1.

Laugakshi-Smriti , 366.

Lauhitya (river), 61.

Laukayatikas, 373.

Lavanabhara II, 64, 68.

Lavapurl, 422.

[ Law, B.C., 211, 228(n), 230(n).

560

INDEX '

Layahachandra, 54.

Le Hoan, 426, 427.

Le Nepal 56(n), 60, 79(n).

Leiden (plates), 159, 248.

Lemulavada, 189.

Levi, S., 56(n) 58, 59, 60, 65, 80, (n),

131(n), 323.

Leyden Museum, Holland, 282, 286.

Lha Lama Ye-ses-hod, 448.

Lhasa, 447.

LiladevI, 103.

Lllavajra, 270, 273, 362(n).

Lildvati, 200, 206.

Limbdi, 103.

Lihga Parana, 203, 392.

Lihgayats, 288, 323.

Loehana, 183, 193, 195.

Lochana, 262, 266.

Lohamahaseya — See also Lohaprasada,
175.

Lohara, 85, 113, 117, 120.

Lohaprasada — See also Lohamahaseva,
175.

Lohrin, 85, 113, 120.

Lohur, 114.

LckamahadevI, 138.

Lokanatha, 279, 280, 282, 285 (n).
Lokapala, Sri, 430.

Lckasena, 183.

Lokayatikas, 373.

Lokesvara, 174, 280, -292, 362(n).
Lokesvara Khasarpana, 60.

Loiei, 417.

Lonabhara I, 64, 67, 68.

Lova-Bikki, 138.

Lucknow Museum, 287, 297.

Luh avur, 131 ( n ) .

Lui-pa (Lui-pada), 266, 268, 361(n).
Lu’u-Ky-Tong, 426.

Macdonel, 453 (n ) .

Machchhaveha, 218.

M add lasdchampi i, 188.

Madaun, 332.

Madhavacharya, 363 ( n ) .

Madhavakara, 199.

Madhavanala, 187.

Madhavanala-Kamakandald-Katha, 187.
Madhava-niddna — See also Nidana and
Rugvinischaya , 199.

Madhavasena, 219.

Madhukamarnava, 142, 143, 144.
Madhukesa (name of Siva), 143
Madhurakavi, 158.

Madhurakavi (title), 154, 160,
Madhurantaka Gandaraditya (son of
Uttama Chola), 157.

Madhusudana, 181.

Madhya Bharat, 94.

Madhyadesa, 109, 323.

Madhyamika, 266, 271.
Madhyamika-Karikd, 361 (n) .

Madhya Pradesh, 2, 3, 87, 88, 98.
Madhyastha, 249.

Madkyayuglna Charitra Kosa, 230{n).
Madra, 46, 47.

Madras, 151, 152, 299, 307, 334, 335, 442.
Madras Museum Plates, 158.

Madura, 154, 159, 169, 170, 173, 344, 434.

Maduraikonda> 154.

Maduraiyum ilamuni Konda , 154.
Magadha, 9, 11, 33, 49, ' 51, 53, 57(n),
85, 159, 272, 274, 289, 323, 360(n),
i 445, 447, 448.

Magadha (caste), 373.

Mdgadhl, 213, 215.

Magama, 174, 175.

Magas, 334,

Magha, 178, 182, 183, 193.
Mahdbaladhikrita, 244.

Mahabalipuram, 152.

Mahdbhandgdrika, 244.

Mahdhhdraia, 217, 218, 225, 236, 237, 238,
243, 316, 332, 341, 371, 436, 440.
Mahdbhashya, 213, 420.

Mahabhavagupta, 91.

Mahdbodhivamsa, 211, 212.

Mahachlna — See Tibet.

Mahachina-Tara, 284.

Mahddandanayaka, 243.
Mahadauhsadhasadhanika, 243.
Mahadeva, 185, 425.

MahadevI (or MahidevI, q. of Mahen-
drapala, Pratihara k.), 33, 34.
Mahadvaradhipatya, 244.

Maha-Ganapati, 345.

Mahagaurl, 343, 364(n).

Mahagrama — See Magama.

Mahajanas, 289.

Mahajanas, 246, 247.

Mahakala, 136.

Mahakala (Hin pantheon), 304, 345.
Mahakali, 185, 330, 339, 344.

M ahdkdrtdkritika, 243.

Mahakshapatalika, 243.
Mahdkumdrdmdtya, 243.

Mahalakshml, 11, 339, 340, 344, 348.
Mahalanakirti, 173.

Mahalingam, T. V., 165 (n).
Mahalingesvara, 330.

Mahalla, 101.

Mahamahattaras, 243.

Mahdmdtya, 244.

Mahdmdyd, 268, 348.
Mahamayuri-dharani, 260.
Mahdmdyiirl-vidydrdni, 261.
Mahameghavana, 174.

Mahamudras, 262.

MahanadI (river), 1, 63, 70, 148.
Mahanama, 211.

Mahdndtaka, 181.

Mahdnirvdnatantra , 310, 317.

Mahapadma (lake), 117.

Mahapala, 275.

Mahdparinirvana , 275, 276.
Mahdprabandha, 180.
Mahaprachandadandanayaka, 245.
Mahapratlhara , 240, 244.

Mahdprai yangird-d. hdrani, 263 .
Mahdp'urana , 198, 218.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Mahapurusha-Nirnaya, 206.
Maharajashanda (Amoghavarsha I), 8.
Maharashtra, 2, 180, 245, 246, 323.
Maha-Rattavaihsa, 137.

Mahasabhi, 156.

Maha-Sadasiva-murti, 305, 309, 310.
Mahasadhanabhaga, 244.

Mahasainyapati, 244.

Mahasamanta, 247, 255(n).
Mahasdndhivigrahika, 243, 244, 245.
Maha- Saras vati, 339.

Mahasena, 329.

Mahasena (deity), 344.

Mahasena (king), 175.

Mahasenapati, 243.

Mahasivagupta (Kesarin) Somavamsi,
146.

Mahasivagupta Yayati, 71, 147, 148, 149.
Mahastambha 273.

Mahasvasala, 244.

Mahasveta, 334, 350.

Mahattamas, 243.

Mahattaras, 243, 246.

Mahattara Yak ini, 207.

Mahavamsa, 212.

Mahavaraha, 102, 131 (n).

Mahavidyas, 287.

Mahavihara, 175, 211.

Mahavlra, 11, 200, 224, 288, 290, 322, 355.
Mahdmracharitor—SeQ also Vardhamana-
charita and Sanmitracharita, 183.
Maha virachar ya , 11, 291, 294.

Mahayaka (Guhila), 109.

Mahayana Buddhism, 259, 262, 264, 266,
267, 273, 274, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284,
285, 286, 287, 288, 300, 332, 338, 346,
360(n), 415, 436.

Mahay ana- sutras, 260, 261, 268.
Mahayana texts, 266.

Mahdi (Caliph), 100.

Mahendra (Ceylon prince), 169.
Mahendra (Chiihamana), 107, 108.
Mahendra (i.e. Chalukya-Bhlma II),
138

Mahendra (hill), 63, 142, 144.

Mahendra (place), 332, 335.

Mahendra I (or Mahendradhiraja)
(Nolamba), 163, 164.

Mahendra II, gilameghavama, 169,
177(n).

Mahendra HI, 6ilameghavama, 169.
Mahendra IV, 6iisahghabodhi, 171.
Mahendra V. 172, 173, 177(n).

Mahendra -Bnauma, 64.

Mahendradatta, 430.
Mahendramatalisanjalpa, 189.
Mahendrantaka, 164.

Mahendrapala I (Pratlhara k.), 31, 32,
33, 34, 35, 39, 42(n), 53, 57(n), 90,
101, 111, 112, 118, 241, 396 (n).
Mahendrapala II (Pratlhara k.), 31, 37,
40(n), 43(n), 84, 95, 131(n), 189, 241.
Mahendraparvata, 417.

Mahendra-varman, 292.

Mahendrayudha (Mahendrapala I, Pra¬
tlhara k.), 33.

Mahendri, 340.

Mahendu, 108.

Mahesa, 332.

Mahesa-murti, 305, 310.

Mahesvara, 262.

Mahesvarapasa, 330.

Mahesvarasuri, 209.

Mahesvarl, 340.

Mahesvarl Samhita, 335.

Mahl (river), 1, 96.

Mahidev! (or Mahadevi ) , 33, 34, 42(n).
Mahimabhatta, 194, 195.

Mahinda, 211.

Mahinda IV, 210, 212.

Mahlndrapala (Mahendrapala I, Pratl¬
hara k.), 33, 42(n).

Mahlndra-varman (6vetaka king), 145.
Mahlpala I (Pala k.), 55, 242, 361 (n).
Mahlpala I (Pratlhara k.), 13, 33-37,
42(n), 84, 86, 90, 92, 94, 95, 101, 103,
107, 111, 181.

Mahlpala II (Pratlhara k.), 37.
MahishamardinI, 331, 335, 339, 343.
MahishamardinI mandapa, 329.
Mahishapala, 42(n).

Mahisharama (Chaihamana k.), 108.
Mahishasuramardinl, 340, 344, 347.
Mahishika, 63.

Mahishmatl, 180.

Mahmud Sultan, 38, 39, 115, 409.
Mahoba, 84, 279.

Mahodaya, 29, 390.

Mahotsava-nagara, 84.

Maihar, 38, 89, 340.

Mailla-dhavala, 216.

Mainamati Hills, 54.

Maithilikalyana, 180.

Maitrakas, 374.

Maitreya, 277, 278, 280.

Maitreya, Akshaya Kumar, 55(n).
Maitreyarakshita, 190.

Maitrl-srimitra, 273.

Majumdar, N. G., 362(n).

Majumdar, R. C., 40, 76, 83, 130 (n),
364(n), 365(n).

Makara (motif), 439.

Makaras, the five, 267.

Makariyaraja, 139.
Makutavaihsa-vardhana, 430, 431.
Malabar, 165, 170, 172, 390, 401, 403.
Malalasekera, 211, 212.

Malang, 428.

Malava, 1, 5, 7, 9, .10, 24, 40 (n), 45, 84,
85, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 101, 104, 105,
110, 133, 162, 185, 296.

Malava (river), 96.

Mala^r (Peninsula), 403, 412, 413, 414,
416, 422, 423, 427, 442.

Malaya (country), 89, 176.

Malaya Hill, 403.

Malaya Mountains, 57 (n).

Malayagiri, 293.

Malayaketu (dynasty), 93.

Malayalam, 222.

Malayalam era, 165.

Malayasia, 415.

562

INDEX

Maliyapundi grant of Amma II, 8, 138.
Malkhed (Manyakheta), 10, 13, 15, 133,

13?

Malla, 57 (n), 137.

Malladatta, 147.

Mallagambhlra, 70, 81 (n).

Mallai, 152.

Mallapa (or Yuddhamalla), 137.
Mallappa, 292.

Mallesvarasvami temple, 138.

Malliya, 138.

Malwa, 2, 4, 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 31, 32,
35, 36, 46, 47, 242, 289, 390.

Mamaki, 262, 266.

Mamallapuram, 307, 329, 330, 332, 333,
338, 442.

Mammata, 192, 198.

Mana (tribe), 98.

Manabharana, 173, 174.

Manadeva, 210.

Manasa, 300, 342.

Manasara, 344.

Manatunga, 185, 229 (n).

Mana-varman, 176.

Manda, 332.

Mandahukur, 131 (n).

MandakinI, 77.

Mandal, 105.

Mandalachdrya } 264.

Mandalas, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 269.
Mandalesa , 244.

Mandali, 105.

Mandalis, 240.

Mandanamisra — See also Suresvara, 204,
312, 359, 365(n).

Mandapa, 176.

Mandapika (Mandu), 31.

Mandasa grant, 143, 144, 145.

Mandasor stone inscription of the time
of Nara-varman, 362(n).

Mandhuk Ins. of Gopala II, 57 (n).
Mandoil, 330.

Mandu (Mandapika), 31, 37.

Mangala, 352.

Mahgalaraja, 70.

Mangalore, 158.

Mahgi, 135.

Marti, 361(n).

Manidhara, 279.

Manigramarn, 406, 411 (n).
Manikkavasagar, 158.

ManikyanadI, 294, 364 (n).

Mahjughosha, 281, 282.

Mahjusri, Black, 345.

Mahjusri (prince), 444.

Mahjusri, the Bodhisattva, 262, 270, 281,
282, 446.

Manjusrikrodha, 271.

Manjusrimulakalpa , 262, 263-264, 270,

361(n), 362(n).

Man ju vara, 281, 282.

Mankh, 451.

Mankha, 179, 190.

Mannargudi, 312.

Manne, 160.

Manoratha, 194.

Mansura, 127, 128.

Mantai — See also Matota, 172.
Mantracharyas, 268.

Mantra cult, 264.

Mantrapadas — See a^o Dhdranis } 261,
262.

Mantras, 260, 264, 265, 266, 269.
Mantra-treatises, 273.

Mantrayana, 81 (n), 360 (n).

Manu-~See also Manu-smriti, 200, 203,
232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 243, 249, 251,
253, 254, 254(n), 255(n), 256, 366,

368, 370, 371, 372, 377, 378, 379, 381,
383, 387, 388, 392(n), 393(n), 394(n),
395(n), 396(n), 397(n), 399(n), 405,
406, 407, 408, 409(n), 410(n), 411(n).
Manujendra-varman, 141.

Manuscripts belonging to Durbar Lib¬
rary of Nepal, A Catalogue of Palm-
leaf and selected paper , 79(n).
Manu-smriti , — See also Manu, 204, 232,
239, 252, 256(n), 434, 443.
Manyakheta (Malkhed), 10, 96, 105, 133,
137, 218, 294.

Manyapuram, 3.

Mara, 276.

Marai temple, 340.

Maranjadaiyan, 157.

Marasarva (or Sarva), 7.

Marasirhha (brother of Kamarnava and
son of VIrasimha), 142.

Marasirhha I, 160.

Marasirhha IT, 15, 16, 38, 96, 160, 161, 290.
Marasirhha III, 162, 164.

Maratha girls, 390.

Maravarman Rajasirhha I, 157, 158.
Maravarman Rajasirhha II, 159.
Maravarman Rajasirhha III, 170.
Maravada (Marwar), 104.

Mdrga, 320.

Marichl, 287, 336, 362(n).

Marlchi, Ashtabhuja, 287.

Markandeya, 216, 283, 309.

Markandeya, Purdna, 181, 332, 339, 340,
341,' 351, 364(n).

Mar-pa, 275.

Marriage rules, 374.

Marshall, John, 313.

Martanda, 113.

Martanda, temple, 333.
Martanda-Bhairava, 332, 334, 335, 351,
364(n).

Maru country, 268.

Marudur, 158.

Maruladeva, 162.

Maruti, 333.

Marwar, 97, 104, 107.

Maryddddhurya , 241.

Masantanadeva, 123.

Mas-udI — See A1 Mas-udi.
Matamatasirhha, 122.

Matanga — See also Srlsaila, 323.
Matangajadhyaksha , 247, 256(n).

Matangi, 344.

Mataram, 427-428, 429.
v Mathanadeva, 38.

563

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Mathura, 46, 215, 290, 333.

Mathura, 215.

Mati-vamsa, 63.

Matota-See also Mantai, 172.

Matricheta, 268.

Matrika, 348.

Matrikanydsa, 366.

Matrikas, 336.

Matsya, 24, 25, 46.

Matsya Purdna, 238, 254(n), 255 (n), 307,
334, 335, *368, 370, 378, 380, 381, 390,
392, 394(n), 396(n), 409(n).
Mattamayura, 90, 91, 104.

Mattata, .109.

Maukhari, 77.

Maya, 276, 318, 359.

Maya sakti, 337.

Maydjala, 271.

Mayapandya, 158.

Mayavada, 360.

Mayilai, 152.

Mayura, 185, 186, 192, 198, 443.
Mayurakhin^i or Morkhind (Nasik Dt.),
10.

Mayurasataka, 185, 192.

Mayura-vamsa, 77.

Mayurbhanj, 69, 74, 76, 77.

Mecca, 165.

Medapata, 97, 109, 110.

Medhatithi, 203, 204. 232, 233, 234, 235,
236, 249, 250, 253, 254, 256(n), 366,
367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374,
375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 383,
384, 387, 388, 389;, 390, 391, 393 (n),
394 (n), 395 (n), 396(n), 397 (n), 400,
401, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409 (n),
410 (n).

Medieval Jainism, 363(n).

Medinikosha, 395 (n).

Meds, 127.

Meghaduta, 183.

Mekalas, 35.

Mekalasuta (river), 90.

Mekong, 416, 422.

Melanba, 137.

Melpa^i, 14.

Menam, 420, 422.

Menikganga, 174.

Merutunaga, 96, 105, 187.

Mewar, 87, 220. 310.

Middle East, 260.

Midnapur district, 297.

IVlihintale, 174.

Mihira (Pratlhara Bhoja I), 28-32.
Milindapanha. 260, 360(n).

Mimamsas, 152, 259, 357, 365(n), 425.
Mirashi, V. V., 17(n), 18(n), 130(n),

229 (n).

Misra, B., 69, 77, 79(n), 80(n), 81(n),
82(n), 150.

Mitdkshara, 203, 204.

Mithila, 85.

Mithila-rashtra, 422, 433.

Mitramisra, 400.

Mlechchha, 19, 102, 108, 115, 128.
/Vflfodhera, 290, 331, 333.

Moggalana (I or III), 211.

Moharati, 266.

Mons, 432, 433.

Monghyr, 25, 26, 47, 48 401.

Monghyr Copper Plate, 51, 55.

Monism, 300, 359.

Mookerjee, Dr. Satkari, 193.

Moon, 237.

Moplahs, 165.

Moraparitta, 360 (n).

Morkhind (Mayurakhirujli, Nasik Dt.),

10.

Mother- and-child images, 336.

Mothers, Seven, 330, 344.

Mrammas, 433.

Mrichchhakatika , 215.

Mrigankagupta, 184.

Mritasanjivini, 190.

Mrityunjaya-varman, 122.

Mudrarakshasa, 178, 179.

Mudrds, 259, 262, 264, 266, 269.

Mudwara sub-division, 91.

Mugali, R\ S., 231 (n).

Mugdhatunga (6ankaragana Kalachuri
k. of Dahala), 88, 146.

Mughal empire, 36.

Muhammad ‘Aufi, 113.

Muhammad bin Mansur, 114.

Muhammad ibn-Qasim, 127.
Muhammadans — See also Muslims 18(n),
32.

Mu-Khri-btsan-po (Mu-tig-Btsan-po),
446.

Muktakana, 117.

Muktimandapa, 340.

Mukulabhatta, 195.

Mukundamdla , 185.

Mulaka (Aurangabad Dist.), 17 (n).
Mularaja I. 91, 92, 96, 97, 99, 102, 103,
104-5, 106, 107, 131(n) .

Multan, 35, 115, 126, 128, 129, 333, 403,
405.

Mummu^i-Chola-mandalam, 172.
Mummuniraja, 189.

Munja, 92, 94, 96, 97, 98, 105, 106, 108,
109, 190, 196.

Munjala, 200.

Muralas, 35.

Murari, 179, 180.

Mursinga, 147.

Murtta-sadakhya, 310.

Murtyashtakas, 311.

Muruga, 344.

Musa, 128'.

Musalmans, 18(n).

Muscat, 403.

Mushana (dynasty), 122,.
Mushana-varman, 122.

Musi, 3.33.

Muslims, — See also Muhammadans 25,
32, 35, 46, 86, 99, 106, 113, 115, 125-9,
352, 353, 409, 449, 452, 453.
Muttaraiyar, 153.

Muyalaka, 306.

Muzaffarabad, 118.

Mylapore, 152, 165, 292.

564

INDEX

Myson, 442.

Mysore, 16, 92, 132, 142, 164, 221, 223,
298.

Mysore and Coorg, 165(n), 363(n).
Mystic Tales of Lama Tardngtka, 361 (n).

Ndda, 324.

Nadanta, 306.

Naddula, 107, 108.

Nadol, 97, 108.

Nadu, 247.

Naga, 98, 135.

Nagabhata I, 19-21, 40(n), 127.
Nagabhata II, 6, 7, 10, 24-28, 29, 32, 35,
40, 41(n), 47, 48, 50, 51, 56(n), 83, 94,
95, 100, 101, 103, 106, 109, 110, 127,
135, 290.

Nagadeva, 292.

Nagadevlpa — See also Ceylon and Jaffna,
171.

Naga kings, 277.

Nagara (city), 143.

Nagara Bramanas, 374, 395 (n).
Nagaradhipa, 244.

Nagarahara (Jelalabad), 52.

Nagarapatis — See also purapatis, 246.
Nagarattar, 411(n).

Nagarjuna, 199, 259, 265, 266, 269, 286,
360(n).

Nagarjunikonda, 175.

Nag as, 261.

Nagas (images), 175.

Nagavaloka, 27, 40(n), 41 (n), 106.
Nagavarma I, 224.

Nagila Kaula, 210.

Nagod State, 330.

Nahar, 363 (n).

Nainar, S. M. H., 56(n).

Nairatma, 288.

Naishadhdnanda, 181.

Naiskkarmyasiddhi, 365(n ) .

Naishthika, 366.

Naiyayikas, 267, 272..

Nala, 186, 188.

Nalachampu, — See also Damayantikatha,
188.

Nalagiri, taming of, 275, 276.

Nalanda, 176.

Nalanda, 44, 49, 52, 268, 269, 271, 272,
274, 335, 341, 344, 369, 415, 436, 444,
446, 489.

Nalanda Copper Plate, 56(n), 411.
Nalanda monastery, 270, 275.

Ndldyira Prabandham, 227.

Ndl-gdvundas , 245, 292.

Nalodaya, 184, 186.

Namamdla, 184.

Ndma-rupa-samdsa, 211.
Namaskfira-mudrd, 279, 314.
Nambi-Andar-Nambi, 227.

Nambi, Purushothama, 227.

Namisadhu, 186, 192.

Nammalvar, 312.

Nanadesa-Tisaiyayirattu-Ainnurruvar,

406, 411 (n).

Nanak, 216,

Nan-Chao, 422, 433.

Nanda, 277.

N and as (of Orissa), 78.

Nandi, 307, 329.

Nandigupta, 121.

Nandikampa, 166.

Nandikkalambakam, 151.

Nandimath, Dr. S. C. 231 (n).

Nanllpurl (Nandod), 2, 19, 21, 40(n).
Nandishena, 210.

Nandivardhana, 397 (n).

Nandi-varman II, Pailavamalla, 151, 163,
166, 167, 188.

Nandivarman III, 139, 151, 152, 159.
Nandod Nandlpurl, 2.

Nanduna, salt mines of, 114.

Nanni Nolamba, 164.

Nannuka, 83.

Nara. 116, 117.

Narada, 251, 252, 376, 406.
Ndradiyamahapurdna, 391.

Ndradiya Parana, 203, 335, 366, 375.
Naraka (dynasty), 60, 63, 80(n),
Narasimha (iconography), 331, 332, 311.
Narasimha (a feudatory of Indra III),
135.

Narasimha (son of Nltimarga II), 161.
Narasimha II (Chalukya), 13, 35, 36.
Narasimhacharya, R., 222.
Narasirhha-varman, 166, 167.

NarasimhI, 340.

Naravaliana (Guhila k.), 97, 109.
Naravahana (Kashmir minister), 121.
Naravahana (khasa k.), 117.

Naravarman (Guhila), 110, 269.
Narayana, 186, 332, 341, 350.
Narayanpala (KLamboja k.), 54.
Narayanapala (Pala k.), 31, 53, 57(n),
111, 242.

Narendrabhahja I, 75.

Narendrabhanj a II, 75.

Narendra-dhavala, 79.

Narendramrigcwdja, 133.

Narmada (River), 5, 7, 10, 15, 31, 40(n),
90, 95, 97, 98, 102, 104, 107, 323, 342.
Naropa, 273, 274.

Narwar, 36.

Nasik, 10, 335.

NasudevI, 123.

Na^a, 323.

Ndtakaratnakosa ( N ataka-lakshanxi-
ratna-kosa), 196, 230(n).

Natana Sabhd, 306.

Nataraja, 155,

Nataraja type of 6iva images 177, 306.
Nathamuni, 206, 258, 312, 313.

Nathists, 322.

Nattii, 83.

N attar, 248.

Natyadarpana , 179.

Natyasastra, 179, 196, 213, 214.
Ndvddhyaksha, 243.

Naubehar, 451.

565

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Nava-Durga, 343, 344, 347.
Navagraha-chakra, 337.

Navagrahas, 297, 298, 336, 337, 340, 346,
351-352.

Navalakha temple, 338.

Navalirigas, 343.

Navanlta-Ganapati, 346.
Navasahasanka-charita, 98, 184.
Navasahasdnka Sindhuraja, 98, 184.

Navsari, 2.

Navsari Ins., 134, 188.

Navsari plates of Puiakesin, 18(n).

N ayachakra, 216.

Nayachandra Suri, 131 (n).

Nayagadh State, 71.

Navakumdra-chariu , 218.

Nayanars, 227, 228, 292.

Nayanmars, the three, 311.

Nayapala (Kamboja k.), 54.

Nayapala (Pala), 242, 448.

Nedumbai, 292.

Neduhjadaiyan Pandya (son of Mara-
varman Rajasimha), 157, 158, 164.
Negarnesa, 349.

Nehawand, 353.

Nellura (Nellore), 135, 136, 142, 155.
Nelveli, 158.

Nemaditya, 188, 290.

Nemichandra, 290, 294.

N emindha-chcuriu, 219.

Neminatha, 299, 336.

Nemindtha Parana — See also Harivarnsa,
224.

Nepal, 47, 58-60, 115, 131 (n), 270, 279,
281, 311, 323, 346, 360(n), 390.
Nettabhahja I, 70, 72
Nettabhahja If, 70.

Nettabhahja Tribhuvanakalasa, 71.
Nettabhahja of Baud grant, 72.
Nettabhahia of Jurada grant, 72, 73.

Neiil pur plate, 64, 66, 67, 80 (n), 81, (n).
Newari era (epoch of), 58.

Ngan-nan, 422.

Niddna — See also Rugvinischaya and
Mddho.va-niddna, 199, 451.
Nidanakathd, 212.

Nidaya-Stambha, 78.

Nidusanti (clan), 142.

Nigama, 316.

Nighaniu, — See also Dhanvantari
Nighantu, 199.

Nikayasamgrata, 211, 361(n).

Nikshubha, 349.

Nilakantha, 279, 280.

Nilgund plates* of Amoghavarsha, 18(n).
Nimbara, 123.

Ninnaya, 289.

Niravaayapura, 136.

Nirbhaya (k. of Nepal), 59, 181.
Nirbhayanarendra (Mahendrapala 1,
Pratihara k.), 33, 181.

Nirbhayaraja (Mahendrapala I, Prati¬
hara k,), 33.

Nirgranthas, 289.

Nirjitavarman (Pangu), 119.

Nirupama (Rashtrakufa pr.), 15.

Nirupama Kali-vallabha, 4.

Nishada, 371.

Nissahkamalla (Sahilla-varmatn), 121.
Nisumbha, 340.

NItimarga I, 161, 290.

Nitimarga II, 161, 164.

Nitisara, 232.

Nitivakydinrita, 186, 189, 232, 238, 294.
Nitivarman, 186.

Nityavarsha (Indra III), 13.

Nivritti Kula, 210.

Niyama, 264.

Niyamatpur, 334.

Niyarnama, 73.

Niyarnava, 145.

Niyuktaka, 246.

Niyuktas, 255(n).

Nohala (Kalachuri q.), 90.
Nolarnbakuldntaka, 162, 164.
Noiamba-Pallavas, 152, 163/
Noiamba-rash^ra, 135, 137, 138.

Noiambas, 12, 153, 161, 162, 163, 164.
Nolamba Singapota, 160.

Noiambavadi, 153, 163, 164.

Nona, 194.

Non-dualism, 300.

North Arcot District, 151.

North, India, 331.

North Kan&ra District, 47.

North Pennar, 155.

North-West Frontier Province, 50, 115,
Nowgong, 330.

Nowgong, CP. of Bala-varman, 78(n)
Nriga, 205. '

Nripakama, 139.

Nriparudra (born of Haihaya or Kala-
. churi Princess), 133.

Nripatunga — See also Amoghavarsha J,
8, 167, 221, 223, 224.

Nripatunga- varman- (son" of Nandivar-
man III), 152, 159, 166, 168.

Nritya Ganapati^ 346, 349.

Nritya-murti, 305.

Nydsa (placing), 325, 326.

Nydsa , 190.

Nyaya, 152.

Nydyakandali, 205, 206, 395(n).
Nyayakanikd, 204.

N ydyakusumdnjali, — See also Kusuman-
jali, 206.

Nyaya -madhyamika, 270.

N yd yamanj ari, 183, 205.

Nydyaprisishta, 205.

Nydyasdra , 205.

N ydyasuchinibandha, 204.

Nyayasutra, 204, 205.

Nydyasutroddhdra, 204.

Nydyatattva, 206, 312.

Nyaya-Vaiseshika, 206, 356, 357, 364(n).
N ydyavdrttikatatparya, 204. .
Nydyavdrttikatatjparyatikd, 204, 205.

! Odantapurl (monastery), 49, 270, 275,
i 447.

566

INDEX

Odivisa — See also Orissa, 268, 360(n).
Odiyana, 323.

Odra, 71, 91, 147, 370.

Odras, 213.

Oertel, 279.

Ojha, 41 (n).

Oldenberg, 230(n).

Oman, 402, 414.

Orissa— See also Odivisa, Ud$iyana, 53,
58, 62, 82, 91, 147, 150, 268, 285, 296,
323, 334, 337, 345, 352, 362(n), 370,
395(n).

Orissa, Dynasties of Mediaeval, 77,
79(n).

Orissa under the Bhauma Kings, 69,
8l(n).

Osia, 41 (n), 333.

Osmanabad, 1, 218.

Oudh (Awadh), 32, 33.

Paddgra, 244.

Padalipta, 209.

Padariya, 177 (n).

Pddatdditaka, 182.

Padma, 300.

Padmagupta, (Parimala), 94, 95, 98, 184,
187.

Padmakaraghosha, 272.

Padmakirti, 219.

Padmapada, 365 (n).
Padmapani-Avalokitesvara, 278.
Padmapmbhritaka, 182.

Padmapura (Kashmir), 119.

Padma Purdna, 183, 336, 341.
Padmasambhava, 447.

Padmafadeva, 124.

Padma Tantra, 332.

Padmavajra, 266, 268, 269.

Padmdvata, 217.

Padmavatl (Jain iconography), 300, 341.
Padma vatl (Princess), 179.
Padminl-vidya, 362(n).

Pagan, 433.

Pag-sam-jon-zang, 362(n).

Paharpur, 49, 57(n), 273, 329, 331, 352.
Pahlavi, 353.

Pahuda-Doha, 216.

Paiyalachchhi, 187.
Pcuyalachchhi-ndma-mala, 218.

Pajjhatika — See also Alillaha, 217.

Pala administration, 255 (n).
Palakapyasarahitd, 367.

Palas of Bengal, 4, 7, 9, 11, 16, 22, 23, 24,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 44-57, 58,
63, 67, 71, 72, 76, 85, 86, 89, 93, 181,
242, 243, 257, 270, 274, 289, 306, 307,
326, 328, 331, 341, 360(n), 395(n),
404, 410(n), 415, 436, 446, 449.

Palas of Bengal, 57(n).

Palas, rise of the, 44-45, 130(n).
Palasakupika, 109.

Palembang, 412.

Pali, 88, 146.

Pali Language and Literature, 231 (n).

Pali literature, non-canonical, 210-212.
Pali literature of Ceylon, 177 (n).
Pallagambhlra, 81(n).

Pal Lahara, 68, 77.

Pallava architecture, 329.

Pallava kingdom, 292.

Pallava sculpture, 338.

Pallavamalla, 139.

Pallavas, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 51, 135, 142, 151,
154, 155, 158, 159, 161, 163, 164, 167,
176, 246, 292, 328, 329, 335.

Pallavas, 165(n).

Pallavas, the Later, 168.

Pallavas of Kanchi, History of the,
165(n).

Pallava sculpture, 176.

Pammava, 139.

Pampa (Kannada Poet), 136, 224, 225.
Pampa Bhdrata, 35, 136, 224, 227.

Panara dynasty, 138.

Panchabrahmas, 310.

Panchakshari mantra, 203.

Pahchala women, 379.

Pdnchalas, 390.

Panchali, 213.

Panchamakara, 321.

Panchapadika, 365 (n).

Pancharatra system, 310, 312, 313, 356.
Pdnchardtra, 215.

Pahcharatrins, 309.

Panchasar, 289.

Pahchasara-caitya, 289.

Pancliatantra, 450.

Panchatattva, 321.

Pancha-vdra, 247.

Pahchika, 300.

Pandaranga, 136, 139.

Pandarathar, T. V. Sadasiva, 165 (n).
Pandaravasini, 262, 266.

Pandava tale, 294.

Panday, 81 (n).

Pandita Bodhisattava— See also 6anta-
rakshita, Dharmasantighosha, 271.
Panditavatsala (title of Parantaka), 155,
' i.58.

Pandiyar Varalaru, 165 (n).

Pandudasa, 205, 395 (n).

Pandukes var, 123.

Panduranga (country), 423, 424.
Panduranga, (E. Chalukya general), 9,
88, 135.

Panduvarhsa, 146.

Pandya Empire, the First, 157.

Pandya kingdom, 292, 374, 404.

Pdndya kingdom, 165(n), 256(n).
Pandyas, 8, 51, 91, 135, 151, 152, 153,
154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163,
164, 165, 167, 169, 170, 171, 173, 247,
248, 411 (n).

Pangu (Nirjitavarman), 119.

Pangudvipa, 274.

Panini, 185, 190, 425, 443.

Parabala (Rashtrakuta k.), 49.
Parachakrakolahala, 158.

Parakesari (title), 153.

567

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Parak<ssari-^arman (title of Parantaka),

155.

Parakesari Vijayalaya Clioladeva. 153.
Parakramapandya — See also Sri-val-
labha-madanara j a, 173.
Paiamabrahmanya, 136.
Pardmappapaya.su, 216.

Paramaras, 15, 36, 43(g), 111, 241, 290.
Paramaras of Malwa, 38, 39f 84, 92, 93,
94, 99/185, 242.

Paramarthasdra , 208, 301, 363 (n).
Paramatman, 325.

Paramattha-dipa-~- See also Khemappa -
karana, 211.

Parames vara- var man, 166, 426.
Paramesvariya-hasta, 240.

Parananda, 78.

Parantaka. (another name for Neduh-
jacfaiyanj, 157, 158.

Parantaka I (Chela k.), 12, 14, 154, 155,

156, 159, 161, 163, 164, 165, 167 170,
171, 248, 249, 396(n), 397 (n), 408.

Parantaka II, 158, 157, 171.

Parantaka Ylranarayana, 159.

Para-s&kti, 310.

Parasara, 387, 370, 378, 379.

Parasurama, 332, 333.

Parasu ramesva r a , 334.
Paratrhfr&kavivarana , 134.

Paravas, 158.

Parbatiya. Plate, 79 (n).

Parbatsar, 107, 108,

Paribh&shaprahcLsa, 400, 409(n).
Farichchhadi Pasupati rulers, 291.
P&richchhedins, 137.

Pariharas (Pratiharas), 38.

Parl&kimedi, 143, 145.

Pamasavari, 284, 288.

Pamotsa country, 121.

Par si Prakasa , 364(n).

Parsis—See also Zoroastrianism, 352-354.
Parsv&bhyudaya-kavya , 182, 183.
Parsvanatha, 289, 297, 300.

Pratabgarh, 108, 109, 110.

Partabgarh Inscription (S. Rajputana)
31, 32, 40(n), 42(n), 131(n).

Partha (k. of Kashmir), 119.
P&rthasarathi, 151, 365 (n).

Parvagtipta, 85, 113.

Parvata, 100.

Parvatakara, 125.

Parvatt, 184, 263, 306, 318, 318, 329, 330,
335, 338, 344/347.

Pasa, 319.

Pdsanaha-chariu or Pasapux&nu, 219.
Paseiiaddesa, 403.

Pasut 319, 320.

Pasupatas, 373.

Pasupatastra, 307.

Pdsupaia-vrata , 203.

Pasupati (City), 56(n).

Pasupati (God), 60, 360.

Pa$aHputra, 29, 49,

Patan (Gujarat), 91, 103.

Pa tan (Nepal), 60.

Patanjali, 200, 204, 205, 213, 214, 231(n),
293; 420, 443.

Patavidhana , 264.

Pathak Comm. Vol., 229 (n).
Patharghata, 49.

Pathari Pillar Ins., 41 (n).

Pathasukha, 81 (n).

Pathira Giriar, 228.

Patiala, 112.

Patisambhidamagga, 211.

Patna Museum, 280, 362 (n).

Patna State, 147.

Pattadakal, 334.

PattavardhinI (family), 139.

Patfcinathar, 228.

Pattin! Devi, 177.

Patuyas, 361 (n).

Paiimachariu , 217, 218.

Paumgsirt-chariu , 219.

Pauranikas, 324.

Paurava Line of kings, 125.

Pauravas of Brahmapura, 124-5.

Pawars (See under Paramaras).

Pegu, 410 (n).

Peheva, 384.

Pehowa, 111, 112.

Pembabbe, 292.

Pemiagadam, 158, 159.

Persia, 126, 128, 352, 405.

Persian wheels, 401.

Perumais, 165.

Perundevanar, i51.

Petech, 79(h), 80(n), 453(n).

Peterson, 229(n), 230(n).

Phalguna, 120, 121.

Phnom Bakhen, 420.

Phnom Kuien, 417.

Phuila (Khasa k.), 117.

Piers Plowman , 228.

■Pindawara, 336.

Pihgala (iconography), 336.

Pingala (Poet), 190, 217.

Pingald , 325.

Pingala-Ganapati, 345, 346.
Pirkalach-Cholar-'Charittiram, 165(n).
Pischel, 181, 182, 229(n).

Pisharoti, 184

Plihapuram Ins., 57 (n), 89.

Pito, 268, 275.

Polalchora, 164.

Polonnaruva— See also Pulatthinagara,
172, 174, 176, 177.

Po Nagar, 421, 425, 426, 442.

Pondicherry, 3.52, 156, 369.

Ponduru grant, 143.

Forma, 224, 225, 292.

Poona — See also Puniagiri, 233.
Porbandar, 99.

Porsha, 344.

Potalaka, 262.

Potahkusa (son of Gunarr^ava), 143.
Po$tI Katyur, 123.

Prabandhachintamani, 188.
Prabandhakosaf 106.

Prabandhas, the Jain, 289, 290.
Prabhachandra, 294, 354, 364(n),

568

INDEX

Prabhakara, 113, 118, 120.

Prabhakara (dialectician),. 272, 312.
Prabhahkara, 29S.

Prabhasa (Chandella minister), 87,
Prabhasa (Pratlhara Bhoja I), 32.
Prabhasa (lirtka), 102.
Frabhdvaka-charita, 27, 28, 185, 383(n).
Prabhavasiva, 90.

Prabhudevi, 394 (n).

Prabhutavarsha (Govinda II), 3.
Prabhutavarsha , (Govinda XXX), 6.
Praehanda, 343, 384 (n).

Pra ch anda panel ava, 229 (n).

Prachi (kings of), 93.

Prdchyd, 213.

Pradyumna, 314, 332.

Pradyumnasuri, 290.

Pragjyotisha (Assam), 50, 61.

Prajna ( Pr a j ha -paramita ) , 283.
Prajhakaramati, 273.

Prajnapdramiid, 281, 286.
Prajndparamitd-navasloke-pinddrtha 268.
Prajnaparamitd-sutras, 271, 272.
Prajnopdya-vinischaya-siddhi, 269.
Prakasatman, 365 (n).

Prakrita- sarvasva, 231(n).

Prahriti, 318, 338. 356.

Pralambha, 60, 79 (n).

Pramdna, the theory of, 358.

Pra manaviv ischaya, 194.

Pramdiri , 243.

Prambanan (valley), 428, 440.
Pranayama, 325.

Prdntapdla, 243.

Prasannardghava, 180.

Prasantamitra. 272.

Prasastapada, 205.

Prasenajit, 182, 276.

Prasiddhadhavala (Sahkaragana, Kala-
churi k. of Dahala), 88.
PrasnotXCLramdlika, 294.

Pratibhdchanahya, 179.

Pratihdra, 244.

Pratlharas — See Gurjara-Pratmaras.
Pratlharas, the Imperial, 242, 257.
Pratlharas of Jodhpur, 29, 30.
Prailharenduraja, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196,
197.

Pratimalakshanam, 364 ( n ) .

Pratishfhana, 323.

Pratyabhijna , 300, 301, 302, 303, 304.
Praiyabhijndsdstra, 206.
Pratyabhijndsutra, 206.
Pratyabhijndvimarsini , 194, 206.
Pratyahgira, 344.

Pratyekabuddha, 218.
Pravachanamroddhara, 299.

Fravarasena, 443.

Prayaga, 115, 116.

Prinsep, 58.

Prithivl— See also Bhumi and Vasud-
hara, 283, 285, 334.

Prithivichandra (k, of Trigarta), 118.
Prithivlndra-varman, 423.

Prithivyaplda, 115.

Friihivyaplda (Samgramapida II), 116.
Prithu, 178.

Prithu (legendary), 238.

Prithudaka, 111, 384.

Prithusvami. 200.

Frithvibhanja (of Khijjihga), 75.
Prithvibharvja (of Khihjali), 71.
Pnthvlmabadevl (Kara queen), 148, 149.
Prithvlpala (k. of Rajapurl), 121.
Prithvlpati I, 159, 160, 161, 163, 167.

[ Prithvipati I (Western gaga), 152, 160.
j Prithvlpati II, 154, 155, 160, 161.
Prithvivallakha (Dantidurga) , 2.
Prithvlvallabha (Muhja), 97.
Prithvlvallabha (Pulakesin), 2.
Prilhvi-varman (son of Mahlndra-
varman), 145.

Priyahgu, 54.

Proliragala, 122.

Prome, 432.

Ptolemy, 450.

Pudukkottai, 152. 154, 166.

Pujyapada, 223.

Pukkasas. 372.

Pulakesi' (Chapa), 103.

Pulakesin (Gujarat Chalukya), 2.

PulaUh in again— See also Polonnaruva.
172.

Pulinadu, 164.

Pulivaru Inscription, 137.

Puliyur, 158.

Pulligoda Galkomde, 177.

Punch, 113, 120.

Pundra, 400.

Pundravardhana, 45, 115.

Punjab, 32, 33. 46. 47, 85, 110, 111, 112,
115, 117, 370, 404.

Punyaklrti, 268.

Purana (s), 152, 308 , 313, 316. 339, 34C.

436, 443.

Purantaka, 185,

Purapara image, 306.

PurapatisSee also nagarapatis, 246.
Purdah, 382.

.Puri, 62, 69, 315.

Purigere, 14, 255(n).

Pijrna (-giri) — See also Poona,, 323.
Pumaraja, 111.

Purnatalla (Chahamana k.), 106.
Purnavardhana, 272.

Purusha, 263.

Purusharthasiddhyupaya, 294.

Purvadesa, 403„ 404.

Purva-rmmdmsd , 312, 358, 359.
Purvarashtravishaya, 77.

Pushkara-tlrtha, 107, 108.

Pushpadanta, 198, 218, 220, 294.

Pushti, 314.

Pushyadeva, 99.

Pyus, 432, 433.

Qadisiyya, 353,

Qissa-i-Sanjdii, 353, 354.

Quilon (or Kollam), 165, 403, 410(n), 445.

569

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Rabban, Joseph, 165.

Radha (goddess), 318.

Radha (place), 53, 66, 81(n), 86.
Radhanpur grants, 133.

Radhanpur plates of Govinda III, 18 (n),
41(n).

Ragacharya, 265.

Rdgarati, 266.

Raghavadeva (k. of Nepal), 59.
Raghavan, 230 (n).

Raghava-pandaviya — See also Dvi-

sand hana, 184.

Raghu, 35, 130(n).

Raghuvamsa, 186, 443.

Rahada (Kalachuri q.), 91.

Rahappa, 3.

Rahila, 84.

Rahila-varma, 84.

Rahilya, 84.

Rahilya-sagara, 84.

Rahma, 404, 410 (n).

Rahu, 352.

Rahulabhadra, 81 (n), 272.

Rahula Sankrityayana, 216.

Raipur District, 146.

Raja, C. K., Comm. Vol. 230(n),
Rajabhanja, 75.

Raja-Bhima, 138.

Rdjadharma, 232, 236.

Rajadhiraja, 173, 174.

Rajadhiraja Vishnu, 412.

Rajaditya (Chola crown-prince), 14, 155,
156, 162, 165.

Rajagriha, 275, 276.

Rajaguru, S., 81(n).

Rajakesari (Title), 153.

R'ajalakshmi, 438.

Rajamahendra, 137, 139.
Rajamahendrapura, 139.

RajamahendrI (City), 139.

Rajamalla (k. of Gangava^i), 14, 162,
163.

Rajamalla (Naga chief), 67, 68.

Rajamalla I (Vijayditya son), 161, 164,
165 (n).

Rajamalla IH, 161, 162.

Rajamartanda, 205.

Rdjamartanxjia (Indra III), 13, 138.
Rdjamdtya , 243.

Rajamayya, 138.

Rajanaka Ratnakara, 183.

Rdjanyas, 241.

Rajaona, 307.

Rajapurl, 121, 122.

Rajaputra (author), 397(n).

Rajaputra (Kalachuri k. of Sarayu-
p^ra) 93#

Rajaraja, 14o’ 141, 144, 150, 156, 157, 159,
160, 172, 179, (n), 248, 397(n), 402, 409,
409 (n), 410(n).

Rajarajanarendra, 291.

Rajarajapuram, 172.

Rajarajesvarl, 344.

Rajarash^ra, 172, 173.

I Rajasa, 319.

| Rajasekhara (Poet), 33, 35, 41, 42(n), 90,
91, 180, 181, 183, 192, 193, 195, 229(n),

368, 369, 382, 384, 385, 386, 388, 389,
390, 394(n), 395(n), 396(n), 404.

Rajasiriiha II, 154, 158, 159.

Rajasimha period, (architecture), 329.
Rajasimhesvara temple, 369.
Rajasthdulyas, 241, 244, 255 (n).
Rdjataranginx, 33, 58, 112, 114, 126, 244,
255(n), 363(n).

Rajauri (Hill State), 121.

Rdjavarttika, 294.

Rajendra, 144, 163, 167, 172, 173, 174, 312,

369.

RajendradevI, 419.

Rajendra-varman (of Kambuja), 421,
425, 438.

Rajendra-varman (another name for
Manujendra-varman, 141.
Rajendra-varman I, 140.
Rajendra-varman II, 141.

R'aji, 103.

Rajhi, 349.

Rajor Inscription, 37, 40 (n).

Rajorgarh, 37.

Rajputana, 4, 7, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 37,
45, 47, 87, 94, 97, 241, 296, 331, 313,
336, 337.

Rajputana, Eastern, 20.

Rajput Clans, 83, 111.

Raishahi District, 49, 330, 332, 339, 351.
Rajshahi Museum, 306, 314, 315, 334, 344,
349, 364(n).

R'ajyapala (Kamboja k.), 54.

Rajyapala (Pala k.), 53, 54, 57(n), 89.
Rajyapala (Pratihara k.), 38.

Rajayapura (Rajor), 37.

Rakka, 121.

Rakkasa Gahga, 162, 163.

Rakshasa, 179.

Rdkshasa (form of marriage), 17 (n).
Rdkshasakavya — See also Kavyarak -

skasa , 186.

Rdkshasas, 261.

Ral-pa-can, 58, 79(n), 274, 446, 447.
Rama (historical), 184.

Rama (legendary), 180, 333.

Ramabhadra (Pratihara k.). 28, 29, 38,
51, 241.

Ramachandra, 179, 180, 184.
Ramachandran, T., 74.

Ramachariia , 45, 183, 395 (n).
Rdmacharita-Manasa , 217.
Ramajanardana, 237.

Ramakantha, 301.

Ramanhadesa, 422.

Ramanuja, 206, 312, 323, 360.

Ramapala (Pala k.), 28, 55(n).
Ramasimha Muni, 216.

Ramathas, 35.

Ramatirtham, 291.

Ramayana, 181, 217, 236, 436, 440.
Rambha, 347.

Rameses, 162.

Ramesvaram, 14, 15, 16, 51, 156.

570

INDEX

Rami, 413.

Ramnad, 170.

Rampal, 345. 349.

Ranabhanja (of Khijjiiiga), 75, 76,

81 (n) .

Ranabhanja (of Khinjali), 70, 71, 72, 73,
145.

Ranabhanja (son of Satrubhahja), 149.
Ranahastin (Pratihara Vatsaraja), 21.
Kanaka I (Saindhava k.), 100.

Ranaka II (do), 100.

Rana Mokalji’s temple 310.
Ranaranga-simha, 162.

Ranarnava (son of Kamarnava), 143.
Rana-siambha, 77, 82(n).

Ranasura, 86.

Ranavigraha (Sahkaragana, Kalachuri k.

of Dahala), 88, 90.

Rahganathacbarya. 312.

Ranipur-Jural, 343.

Ranna, 224, 225, 226, 290, 291.

Rannadevi, 49.

Rao. B. V. Krishna, 140, 149.

Rac, M. V. Krislina, 165(n).

Rao, N. L. 43(n).

Rao, T. A. G., 306, 308, 310, 315, 363 (n),

364(n ) .

Fasaratndkara, 199.

Rasavdhini. 212.

Rdshiragr dmamahatlaras , 255 (n).
Rashtrakuta, 247.

Rashtrakutas, 1-17, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 30, 31. 34. 35, 36, 37, 38, 41(n >,
43(n), 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
56, 57, 84, 86, 87. 88, 89, 91, 93, 94,
95, 96. 97, 101, 105, 134, 135, 136, 137,

138, 149, 151, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161,

162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 171, 173, 188,

189, 200. 218, 223, 245, 246, 247, 290,

291, 292, 294, 296, 328, 333, 369,

397 (n), 399(n), 403, 407, 453.
Rashtrakutas and their Times, 140, 177
(n), 255 (n).

Rashtrakutas, Bodh-Gaya branch of the,
189.

Rashtrakutas of Lata, 11, 12, 105.
Rashtrakutas, origin, 17(n).
Rdshtramahattaras, 255(n).

Rashlrapati, 246.

Rasosittana-mandala, 107.

Ratanasutta, 360 (n).

Ratanpur, 88, 146.

Rati, 314.

Ratilalita, 387.

Ratirahasya , 377, 387, 390.

Ratnaditya (Chapa k.), 103.

Ratnagiri, 285.

Ratnakara, 117, 179.

Ratnakarasanti, 273.

Ratnapala, 79(n).

Ratnaprabha (suri), 205. 209.

Ratnapura, 176.

Ratnasambhava, 282, 285.

Ratnavajra, 273, 448.

Ratnavardhana, 117.

Ratra, 316.

Ratta (Rashtrakuta), 134, 135, 136.
Rattakandarpa (India III), 13.

RaudrI, 340.

Ravananugraha-murti, 307.

Ravi (planet), 352.

Ravi (writer), 184.

Ravideva, 186.

Ravishena, 183, 209.

Rawalpindi District, 112.

Ray, H. C., 140.

Ray, N., 37, 40(n).

Ray, P. C., 230(n).

| Ray, Tridiva Nath, 397(n), 398(n).

Raya, 163.

Rayabhanja, 70.

Raychaudhuri, H. C., 42(n).

Renandu, 155, 164.

Reva (princess.), 151, 168.

Revaka (princess Reva), 151, 162.

Reva (river), 1, 323.

Revanta, 351.

-ReWa, 41 (n), 90, 338.

R'ice, B. L., 165 (n), 363(n).

Rice, E. P., 231(n).

Rishabha, 183, 224, 289, 296, 329.
Rishabhanatha, 297, 298, 299.
Rishabhapanchasikd , 188.

Rishika, 401.

Ritasiddhi , 136.

Riti , 191.

Rohang, 169, 170, 171, 172; 173, 174, 175.
Rohitagiri, 54, 77.

Rohitasva, 76.

Rohtasgadh, 54, 77.

Ross Com. Vol., 230(n), 231 (n).

Rudra (Hindu pantheon), 305, 309, 311,
360.

Rudra (k. of Nepal), 59.

Rudrabhatta, 192.

Rudrachanda, 344, 364(n).

Rudraditya (minister of Munja), 98.
Rudrata, 186, 191, 192, 195, 196, 214,
Rudra- varman II, 423.

Rudra ydmala, 326.

Rudrena (Rudra?), (Tomara), 107, 112.
Rugvinischaya — See also Madhavani-

ddna and Niddna, 199,

Ruhavi, 331, 338.

Ruhmi, 52, 404.

Rukminl, 314,

Rupamandana, 347.

Rupavidya, 341, 348.

Ruru, 308.

Ruyanavaliseya, 175.

Sahara chiefs, 138.
gabaraditya, 142.

Sabaras, 213.

§abarasvamin, 312.

Sabarmati (River), 96, 97, 105.
Sabdanusdsana, 190.

Sahhd, 249, 406, 411(n).

Sabhdpati, 191.

Sabuktigln, 86.

A.I.K.— 88

571

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Sacharas, 213.

Sachau, 451, 453 (n).

Sachchasankhepa , 210, 211.
Sadasiva-murti, 305, 309, 310.
Saddhammappakasim, 211.
Saddhamma-ratnakara, 211.

Saddh amma-Samgaha. 210, 231 (n).
Saddharmapundarika, 261, 361 (n),
Sadhakas, 260.

Sadhanama Id, 269, 277, 279, 280, 281, 285,
323, 361 (n), 362(n).

Sadhanva, 104.

Sadiya, 340.

Sadyojata, 310.

Saffarid dynasty, 112, 113, 126, 128.
Sagara, 176.

Sagaramegha, 272.

Sagaranandin, 196.

Saguna-Brahman, 302.

Sahaja-siddhi, 269.

Sahaja-yana, 269, 449.

Sahas a Bhlma Vi jay a — See also Gada-
Yuddha, 245.

Sdhasdnka (Sahilla-varman), 122.
Sahasrdra, 325.

Sahasrarjuna (Kalachnri k.), 89.

Sahi (k. of Kira), 85.

Sahilla-varman, 122.

Sahni, Daya Ram, 114
Sahrdaya, 193.

Saidabad, 345.
gailaputri, 343, 364(n).
gailendras, 52, 274, 412, 414, 415, 423,
427, 428, 429, 431, 432, 436, 440, 441.
gailodbhavas, 53, 62, 63, 74.

Saimur, 386.

Saindhavas, 24, 25, 99-101, 374.
Saindhava-sravakas, 273, 274, 275.
gaiva, 322.

gaiva Agamas, 323, 338.
gaiva ascetics, 90.
gaiva Deities, 337.
gaiva monastery, 90.
gaiva philosophy, 301.

Saivachara, 320, 323.
gaivagamas, 305.
gaivas, 153, 338, 373.
gaiva teachers, 91.

gaivism, 257, 258, 289, 291, 292, 300-310,
316, 324, 328, 338, 358, 360, 420, 421,
425.

gaivism, Kashmir, 300, 304, 338, 360.
Saivism, Tantrik, 418.
gaivite Sakti, 341.

Sajjana Upadhyaya, 209.

Sajjana-varman, 122.
gakadvlpl Brahmanas, 334.
Sakcda-dakshina-dig-adhipati (Krishna
HI), 15.

gakambharl, 22, 87, 104, 107, 109.
gakas, 179, 374.
gakatayana, 11, 190, 294.

Sakawand, 113.
gakra, 276.

gakta Tantras, 323, 338.
gaktas, 322.

gakti/s — See also Devi and gaktism,
262, 263, 266, 287, 302, 303, 305, 308,

316, 318, 320, 322, 324, 326, 328, 332,

337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 343, 344, 345,

346, 347-348, 361 (n).

Saktibhadra 180.
gakti-Ganapatis, 345.

gaktikumara (Guhila k.), 97, 109, 110,
396(n).

Saktis, 321.

gaktism — See also gakti, 288, 289, 316,
318, 324, 337-346.
gaktisvamin, 183.

Salambha (k. of Kamarupa), 60, 61,
79(n).

Salanatuhga, 77.

Salastambha (dynasty), 60, 243.
Salastambha (k. of Kamarupa), 61.
Salavahana 123.

Salavana (Tomara), 107, 112.

Salem, 154, 158, 164.

Saletore, 363 (n).
galibhadra, 192.
galivahana (Guhila k.), 109.

Sallekhana, 16, 162, 290, 292.

Salonaditya, 124.

Salsette, 337.

Salt Range, 404.

Salva, 323.

Salween, 420.

Samagra type of dramatic composition,
182.

Samah Kora Ray, 114.

Samaria, 213.

Samangad Plates, 1, 18(n).

Samanta (Chahamana), 106.

Samanta (Shahi k.), 113, 118.

Samanta Bhadra, 223, 354.
Samatapdsddika, 212.

Samantasimha (Chapa k.), 103.
Samantasubha, 268.

Samanta -varman (gvetaka king), 145.
Samar adit ya- kathd — See also Samaraich-
cha-kathd, 208.

Samaragravlra, 412, 413.
Samastabhuvanasraya, 139.

Sdmaveda, 436.

Samayachlryas, 227.

Samayatara, 262, 266.

Samayins, 322.
gamba, 332.

Sambalur, 146, 150.

Sambandar, 292.

Sambhala, 269.

Sambhar, 106.
gambhu, 301, 302.
gambhupura, 416, 417, 419.
gambhuvardhana, 119.

Sambor, 416.

Samgha, 405, 406.

Samgxtamja, 230 (n).

Samgrama (Dtoara), 119.
Samgramadeva (k. of Kashmir), 85, 120.
Samgramagupta, 120.

Samgramaplda 1, 115.

672

INDEX

Samgramapida II, 116.

Samgramaraja, (k. of Kashmir), 121.
Samhara, 308.

Samhita, (s, Vaishnava), 316, 317, 335, 338.
Saihjna, 349.

Samkarshana, 309.

Sarhkhya system, 316, 324.
Sdmkhyakdrikd, 204.

Samkhshepasdriraka, 206.

Samoli, 110.

Savnpuia-tilaka, 268.

Samskdraprakdsa, 392 (n), 393 (n),

394(n).

Samskdraratnaradla, 392 (n) .
Samudra-gupfca, 124.

Samudrasuri, 210.

Sanakumnra-chariu , 219.

Sanaphulla, 3.

Sanatkumara Samhita, 335.

Sanchl, 175.

Sanchor, 105.

Sandayan Tiruvayan I, 164.

Sandayan Tiruvayan II, 164.

Sander a, 331.

Sandhi-nirmochana- sutra, 261, 361(n).
Sdndhivigrahika, 241, 246.

Sandhya Bhasha, 216, 231 (n).

San-fo-tsi, 414, 415, 431.

Sarigam Age, 153.

Sang hyang Kamahdyanikan , 436.
Sahgramadhanafijaya, 412.

Sani, 352.

Sanjan, 353, 354, 403.

Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsha, 7,
17 (n), 18(n), 40(n), 41(n), 56(n),

87.

Sanjana, Rahman Kaykobad, 353.

Sahjava, 416, 427, 428.

Sankalia, 333.

Sankara (acharya) (Bhagavat), 185, 204,
206, 258, 259, 304, 313, 328, 329, 337,
355, 357, 358, 359, 363(n), 365(n), 438.
Sankara, the Philosophy of, 358-360.
Sahkarabandha, 307.

Sankardchdrya, &ri, 365 (n).

Sahkaragana (Guhila k.), 25, 30, 110.
Sahkaragana (Kalachuri k. of Dahala),

88.

Sahkaragana (Kalachuri k. of Sarayu-
para), 87, 93, 135.

Sahkaragana II (Kalachuri k.), 91, 92.
Sahkaragana EE Mugdbatuhga (Kalachuri
k. of Saravupara), 94.

Sahkaragana III (do.), 94.

Sahkaravarman (Kashmir k.), 33, 112,
113, 117, 118, 183, 186, 205.

Sahkarl Samhita, 335,

Sahkarites, 323.

Sahkarshana, 332.

Sahkasya, 275, 276.

Sahkata (k. of Kashmir), 118.

Sahkha, 151, 166, 168.

Sahkhya, 365(n).

Sdnkhya-Kdrika, 365 (n) .

Sahkhya- Yoga, 356, 357.

Sahkila (Sahkaragana, Kalachuri k. of
Dahala), 88, 89, 135.

Sanku (town in Nepal), 60.

Sankula (Poet), 195.

Sahkuka (Sahkaragana, Kalachuri k. of
Dahala), 88, 135.

SanmitracharitaSee also Mahdvlra -
chcrita and Vardhamanacharita, 183.
Sannaha, 427.

Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts in the
Library of the University of Bom¬
bay, Descriptive Catalogue of,
23G(n).

Santa -Bommali Charter, 144, 145.
Sanskrit, Champu, 188-189.

Sanskrit, Drama, 178-182.

Sanskrit, Kavya, 182-187.

Sanskrit, Romance, 187-188.

Sanskrit, Scientific Literature, 189-201.
Sanskrit, Religious and Philosophical
Literature, 202-207.

Santana Ganapati, 346.

Santarakshita — See also Pandita Bodhi-
sattva, Dharmasantighosha. 271, 364
(n), 446, 447.

Santi, 210.

Santideva, 259, 275, 361 (n).

Santigarbha, 447.

Santikaradeva I, 63, 66.

Santikaradeva II, 64.

Santikaradeva 133, 64, 67.

Santinatha, 297, 298, 336.

Santi Purdna, 225, 292.

Santisoma, 267.

Santisuri, 290.

Sapadalaksha, 106, 290.

Sagadalaksha Brahmanas, 374.
Saptamatrika, 300, 330, 339, 340, 346, 348.
Saptasatx , 339.

£arabhanga, 243.

Sarabhapuriyas, 146.

Sarabhesa-murti, 311.

Sdradaiilaka Tantra, 334, 347, 351, 364 (n).
Saraha, 266, 268.

Sarahapada, 216.

Sarangarh, 331.

Saras, 139.

Sarasvata-mandala, 103, 104.

Sarasvati (goddess), 281, 287, 314, 315,
329, 336, 338, 340, 341, 342, 344.
Sarasvati (River), 104, 111.

Saraswati, S. K., 364(n).

Sdrdvali, 200.

Sara-varman, 122.

Sarayu (River), 93, 94.

Sarayupara, 93.

Sarbhon (in Broach Dt.), 7.
Sdriputraprakarana, 215.

Sarju (River), 123.

Sarma, Dasaratha, 41(n).

Sarma, Ramavatara, 330.

Sarnath; 277, 279, 287.

Sarnath Museum, 282.

Sdrthavdha, 240.

garva — See Amoghavarsha.

&arva (or Marasarva), 7, 18 (n).

578

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Sarva-darsana-samgraha, 363 ( n ) .
Sarvadeva, 187.

S-arvajnadeva, 274.

Sarvajhamitra, 259, 263, 272, 362(n).
Sarvajnatmamuni, 206, 365 (n), 438.
Sarvalokasraya, 135, 136, 137, 138.
Sarvalokasraya Jinavallabha (temple
of), 139.

Sarvananda, 190.

6arvanl, 339.

Sarvastivadins, 260, 267.

Sarvatomukhi, 343.

Sasanadevata, (s)— See also Yakshinis,
298, 299, 338, 341, 342.

Sasanids, 353.

6asanka, 44, 48.

6asiprabha, 98, 184.

Sdstranaya, 194. *

Sastri, H. P., 79(n), 82(n), 216, 231(n).
323.

Sastri, K. A. N., 18(n), 56(n), 165,
177(n), 365(n), 411(n), 453(n).
Sastri, Krishna, 363 (n), 364 (n).
6atananda, 183, 192.

Satapatha Brahmana, 313, 364(n).
6atarudrlya, 309.

Satatapa, 370, 337, 395(n).

Satavhhana, (Khasa p.), 117.

Satavahana (writer), 209.

^athakopa, 312.

Satkaryavada, 357.

6atrubhahja (of Khijjinga), 74, 75.
Satrubhahja (of Khinjali), 69, 70, 81 (n),
145.

6atrubhanja I Gandhata (Bhanja
dynasty), 70.

6atrughnadeva, 112.

6 a trun jay a, 296.

Sattaka, 180.

Sattvika, 319.

Satyaki (a branch of Yaduvamsa),
17(n).

Satyasraya (Chalukya k.), 92, 291, 397(n).
Satyavallata, 139.

Satya-varman (of Champa), 423.
Satya-varman (son of Devendra-var-
man), 141.

6auchachara, 264.

Saulkika, 243.

Saumatikas, 122.

Saumya type of 6akti, 347.

Sauras, 21, 322.

6aurasenl, 213.

Saurashtra (Kathiawad), 36, 96, 99, 103,
104, 401.

Saurikathodaya, 184.

Saurl Samhita, 335.

Sautrantika, 268.

Sauvlra, 213.

S&vayadhamma-Doha, 216.

SaycL-svairam — svairam-dadau , 123.
Schiefner, A., 55(n), 360(n), 361 (n).
Seelye, 453 (n).

Sejakpur, 342.

6eliyas (Pandyas), 160.

6embiyan Mahadevi, 156, 157.

6embiyan Mavalivanarayan, 155, 161.
Sen, Benoy Chandra, 255(n), 362 (n).
Sena, 172.

Sena II, 170, 171.

Sena III, 171.

Sena IV, 171.

Sena V, 171.

Senanl, 247,

Sendpati, 243, 247.

Senasangha, 182.

Sena 6ilamegha, 169, 169.

Senas of Bengal, 29, 273, 310.
Sena-varman, 122.

6endalai, 153.

6endan, 158.

6enthanar, 227.

Setu — See also Adam’s Bridge, 1.
Setuhandha , 443.

Severus Sebokht, 450.

Sewell, R., 140, 165(n), 177(n).
Shadaksharl Lokesvara, 279.

Shadaksharl Mahavidya, 279.
Shadaksharl- Mahdvidydrdjnl, 262.
Shadapur, 127.

Shadardha-sastra, 363 (n).
Shad-darsana-samuchchaya , 293, 296.
Shahidullah, Dr., 216.

Shahis, 112, 115, 118, 122, 126, 129.
Shahiyas — See Shahis.

Shahrdyan, 354.

Shah-rayas, 354.

Shaikhawati, 107.

Shanmukha Yakshas, 299.
Shannavatiprakarana, 189.

Sharma, D., 40(n), 363(n).
Shashthddhikrita, 242, 243.

Shastri, H. P.‘, 181.

Shatchakra, 325.

Shattrimsanmata, 203, 373.

Shilharayan, 354.

Shimoga taluk, 92.

ShodasI, 344.

Sholapiu*, 10.

Shtran, 315.

Siam, 422, 432, 442.

Siam, Gulf of, 422.

Siddhaikavlra, 281, 282.

Siddhdntachdra, 320, 321, 323.

Siddhas; 346.

Siddhasena Divakara, 207, 229(n).
Siddha-Yogesvarl, 341, 348.

ShasthI, 342.

Siddhidatrl, 343, 364(n).

Siddhitraya, 206.

Siddhiyogcir—See also V rindamddhava,
199.

Sigiriya — See also Sirhhagiri, 176, 177.
Sijistan, 125, 126.

Sikar, 107, 108.

Sikarpur, 330.

SiksJidsamuchchaya, 275, 361 (n).

Sila, 264.

6 ila bhanja (grandfather of Ranabhanja
of Khinjali), 145.

&ilabhahja I, 70, 71, 73, 79.

6ilabhanj a-pati, 71.

574

INDEX

Sllabhattarika, 3, 185, 394(n).

Sllacharya, 210.

Sllagunasuri, 289.

Sllaharas, 3, 218, 245, 354.

Sllaharas of Thana, 98.

SllamahadevI, 133, 134, 135.

Sllahka, 293.

Sllapalita, 267.

Silappadikaram, 221.

Silavati, 180.

Sllendrabodhi, 448.

Sllpa-sastras, 336.

Slluka, 19, 29.

Simha (Guhila k.), 109.

Simhadatta, 148.

Simhagiri—See also Sigiriya, 176.
Simhaketu, 63.

Simhala (dvipa), 86, 273, 274; 275.
Simhanada, 279.

Sirhhanada Lokesvara, 279.

Simhapura (Punjab), 46.

Simharaja (Chahamana), 107, 109, 112,
Simharaja (Khasa k.), 113, 118, 120.
Simhavarman ( Chaulukya k.), 104.
Siiiiha vishnu, 168.

Sindan, 127, 403.

Sindh, 17, 20, 39. 87, 99, 106, 115, 125, 126-
9, 401, 402, 403, 405, 408, 410(n), 450,
453.

Sindhu, 213, 273, 405.

Sindhu (River), 46, 52, 110, 112, 117, 118,
128, 402.

Sindhuraja ( Paramara k.), 96, 97, 98, 99,
105.

Sindok, 430.

Sihgapota, 164.

Singh, A. N., 453(n).

Sinnamanur Plates, 158, 159, 170.

Sinnar, 335.

Siraf, 402, 414.

Sirala, 339.

Sircar, D. C. 74, 75, 80(n), 81(n), 82,
(n), 362 (n).

Sirhind, 145,

Sirihatta — See also Sylhel, 323.

Sirkap, 313.

Sirohi, 108, 333, 336.

Siromani, 185.

Sirpur, 145.

Sirsa, 111, 112.

Sirur Plates, 9, 18(n), 57(n).

Sisavai Grant, 41 (n).

Sishyahitanyasa, 190.

Sitabhihji, 74.

Si tala, 342.

Situlpahuva — See also Chitialaparvata,
174.

Siva, 3, 8, 28, 61, 90, 107, 151, 154, 155,

158, 184, 185, 239, 257, 258, 264, 278,

279, 280, 282, 283, 286, 299, 301, 302,

303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310,

311, 313, 316, 318, 320, 324, 325, 328,

329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 366, 337,

338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345,

346, 347. 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 360,

363(n), 364(n), 418, 435, 436, 440.

Siva Chandrasekhara, 305,

Siva, Mukhalinga of, 423.

Siva, Nritya-murtis of, 306.

Sivadasapura, 81 (n).

Sivadharmottara , 373.

§ivadnshti, 206, 301.

SivadutI, 340.

Sivagella (son of Srlpurusha), 160.
Sivagupta, 91, 146, 147.

Sivagupta ( Mahasivagupta ) Balarjuna,
146.

Sivaguru, 304.

Sivakaivalya, 417.

Sivakaradeva I, 63, 65
Sivakaradeva II, 63, 67.

Sivakaradeva III, 64.

Sivakotyacharya, 222.

Sivalihga, 347, 348.

Sivamara (Gahga pr.), 4, 6.

Sivamara II, 160, 161, 164, 165 (n).
Sivananda, 79.

Siva-Parvatl, 338, 340.

Sivaraja (Chahamana), 111.

Sivaraja (Kalachuri K. of Sarayupara), 93.
Sivaraja II Bhamana (Kalachuri k. of
Sarayupara), 94.

Siva-sadakhya, 310.

Siva-Sakti cult, 338, 341.

Sivasamudram, Gahga Raja of, 163,
Sivasoma, 365 (n), 438.

S ivasutra (s), 206, 301.

Sivasvamin, 117, 182.

Siva temple, 123.

Siva-Vishnu, 436.

Siwan, 336,

Siyadoni Inscription, 40(n), 42(n), 241.
Slyaka I, 95.

Siyaka H, 15, 84, 95-97, 102, 105, 187,
218.

Skanda, 305, 336, 338, 340.

Skandamata, 343, 364(n).

Skanda Purdna, 42 (n), 335, 370.
Slokasamgraha, 187.

Slokavarttika, 204.

Smart, 228.

Smasanapati, 268.

Smritichandrika, 256 (n),

Smritis, 316.

Smritisamgraha, 249, 253-254, 256(n).
Sobhana, 185, 187, 293.

Sobkanastuti—See , also Chaturviihsati-
Jinastuti and Tirthesastuti, 185.
Sobhavyuha, 272.

Sobhita, 108.

Sodamandala (district), 143.

Soddhala,' 56(n), 181, 189.

Sodhadeva (Kalachuri k. of Sarayu¬
para), 94.

Sohagpur, 338.

Solanabhanja, 74.

Solahkis (See under Chaulukyas of
Gujarat).

Solar Cult, 333-337.

Soma, 330, 352.

Soma, 416.

575

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Somadeva (Suri), 181, 184, 186, 187, 188,
189, 232, 238, 239, 240, 294, 295, 296.
Somananda, 206, 301.

Somanathapattana, 91, 102, 103, 333.
Somapura (rl) (Vihdra), 49, 274, 275, 331.
Somaskanda figures, Pallava, 329.
Somaskanda-murti, 305.

Soma-varman, 123.

Somavarhsa, 91, 146.

Somavaihsis of South Kosala, 62, 69, 71,
74, 81 (n) 85, 86, 88, 99, 146, 150.

Some Historical Aspects of the Inscrip¬
tions of Hengal, 362(n).

Somesvara (God), 91, 92.

Somesvara (writer), 195.

Sonarang, 346.

Song dynasty, 422, 444, 445, 446.

Song to David, 228.

Sonpur, 70, 72, 147.

Sonpur, State 147.

Sonpur C. P. of 6atrubhanja, 82 (n).
Sooloobunjan, 10.

Sopakas, 372.

Sopara, 431, 403, 410(n).

Sorab taluk (Mysore State), 16.

Soremati (or Soremadi), 163, 164.

South India, 257, 305, 306, 308, 309, 310,
312, 331, 349, 374, 403, 406, 407, 408,
411 (n), 415.

South Indian Gods and Goddesses, 363
(n), 364(n).

South Kensington Museum, 334.

South Kosala, 146, 147.

Spanda, 300, 301.

Spandakarika, 206.

Spanda-sarvasva, 301.

Spandasdstra, 206.

Sragdhara-stotra, 263, 272, 362(n).
Srauta-siitras, 260, 316.

Sravaka sects, 360(n).

6avakayanists. 360 (n).

S§ravana Belgola, 162, 223, 225, 290, 292,
295, 298.

gravastl, 182, 276, 297.

Jlravastl, the Great Miracle of, 277.

&reni, 251.

&reshthxs, 240.

S§rl — See also Lakshml, 283, 314, 347, 362
(n).

6n (city), 433.

6n-Aingim, 346.

Sribhagavadahhisamaya, 268.

6rlbhavana (Sarbhon in Broach Dt.), 7.
Sribuza, 413.

Srichakra , 322.
gjrlchandra, 54.

grldhanyakafaka— See also Amaravati.
262

Sridhara (Buddha Acharya), 273.
Sridhara (poet), 188, 200, 392(n), 364-
(n), 395 (n).

gridhara Bhatja, 205, 206.

Srlgupta, 267.

^rlharsha, 198.

Srikakulam (District), 140.

Srlkantha, 164, 360.

Ankara, 204.

6rlkshetra, 432.

Srlmala, 97, 104.

6ri-Mara SrI-Vallabha, 51, 158, 159, 170.
£rinagara, 119.

Sringdratilaka, 192.

&rlparvata, 264.

Tripura, 146.

Srlpurambiyam, 152, 153, 159, 161, 167.
&rlpurusha Muttarasa (Ganga k.), 4,
160.

Srlrajya (another name of &rlpurusha),
160.

6rlrangam, 312, 315.

Sri-Saila— See also Matanga, 1, 323.
Srishti-Khanda, 336.

6rI-Teramva, 343.

Srlvaishnava, 312.
grlvallabha (Munja), 97.

&ri-Vallabha (Rashtrakufa Dhruva), 4,

21.

SrI-vallabhamadanaraja— See also Para-
kramapandya, 173.

&rlvatsa, 206.

6rI-Vijaya (country), 412, 413.

Srlvijaya (-writer), 223.

Sri Vinayaka, 342..

Sron-tsah-gam-po, 271.

Sruta-DevI, 336.

Stambha (or Kambha) Ranavaloka, 5, 6,
134, 166, 167, 168.

Staves, 259.

Stein, A., 58, 255 (n).

Sthanu Ravi (Chera king), 154, 165.
Sthavira-vadins, 275.

Sthirachakra, 281, 282.

Stotras, 259.

Stotrdvali, 185.

Strl-rajya, 116.

Strong, 212.

Stuart-Bridge Collection, 331.

Studies in Par si History, 364(n).
Stuparama, 175.

Subandhu, 182.

Subhadra 394 (n).

Subhadrdharana, 180.

&ubhakara V, 64, 66.

5§ubhakaradeva I, 63, 64, 66, 81 (n).
Subhakaradeva II, 63, 66..
^ubhakaradeva III, 64.

&ubhakaradeva IV, 64.

£ubhakaragupta, 273.

Subhamitra, 268.

Subhahkara, 299.

Subha ta, 181.

Subhatunga (Krishna I), 3.

Subhatunga (Krishna II), 11.
Subhikshapura, 124.

Subhiksharajadeva, 124.

Subrahmanya, 299, 329, 344, 349.
Suchimukha, 280.

Suchiyarman (Guhila), 110.
£uddha-6aiva doctrine, 309.
Sudhanakumara, 279.

^udraka, 182, 381.

Sudraka, 224.

576

INDEX

&udras, 318, 370, 371, 372.

Sufi ism, 452.

Sugandha, 118, 119.

Sugata, 258, 296.

Sukharaja, 118.

Sukhasana-murti. 305.

Sukhavarman (Karkota dynasty), 116,
117.

Sukha-varman (Utpala dynasty), 117.
Sukii, 82(n).

6ukra, 352.

Suktimuktavali, 394(n).

Sulaiman, 32, 42(n), 52, 56{n), 255(n),
380, 386, 389, 397(n), 398(n), 404,
413.

Sulikas, 78.

6ulkikaihsa, fanfily, 78.

£ulkis, 78.

Sulochand Nataka (or Vikrdnta-kaura-
va), 180.

Sumahgala-vilasirii, 212.

Sumantu, 370.

Sumatra, 403, 406, 412, 416, 423, 427, 434,
436.

Kumbha, 285, 340.

Sun, temple of the, 333, 352.

Sunak, 342.

Sunandana, 433.

Sundara, 172.

Sundara Chola, 157, 158s 164, 248, 397

(n).

Sundara Parantaka II, 157.

Sun-god, 108, 109, 122, 128, 257.

Sunyata, 265, 266.

Suprabhacharya, 216.

Suprabhedagama, 305.

Sura, 116, 117.

Sura (desa), 323.

6ura (dynasty), 86.

Surada, 343.

Surananda, (poet), 90, 180.

Surashtra, 42(n), 213.

Surasulamwni (title of Parantaka), 155.
Sura-varman, 119.

Sura-varman, I (k. of Kashmir), 119.
gura-varman II, 120.

Surendrabodhi, 448.

Suresvara — See also Mandanamisra, 204.

206, 359, 3S5(n).

Suresvara temple, 333.

Surohor, 297.

§urparaka, 401.

Surya, 28, 287, 313, 329, 330, 331, 333, 334,
335, 336, 343, 345, 346, 347, 349-351,
364 (n).

Surya-Brahma, 332.

Surya-Narayana, 332, 335, 351, 364(n).
Suryaprabha, 281.

Suryasataka, 443.

Surya varhiis, 173.

Sushumna, 325.

Susruta, 316, 443.

Susruta, 451.

Suta, 373.

Sutara (raka), 262, 341.

Suta Samhita, 335.

Sutlej, 112.

Sutrapada, 333.

Sutras , 260, 365 (n).

Suvarchasa, 350.

Suvamadvipa, 274, 413, 414, 415, 436, 441,
448.

Suvarnaprabhasa-sutra, 261, 361 (n).
Suvarnapura, 147.

Suvarna-varman, 122.

Suyya, 117, 245.

Svabhjivatuhga, 148.

Svandmdnka Kdvya, 180.
Svapnadasdnana, 179.

Svarna-Ganapati, 346,
Svasamvedanaprakrita-sastra, 268, 269.
Svastyayana, 351.
Svatantrika-madhyamika, 271.
Svayambhu, 210, 217, 218, 220.
Svayambhuchhandas, 198, 210.
Svayambhudeva, 217.

Svayambhu-Purdna , 47.

Svetd, 262.

gvetaka (the Ganga House), 141, 145.
Svetakas, 62, 81 (n).

Svetambaras, 289, 300.

Swat (valley) — See also Utftfiyana, 114
*323.

Swing Festival, 386.

£ yavialadavdaka, 185.
gyamilaka, 182.

Sylhet — See also Sirihatta, 54, 395 (n).

Ta$a, 137.

Tadapa (E. Chalukya k.), 13, 137.
Tadayuktaka , 243.

Taga^ur, 158.

Tagaung, 433.

Taila II, 16, 17, 86, 91, 92, 97, 98, 104,
162.

Tailapa II, 291, 292.

Tai-tsong, 445.

114

Takka (country), 109, 112, 118, 370.
Tafckl, 216.

Takkolam, battle of, 14, 155, 156, 159, 162,
163, 164, 171.

Tala II, 139.

Talaikonda, 159.

Talakad, 154, 163.

Taiapa, 137.

Taiasamsphotita, 306.

Talcher, 68, 77.

Talcher Plate of 5§ivakaradeva, 66, 77.
Talesvar, 124.

Talmul plates, 79.

Taltali plate, 67, 81 (n).

Tdmasa, 319.

Tamil, 220, 221, 222, 227-228, 307.

Tamil country, 292, 311, 370.

Tamil 6aiva literature (Tamil Veda), 316.
Tamil-Grantha, 222.

Tamilian Vaishnavism, 312.

Tamils, 51, 151, 157, 165.

Tamin, 20.

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAU-T

Tamradvipa, 274.

Tamraparni, 404.

Tan, 315.

Tana, 410 (n).

Tdntjlavalakshanam, 363 (n).

Tang dynasty, 59, 426, 444, 446.

Tanjore, 14, 153, 156, 158, 160, 170, 172,
337, 397 (n), 401, 402, 409, 411(n),
446.

Tanka, 1.

Tantra, 316, 317, 338.

T antra, Principles of, 326, 361 (n).
Tantrdloka, 206.

Tantra-mudra, 264.

Tantrapala, 241.

Tantrapala, 107.

Tantrapradipa, 190.

Tantras, 315, 316, 317, 318, 320, 322, 323,
324, 332.

Tantras , 260, 261, 268.

Tantras, Buddhist, 317.

Tantras, the later, 341.

Tantrasara, 362 (n).

Tantrayana — See also Vajrayana, 262,
264 274.

Tantrik cult, 258, 308, 322, 323.

Tantrik Buddhist texts, 263.

Tantrik emblem, 343.

Tantrikism (Tantrik Religion), 260, 266,
268, 273, 275, 315-327, 344, 346, 349,
417 436 438 447

Tantrik’ Teachers’ 266-267, 272, 323.
Tantrin troops, 119, 120.

Tantumatl 179.

Tapagachha, 296.

Tapti (River), 96, 97.

Tara (princess) 412, 413.

Tara (deity), 261, 262-263, 264, 266, 279,
280, 282, 284, 285, 322, 323, 341, 344,
362 (n), 440.

Tara, Dhupa, 285.

Tara, DIpa, 285.

Tara, Gf -*.dha, 285.

Tara, Khadiravani — See also 6yama-
Tara, 282, 284, 287.

Tara, Mahachlna, 282, 284.

Tara pushpa, 285.

Tara, £yama — See also Khadiravanl-
Tara, 284.

Tara, Ugra, 284, 330, 344.

Tara Vajra, 282, 285.

Tarala, 180.

Taranatha, 45, 49, 50, 55, 65, 260, 264, 267,
268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 360
(n), 361 (n) 362(n).

Tarapati, 242.

Taraporewala, I. J. S., 364(n).
Tardrahasya. 362(n).

Tara-stotras, 263.

Tardavadi (Bijapur dist.), 16.

Tarika, 242.

Tarinl, 341.

Tarkasdstra, 189.

Tata-Bikki, 138.

Tata-Vikramaditya, 138.

Tata-Vikyana, 138.

Tathagata, 361 (n).

Tathagata-guhya , 265.

Tathagatarakshita, 273.

Tatparyaparisuddhi — See also Tattva -

suddhi, 205.

Tatpurusha, 310.

Tattaka, 240.

Tattvabindu, 204.

Tattvacharya, 209,

Tattvakaurnudi, 204.

Tattvdloka , 194.

Tattvarthasara, 294.

Tattvasarhgraha, 271, 362(n).
Tattvasamikshd, 204.

Tattvasaradi, 204.

Tattvasuddhi — See also Tdtparyapari-

suddhi, 205.

Tattvavaisaradi, 230 ( n) .

Tauta, Bhatia, 194, 195.

Tavasaka-maridala, 123.

Tejahpala, temple of, 298.

Tejavaraha, 77.

Tekkali-Chicacole (area), 143.

Tekkali plates of Satrubhahja, 70, 71, 73,
81(n).

Tel (River), 73.

Telakapahagatha, 212.

Tellarrerinda Nandi- varman, 151, 166,
'167, ‘168.

Tellaru, 151, 159, 166.

Teiugu, 222, 223.

Telugu country, 370.

Telugu-Cholas, 140.

Telugus, 221.

Tehgi, 268.

Terapur, 218.

Te-tsong, 65.

Tevar, Karur, 227.

Tevar, Tirumalika, 227.

Tevaram, 227.

Tewar, 87, 342.

Tezpur, 61, 79(n), 335.

Thai kingdom, 416, 422, 432, 433.
Thailand, 422.

Thakkana, (Shahi k.), 114, 121.

Thakki, 215.

Thakkiya family, 112, 118.

Than, 333.

Thana, 403.

Thaneswar, 46, 112.

Thaton, 332.

Thera vada, 267.

Thomas, Dr. F.W., 79(n), 182, 230(n).
Tibet, 49, 52, 54, 58, 59, 85, 131(n), 270,
271, 272. 274, 275, 279, 284, 311, 323,
402, 409, 446-449, 453 (n).

Tibetan Catalogue, 268.

Tibetan Chronicles, 448.

Tibetan Sea, 446.

Tibetan traditions, 266.

Tilakamanjarl, 187.

Tillopada — See also Tilopa, 216.

Tilopa (Tillipa), 274.
Tipitaka-pariyattidhara, 211.

578

INDEX

Tipperah — See also Dakshina-Muham-
madpur, 330, 334, 339, 395(n).
Tlrthankaras, 298, 299.

TirthesastutC-See also Chaturvimsati-
Jinastuti and Sobhanastuti, 185.
Tiruchirapalli (District), 153, 158, 170.
Tiru-isaippa, 227.

Tirukalukkunram, 154, 156.

Tirumalai, 292.

Tirumalpuram, 167.

Tirnmurais, 227.

Tirune^ungalam, 153.

Tirunelveli, 158, 170.

Tiruppanalvar, 227.

Tirupparankunram, 349, 364 (n).
Tirupparuttikunram— See Jina-Kahchi.
Tiruppurambiyam, 152.

Tiruttani, 334.

Tiruvachakam, 227.

Tiruvalangadu Plates, 159, 165 (n).
Tiruvallam (N. Arcot Dt.), 12, 155,

Tiru v e kampa- md lai, 228.
Tishyamaharama, 175.

Tista (River), 61.

Titus, M.T., 452, 453(n).

Tomaras, 85, 107, 111-112, 241.
Tondaiman Arrur-tunjina-udaiyar, 167.
Tondamandalam, 14, 152, 153, 154, 155,
156, 157.

Tonkin, 414, 416, 422, 426.

Toramana (Shahi k.), 113, 118.

Tosail, 68.

Totala, 347.

Traikutaka-vihara, 271, 274, 275.
Trailokyachandra, 54, 91.
Traipurushadeva temples, 334.
Travancore, 158.

Trayastriuisa heaven, 275, 276.
Tribhandapura, 112.

Tribhuvana (Kashmir k.), 121.
Tribhuvanadhavala (Govinda III), 6.
Tribhuvanagiri, 290.

Tribhuvanakalasa, 70.
Tribhuvana-MahadevI I, 63, 67, 68.
Tribhuvana-MahadevI II, 63, 80(n), 148.
Tribhuvanankusa, 134, 136, 138, 139.
Tribhuvanapaia, 182.

Tribhuvanarajadeva, 123.
Tribhuvana-Svayambhu, 218.
Trichinopoly, 329, 333.

Trigarta, 117, 122.

Trika system, 300, 301, 360.

Trikalayogin Siddhantadevamuni, 291.
Trikalinga, 136, 147.

Trikdndasesha, 395(n), 402, 410(n).
Trilihga, 150.

Trilochanapala (Pratlhara k.), 38.
Trimurti, 310, 330, 331, 334, 351, 436.
Trimurti Surya, 332.

Trimurti-temple, 331.

Tripathi, R.S., 37, 40(n), 41(n), 42(n),
74, 93.

Tripitaka, 262.

Triplicane, 151.

Tripura, 322, 347.

Tripura-Bhairavl, 348.

Tripuradahana, 184.

Tripurantaka-murti, 309, 335.
Tripurasundarl, 344.

Tripuri, 18(n), 84, 87, 90, 92, 97, 146.
Trisahku, 370.

Trisha, 314.

Trisrota (River), 61.

Trivikrama, 331, 332, 336.
Trivikramabhatta, 188.

Tuars, 111.

Tukhara, 268.

Tukharistan, 127.

Tulasldasa, 217.

Tulodong, 428.

Tumbagi inscription, 397 (n).

Tummana, 88.

Turiga (Khasa), 121.

Tuhga (Rashtrakuta), 53, 189.

Tuhgas of Orissa, 77, 78, 79.

Turagapati Vahali, 93.

Turkestan, Eastern, 261, 360(n).
Turkestan , Tibetan Literary Texts and
Documents concerning, 79(n) .
Turkkiya-Yajvan, 139.

Turks-— See also Turushkas, 122.
Turushkas — See also Turks, 24, 25, 87,
112, 122, 127, 130(n), 405.

Turvasu, 142.

Tushita heaven, 278.

Twenty four Pergannas, W.B. — See also
Khadi- mandala, 279, 336, 337.
Tyagasiihlia, 6i.

Ubhaydb hisarika, 182.

Uchchangi, 162, 163.
Uchchhishta-Ganapati, 345.

Udaipur, 97, 109, 110.

Udaya — See also Dappula II, 169.

Udaya (writer), 223.

Udaya II £ilameghavama, 170.

Udaya III, 171.

Udaya IV, 171.

Udayaditya, 145.

Udayagiri inscription of Chandra-gupta
II, 147.

Udayakhedi, — 145.

Udayana, 179, 364 (n), 430.

Udayana (writer), 205, 206, 231 (n).
Udayaraja (k. of Lohara), 121.
Udayasundari-katha, 56(n), 189.
Udayavaraha, 77, 82(n).

Udayendiram Plates, 161, 167.
Udabhanda, 112, 113, 118, 120.

Udbhata (poet), 116, 181, 191, 192, 193,
194, 196.

Uddiyana — See also Kashgarh, Swat-
valley, Orissa, W. Assam, 323.
Uddyotana, 288, 296.

Uddyotanasuri— See also Dakshinya-
chihna, 209.

Udepur Prasasti, 95.

Uditavaraha, 77, 82(n).

Udra, 65.

Udyana (Place), 268, 269, 270.

579

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Ugra type o£ Sakti, 347.

Ugrabhuti, 190.

Ugrachanda, 343, 364(n).

Ugrakhedi, 145.

Ugrakopan, 151.

Ujjain— See Ujjayinl.

Ujjayini, 1, 2, 19, 20, 22, 31, 37, 41(n),
95, 189, 268, 304, 452.

Ujjvaladatta, 180.

Ukkal 156.

Ullabha (Kalachuri k. of Sarayupara),
93.

Ultimate Reality, 358, 359, 437.

Uma, 262, 264, 2 66, 305, 308, 338, 344, 347.
Uma-Mahesvara-rnurti, 305, 343, 348.
Umayyad dynasty, 125, 126, 127.

Una, 101.

Und, 112.

Undavilli, 330.

Unmdi vilakkam, 307.

Unmatta-Bhairava, 308.

Unmattakesarl, 66, 67.

Unmattasimha, 63, 64, 65, 66.
Unmatta-Uchchhishta variety of Ganesa,
349.

Unmattavanti, 119.

Unmattavarman, 68.

Upadesamdla, 209.

Upadhyaya, Pandit B., 365(n).

Upadhye, 363(n).

Upakesini, 281.

Upakurvana, 366.

Upamitibhavaprapanchakathd, 374, 376.,
377, 380, 384, 385, 387, 390, 391, 400,
401, 405.

Upananda, 277.

Upanishads, 301, 304, 321, 329, 337, 356,
357, 358, 436.

Uparikas, 241, 243.

Upasad, 251.

Upasaka (s) — See also Yakshas, 298, 299.
Upasena II, 211.

Upatissa, 211-212.

Upayuktas, 255 (n).

Upendra, 332.

Upendra (Paramara k.), 94, 95.

Upper Orissa, 149.

Ur, 406, 411 (n).

Uraiyur, 153.

Urasa, 118.

Urddhva-Ganapati, 335, 346.
Ur-gdvundas, 246.

Uruvasa-vihara, 275.

Usanas, 372.

Ushnlshavijaya, 285.

Utkala (country), 58, 62-82, 147.

IJtkalas, 50.

Utpala, 206, 301.

Utpala (Paramara Munja), 97.
Utpaladeva, 185, 194, 198.

Utpala dynasty, 117, 120, 244.

Utpalaka, 116.

Utpalaplda, 116.

Utpatti-krama-sadhana , 269.

Uttama Chola, 156, 157, 384, 410(n).

Uttamaslli, 155.

Utfara-girikataka, 93.

UttarCL-kalpa, 425.

Uttar a-hdmikdgama, 310.
Uttaramanthiparivena, 211.

Uttaramantri, 158, 247, 256(n).

Uttar amerur, 156, 249.

Uttar Mlru&rhsa , 358.

Uttar apatha, 50, 404.

Uttar apurdna, 183.

Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), 47, 83, 84, 87, 93,
94, 297, 333.

Uttejana, 428.

Uttungadeva, 428.

Vachaspatimisra (Vachaspati), 204, 205,
206, 364 (n), 365 (n).

Vachissara Mahasami, 211.

Vadall, 287.
j Vadavavaktra, 314.
j Vadnagar Prasasti, 103.

Vagada, 95, 96, 99.

Vagbhata, 451.

Vagisvarl, 340, 344.

■ Vahukadhavala, 24, 25, 101.

' Vahur, 152.

Vaibhajyavadin, 268.

Vaidumbas, 142, 144, 155, 156, 163, 164.
Vaidya, 363 (n).

Vaid.ya lineage, 374.

Vaidyanatha (Almora), 123.

Vaidyanatha (monastery of), 91.
Vaidyanatha Mahadeva, 340.

Vaigai (river), 151.

Vaijayanti, 395(n).

Vaikhanasa- Smart asutra, 372, 384(n).
Vainya-gupta, 395 (n).

Vairagyasdra, 216.

Vairamegha, 167.

Vairisixiiha I, 95.

Vairisimha II (Paramara), 93, 185.
Vairochana, 263, 287, 332, 336.
Vairochanabhadra, 271.
Vairochana-mdydjdla-tantra , 269.

Vaisall, 27 6, 277.

Vaiseshikas, 205.

Vaiseshikasutra, 205.

Vaishnava/s, 322, 338.

Vaishnava icons, 305, 315.

Vaishnava Samhitas, 323.
Vaishjuivdchdra, 320, 323.

Vaishnavi, 340.

Vaishnavi 6akti, 341.

Vaishnavism, 257, 258, 259, 292, 305, 311-
315, 316, 324, 338, 358, 360, 436.
Vaisya, 367, 401.

VaitaranI, 340.

Vaivahika-murti, 306, 336.

Vajirasthana, 114.

Vajjada-deva, 354.

Vajra (mod. Wairgarh), 98.

Vajra, 262, 266.

580

INDEX

Vajra, 265.

Vajra School, 361 (n).

Vajracharyas, 266, 272, 273.

Vajradaman (Kachchhapaghata chief),
38, 43 (n), 86.

Vajraditya Bappivaka, 115, 116.
Vajraghanta, 285.

Vajrahasta .(brother of Kamarnava and
son of Virasimha), 142.

Vijrahasta (son of Ranarnava), 143.
Vajrahasta III, 144.

Vajrahasta V, 144.

Vajrahasta-Ananta-varman, 141, 142,

143, 145.

Vajrahasta Aniyankabhlma, 141, 142, 143,

144, 145.

Vajramrita, 268.

Vajrankusa, 98.

VajrankusI, 285.

Vajrapani, 280.

Vajrapasi, 285.

Vajrarati, 266.

Vajrasana, 445.

ajrasattva-sadhana, 268.

Vajrasphotl, 285.

Vajrata (Tomara k.), 111.

Vajrata (Vairisimha II Paramara), 95.
Vajravarahl, 287, 362(n) .

Vajrayana— See also Tantrayana, 264,
265, 287, 288, 449.

VajrayoginI, 287.

Vakkuta, 185.

Vakpala (brother of Dharmapala), 50, 52.
Vakpati (Chandella), k.), 83.

Vakpati I (Paramara), 95, 131 (n), 187.
Vakpati- Muhj a, See Muhja.

Vakpatiraja, 181, 187.

Vakpatiraja I (Chahamana k.), 107.
Vakpatiraja II (Munja), 97.

Vakrokti, 191.

Vakroktifivita, 195.

Vakroktipanchasika, 183.
Vakula-MahadevI, 64, 68.
Valabha-Kayastha, 395(n).

Valabhl. 214, 333, 369, 374.

Valagamba— See also VattagamanI
Abhaya, 175.

Vallabha (Acharya), 360.

Vallabha (lord of all kings), 1.

Vallabha (Rashtrakuta kings), 88, 90,
138, 171.

Vallabha Kayastha, 189.

Vallabharaja (Chaulukya k.), 105.
Vallabha-raja (Rashtrakuta kings), 17.
Vallala (Tiruvallam in N. Arcot Dt.), 12,
155.

Valll, 344.

Vamachara, 320, 323.

Vamadeva, 310.

Vamana, 191, 193, 196, 197, 331, 332.
Vamana Purana, 203, 335.

Vamanasthall, 102, 104.

Vamuka, 192.

Vanacharas , 213.

Vanai-mandala, 77.

Vanamala (Yuvaraja), 19(n).
Vanamala-varman (k. of Kamarupa), 61.
Vanaraja, 103, 289.

Vanary asatru, 82(n).

Vanavan MahadevI, 159.

Vanayu, 405.

Vahga — See also Vangala, Bengal,

Bhahgala, 7, 9, 24, 25, 45, 47, 54,
57(n), 87, 88, 130(n), 401.

Vangala— -See also Vahga, Bengal, Bhah¬
gala, 53, 91, 274.

Vangasena, 199.

Vangiya Sahitya Parishat Museum, Cal¬
cutta, 276, 282, 306, 336, 348, 349.
Van Guliq, 364(n).

Vanjulvaka (See Vijaya-Vanjulvaka).
Vanthali, 102.

Vanuvanmadevi isvaramu^aiyar, 176.
Vapyata, 44.

Varaguna I, 151, 157.

Varaguna II, 152, 159, 167, 170, 411 (n).
Varaha (iconography), 331.

Varaha (or Jaya-varaha) , 21.

Varaha (or Mahavaraha), 102.

Varaha temple, 330.

Varahagupta, 194.

Varahamihira, 125, 198, 332.
VarahamukhI, 287.

Varaha Purana, 203, 368, 370, 393(n),
394(n).

Varaha SvamI, 333.

Varahas of Saurya-Mandala, 102.
Varahavartam (District), 143.

Varahl, 340, 348.

Varalx, 287.

Varamudra, 282.

Vararuchi, 182, 186, 189.

Varatuhgan, 151.

Vardhamana, 100, 179, 184.

Vardhamana temple, 299.
Vardhamana-bhukti, 54.
Vardhamdnacharita , — See also Maha-

vnracharita and Sanmitracharita, 183.
Vardhamanapura, 21, 22, 54.

Varendra, 49.

Varendra Research Society’s Museum,
Rajshahi, 300.

Varendri (N. Bengal), 45.

Variyams, 248, 249.

Varma-setu, 412.

Vamata, 120.

Varttall, 287.

Varuna, 299.

Vasishtha, 75, 76, 94, 407.
Vasishtha-Smriti, 386.

Vaso-Boya, 136.

Vasubandhu, 259, 265, 266, 360 (n).
Vasudeva (Chahamana), 106.

Vasudeva (iconography), 309, 332, 341.
Vasudeva (poet), 184, 185, 186.

Vasudeva- Vishnu, 309.

Vasudhara — See also Bhumi and Pri-
thivl, 283, 285.

581

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Vasugupta, 206, 301, 363(n).

Vatesvara (Vittesvara), 200.
Vatesvaradatta, 178.

Vatsa, 24, 25, 41 (n).

Vatsaraja (Chahamana), 107.

Vatsaraja (Prathlhara), 4, 5, 6, 19, 21-24,
28, 29. 32, 35, 40, 45, 46, 47, 55(n),
56(n), 106, 110, 290.

Vatsyayana, 382, 383, 386, 397(n), 443.
VattagamanI Abhaya — See also Vala-
gamba, 175.

Vayiramegha-varman, 166, 167.
Vedachara, 320, 323.

Vedanga, 436.

Vedanta, 300, 318, 357, 358, 359, 360,
365(n), 443.

Vedanta-sutras, 356, 358.

Vedantists, 358, 359.

Vedas, 28, 152, 314, 316, 318, 352, 355, 357,
358, 367, 381, 436, 438, 443.

Vedavyasa, 452.

Vedavyasa-Smriti, 372.

Vedeha, 212.

Vedic epithets, 309.

Vedic sacrifice, 313.

VegadevI, 123.

Vega Varisa (Sultan), 106.

Velanandu, 57 (n), 13S.

Velankar, 229 (n), 230(n), 363 (n).
Veiayudha, 344.

Vellangumaran, 165.

Veilar, 153.

Vellar Basin, The Early History of the,
165 (n).

Vellore Dist., 14,

Vellur, 154.

Veiurpalaiyam, 151.

Velvikudi (grant), 157, 158.

Vemulavatfa, 13, 135.

Vena, 238.

Venad, 158.

Vengl, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 31, (57(n),
133, 134, 135, 136, 247.

Vengimandala, 134.

Venkataramanayya, N. 140, 149.
Venkayya, V., 165(n).

Vessagiriya, 174.

Vetdlapahchavimsatika., 187.

Vetravati, 96, 213.

Vibharatta. 270.

Vibhasha — See also VibhrcLshta, 213, 214.
Vibhramatuhga I, 75.

Vibhramatuhga II, 75.

Vibhrashta — See also Vibhasha, 213, 214.
Vichdrasrenl, 105.

Vichitrasagara, 423.

Vidagdha (an epithet of Mahendrapala
II, Prathlhara k.), 43(n), 131(n).
Vidagdha-varman, 122, 123.

Vidarbha, 17(n), 24, 25.
Viddhasdlabhahjikd, 90, 180, 391.
Vidhiviveka, 204.

Vidyabhogam, 152.

Vidyabhusana, 361(n).

Vidyadevls, 336.

Vidyadharabhanja, 70.

Vidyadhara Bha^a, 187.
Vidyadharacharya, 323.

Vidyadharas, 261.

Vidyadharas, 98.

Vidyakaraprabha, 274.

Vidyananda, 288, 294, 354, 364(n).
Vidyapati, 219.

Vidyarajhi, 261, 262.

Vidyarambha, 366, 392(n).

Vidyasthana, 152.

Vidyesvaras, 311.

Vighnantaka, 286.

Vighnas, 286.

Vigrahapala (Chahamana), 108.
Vigrahapala I (Pala k.) , 52.

Vigrahapala II (Pala k.), 53, 55, 57(n),

86.

Vigrahapala III, 242.

Vigraharaja (nephew of Didda), 121.
Vigraharaja I (Chahamana k.), 106.
Vigraharaja II (Chahamana k.), 40 (n),
104, 106, 107, 131(h).

Vigraharaja III Visaladeva Chahamana
k.), 112.

Vijamba (Kalachuri princess), 89.

Vijaya (Chandella k.), 83, 84.

Vijaya (Bhahja queen), 73.

Vijaya (place), 427.

Vijayabahu I ^rlsanghabodhi, 174,
177(n), 211.

Vijayaditya, 134, 149.

Vijayaditya (Badapa styled as), 139.
Vijayaditya (Son of §rlpurusha), 160,
161.

Vijayaditya I (E. Chalukya), 133.
Vijayaditya II (Bana), 163.

Vijayaditya II, (E. Chalukya k.), 8, 9,
41(n), 133, 134, 135, 395(n).
Vijayaditya III (Eastern Chalukya k.),
12, 88, 89, 135, 136, 141.

Vijayaditya IV, 136, 137, 138.

Vijayaditya V, 137.

Vijayakoshtha (or Vijayaprakoshtha),
181.

Vijayalaya (Chola king), 153, 406.
Vijayanagar, 221, 223.

Vijayanandl, 200.

Vijayanka, 394(n).
Vijaya-Nripatungavarman, 369.

Vijayapala (Pratihara k.), 37, 38, 40(n).

86.

Vijayapura, 93.

Vijayasakti, 83.

Vijayasinha,* 210.

Vijaya Hari-varman II, 427.

Vijaya-Vahjulvaka, 72, 74, 149.
Vijayavatika, 139.

Vijayawada, 138, 291.

Vijjaka, 83.

Vijjaya (of Panara dynasty), 138.

! Vijnanabhikshu, 205.

1 Vijhanesvara, 203, 204, 249, 253, 254, 378,
i 394(n), 395(n).

582

INDEX

Vijnaptimdtrata — See also Chittamatra,
265, 266.

Vijaya (Mahadevi), 145.

Vikatanitamba, 394(n).

Vikkiyanna (son of Prithvlpati II), 162.
Vikrama (Govinda III), 7.

Vikramab&hu, 173.

Vikramaditya, 136, 161, 181, 187.
Vikramaditya ( alias of 6ulki k. Ka-
laha-stambha), 77.

Vikramaditya (another name for Vik¬
kiyanna), 162.

Vikramaditya I (Bana) — See also Bana-
vidyadhara, 163, 166.

Vikramaditya I (Chalukya), 135.
Vikramaditya II (Bana), 163.
Vikramaditya II (Chiilukya), 2, 137.
Vikramaditya III (Bana), 163.
Vikramaditya IV (Chalukya), 91.
Vikramapandya, 173.

Vikramapura, 29.

Vikramarjuna Vijaya — See also Pampa
Bhdrata, 136, 224, 225.

Vikramarka (Chapa k.), 100, 103.
Vikramaslla (Dharmapala), 49, 183.
Vikramaslla monastery (vihara), 49, 271,
272, 273, 274, 275, 369, 448, 449.
Vikramorvasiya, 216.

Vikrampur, 280, 348.

Vikranta-kaurava (or Sulochana Ndta-
ka ), 180.

Vikranta-varman III, 424.

Vilasatunga Devananda II, 78.
Vilasatunga Devananda II, 78.

Vilinam, 158.

Village assemblies in South India, 383.
Vimala, temple of, 298.

Vimala (writer), 223.

Vimaladitya, 291.

Vimalamati, 190.

Vimalamitra, 447.

Vim&na, 176.

Vmadhara-dakshina-murti, 306.

Vinaya, 274.

Vinayadisarman, 135.

Vinayaditya (Jayapida), 115.

Vinayaditya (brother of Potankusa), 143.
Vinayaditya (son of Vijrahasta), 142.
Vinayakapala I (Pratihara k.), 33, 34,
36, 37, 40, 43(n).

Vinayakapala II (Pratihara k.), 37, 43
(n).

Vinayakas, 345.

Vinayamahadevi (wife of Kamamava),
142.

Vinaya-Pitaka, 260.

Vindhyanripati, 131 ( n ) .

Vindhyas,' 7, 33, 50, 83, 213.
Vindhvavasinl, 344.

Vingavalli, 134.

Vinitadeva, 267.

Vinitapura, 147, 148.

Vinitatuhga II, 77, 78.

Viniyuktaka, 243.

Vipranarayana, 139.

Vipula-srimitra, 274.

Vtra, 319, 320.

Vlra Banajigas, 289.

Virabhadra, 339, 340, 348.

Virabhadra Ganadanda, 75, 76.
VIrabhadra-murti, 308.

Virachara, 323.

Virahanka, 207.

Viraja, 69.

Virajakshetra, 340.

Virajapuri, 137.

Virajas, 66, 68.

Viraja temple, 81 (n).

Viraviartanda, 162.

Viramgam Taluk, 105.

Viran, 118.

VIranaka, 118.

Vira-Ndrdyana (Amoghavarsha I), 8.
Virandrayana (title of Parantaka), 155.
Viranarayanapura, 3121
Viranesvara, 125.

Vlra Fandya, 157, 159.

Virarajendra, 174.

Virasaivas, 323.

Virasena, 182, 294.

Virasilamegha — See also Jagatlpala, 173,
174.

Virasimha (k. at Kolahalapura), 142.
Viratesvara temple, 338.

Viravahu, 61, 80 (n).

Virochana, 142.

Virochana (legend), 332.

Virupa, 270.

Virupaksha-murti, 308.

Visakhadatta, 178, 179, 228(n).
Visakhadatta and his Mudra-Raksliasa,
Introduction to the study ojt 228 (n).
Visakhadeva, 228(n).

Visakhapatnam District, 78, l?e ',0ft
Visakhila, 397(n).

Visakhsha, 443.

Visavada, 333.

Vishmabanalila, 194.

Vishamasiddhi, 135.

Vishayakaranas , 244.

Vishayamahattaras, 255(n).

Vishayapati, 243, 246.

Vishayas, 240, 243, 244, 247.
VishayavyavahdrinSf 243.

Vishnu, 28, 85, 91, 92, 125, 158, 185, 224,
237, 238, 239, 257, 278, 282, 283, 285,

296, 305, 308, 311, 313, 314, 316, 328,

329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336, 337,

338, 339, 341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 350,

351, 360, 418, 435, 440.

\ishnu, temple of, 111, 113.
Vishnudharmottara, 237, 238, 254(n),

255 (n), 388, 400.

Vishnu-krishna, 314.

Vishnu Pur ana 63, 64.

Vishnudeva Duraiarasan, 144.
Vishnuvardhana (Chalukya Bhima II),
136, 137, 138.

Vishnuvardhana (6aktivarman), 140.
583

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

Vishnuvarclhana (Tala II), 139.

Vishnu vardhana IV (E. Chalukya k. of
Vengl), 3, 4, 6, 8, 133.

Vishnuvarclhana V, 135, 137.

Vishnu vardhana Hoysala, 163.
Vishnuvarman I, 125.

Vishnuvarman II, 125.

Vishvaksena, 308.

Visishtadvaita, 312.

Visvakarmavatara Sdstra, 350.

Visvanatha, 188.

Visvamitra, 94.

Visvtapadm a, 277 ,

Visvarupa (avatar a), 313, 314.

Visvarupa (Smrifci commentator), 203.
204, 232, 233, 236, 249, 250, 256 (n)',
370, 372, 375, 378, 379, 388. 396 (n).
Visvavarman, 348.

Vitaputra, 397 (n).

Vitasta (River), 117.

Vitasta valley, 118.

Vizianugaram, 291.

Vodda-aradhana , 222.

Vogel, 122.

Vopalita, 189.

Vorlesungen ilber den Islam , 453 (n).
Vrachada, 215.

Vratas, 264.

Vriddha-Hdrita, 370, 373, 394 (n).
Vrinda, 199.

Vrindamddhava — See also Siddhiyoga.
199.

Vrindavana, 360.

Vrishabha-lahchhana (bull crest), 142.
Vrishavarman, 125.

Vulur (River), 117.

Vyadhapura, 416, 419.

Vyaghra. 452.

Vyaghresvara, 123.

Vydkhydnamudrd, 282, 286.
Vyakhvana-murti, 306.

Vyaktiviveka, 195.

Vyasa, 205, 217, 225.

Vyasa (Acharya), 367.

Vyasa (Kalachuri k. of Sarayupara), 94.
Vyasabhashya, 204.

Vyavahdrikas, 244.

Vyomasekhara, 206.

Vyomavati, 206.

Vyxiha doctrine, 309, 332.

Waddell, 32V 362 (n).

Wadhwan (Kathiawad) (origin of name),
22, 102, 103.

Wairagarh, 98, 99.

Wandiwash, 166.

Wani Grant of Govinda III, 41(n).
Waters, 360 (n).

Wawa, 428, 429.

Waziristan, 114.

West Bengal, 82 (n), 86.

Western Ghats, 403.

Western Hill States, 47.

Wickremasinghe, 212.

Winternitz, 184, 186, 193, 212, 229(n),
230(n), 231 (n), 354, 361(n).

Women, the position of, 377-382.
Wu-ch’a, 65

Yadavas, 46.

Yadu, 46.

Yadu, Rashtrakutas descended from, 17
(n).

Yaduvarhsa, 17 (n).

Yajhapurusha — See also Yajnesa, 313.
Yajhavalkya, 203, 233, 249, 250, 256(n),
368, 370, 376, 378, 406, 407.
Yajnavalkya-smriti, 203.

Yajnesa — See also Yajhapurusha, 313.
Yajurveda, 309.

Yakshas — See also Upasakas, 204, 299,
342.

Yakshas, 260, 261.

Yakshinls — See also Sasanadevatas, 264.

299, 300.

Ya’kubI, 419.

Ya’kub ibn Layth, 112, 113, 126.

Ya’kub ibn Tarik, 450.

Yama, 237, 283, 309, 331, 367.

Yamagarta, 77, 82(n).

Yamaia, 317.

Yamantakas, 264.

Yamantaka-siddhi, 272.

Yamari, 282, 283.

YamI, 340.

Yamini, 86.

Yamuna, 5, 13, 23, 35, 56(n), 84, 85, 86,
330, 341, 343, 438.

Yamunacharya, 206.

Yamanua-Gahga Doah — See Ganga- Ya¬
muna Doab.

Yan Pu Ku Vijaya Sri, 427.

Yasahpala (Pratiiiara k.), 43 (n).
Yasaskara, 85, 120, 244, 245, 369, 396, (n).
Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, 363 (n).
Yasastilaka champu, 186, 188, 189, 230
(n), 294, 295.

Yasobhanja, 72.

Yasodeva, 189.

Yasodhara, 121, 189.

Yasodharacharita, 183.

Yasodhara-pura, 420.

Yasovarman, 42(n), 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 96,
186.

Yaso-varman, 420, 421, 422, 438, 443.
Yathasukha, 70, 81 (n).

Yava-bhiimi, 412. .
i Yavadvlpa, 274, 419.

| Yavana, 46, 128.

! Yayati, 142.

| Yayatinagara, 148.

I Yayavara, 180.
j Yazdagird III, 353.

! Yellamanchili, 136, 139.

I Yoga, 365 (n).

584

INDEX

Yoga, 263, 265, 266. “ |

Yogabadari, 123.

Yogabhashya , 205.

Yogachara, 266.

Yoga-murti, 306.

Yogarahasya, 206.

Yogaraja, 96.

Yogaraja (Chapa K.), 103.

Yogaraja II (Avanivarman), 96.

Yogasana, 277.

Yogas&rasaihgraha, 205.

Yogasutra, 200, 204, 205.

Yoga system, 356.

Yoga tantra — See also Anuttarayoga
tantra,' 264, 271, 272.

Yogavarttika, 205.

Yogavasishtha, 184.

Yogavasishthasara, 206.

Yogesvarl, 340.

Yogic system, 259.

Yogini, 320.

Yoginls, 308, 342, 243.

YoginlsamchaTya, 268.

Yogloka, 204.

Yuddhamalla (father of Badapa), 139.

, Yuddhamalla I, 135, 137.
i Yuddhamalla II, 137, 138.

Yudhish^hira, 184,

Yudhishthiravijaya, 184, 185, 186.
Yugakara-varman, 122.

Yukta , 246.

Yuktichintamani, 189.

Yunnan, 416, 4i8, 419, 420, 422, 432, 433.
Yuvaraja I (Kalachuri k.), 84, 89-91.
Yuvaraja II, 91, 92, 97, 105.

Zabag (Zabaj), 410 (n), 413, 414.

Zabul, 125, 126.

Zabulistan, X13, 126.

Zaid, Abu, 377, 380, 382, 386, 391, 397
(n), 403, 405, 413, 414.

Zarathoshti Abhyasa, 364 (n).

Ziarat, Muslim, 113.

Zindlq, 452.

Zoroastrianism — See also the P arsis,
352, 353.

Zoroastrian literature, 354.

; Zuhd, 452.

585

THE HISTORY AND CULTURE

OF THE

INDIAN PEOPLE

This is the first history of India, written
exclusively by her own people, bringing to bear on
the problems a detached and truly critical
appreciation. A team of over sixty scholars of
repute presents herein a comprehensive and up-to-
date account of the political, socio-economic and
cultural history of the Indian people.

VOLUME I
THE VEDIC AGE
(up to 600 B.C.)

VOLUME II

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL UNITY
(600 B.C. to 320 A.D.)

VOLUME III
THE CLASSICAL AGE
(320—750 A.D.)

VOLUME IV

THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ
(750—1000 A.D.)

VOLUME V

THE STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE
(1000—1300 A.D.)

VOLUME VI

THE DELHI SULTANATE
(1300—1526 A.D.)

VOLUME VII
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
(1526—1707 A.D.)

VOLUME VIII

THE MARATHA SUPREMACY
(1707—1818 A.D.)

VOLUME IX

BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY AND INDIAN
RENAISSANCE (1818—1905 A.D.) PART I

VOLUME X

BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY AND INDIAN
RENAISSANCE (1818—1905 A.D.) PART II

VOLUME XI

STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM (1905—1947)

VOLUME I : THE VEDIC AGE

"This history unlike its predecessors is first and foremost a history of India and of
her people rather than a history of those who have from time to time invaded her.... The
standard, in a word, is very high...."

The Times Literary Supplement, London

"....Distinguished historians contribute and they are not only learned but also very
readable .... It contains much new information...."

The Manchester Guardian, Manchester

VOLUME II : THE AGE OF IMPERIAL UNITY

"....It is safe to say that these volumes will transform the study of Indian history in
our times; their authors are not only writing history, they themselves are making history, a
whole new history of knowledge and education...."

The Illustrated Weekly of India, Bombay

VOLUME III : THE CLASSICAL AGE

"....It maintains the leading trait of the series viz. to devote more attention to the
social and cultural aspects of the story than to the purely political side, and the narrative of
dynastic struggles and wars.... The political history is generally complete and up-to-date
and a great amount of authentic information on social and economic history has been
culled and presented systematically for the first time...."

K. A. Nilakanta Sastri in Journal of Indian History

VOLUME IV : THE AGE OF IMPERIAL KANAUJ

"....This is a magnificent piece of exact and unbiased scholarship.... Its pages are
alive with the spirit of the modern Indian Renaissance; freedom has animated Indian
learning and this is one of its finest achievements. ...this new Indian history is not
concerned merely, or even mainly, with war and politics. Two thirds of the book deal with
cultural and social matters...." The Statesman, Calcutta

VOLUME V : THE STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE

"....Like all the preceding volumes its treatment.... is detailed and comprehensive
and is based upon the highest standards of scholarship. The contributors .... have made the
best use of all the available source material and the important previous works on the
subject. ...From every point of view it will be accepted as the standard and authoritative
work on the history of India in the age of transition from ancient to medieval times...."

The Hindustan Times, New Delhi

VOLUME VI : THE DELHI SULTANATE

"....Voluminous publication. ...piecing together all relevant material.... easily stands
out as one of the most outstanding and comprehensive treatises so far brought out on this
period of Indian history. ...surpasses them all. ...being written.... from an entirely new angle
of vision. ...is indeed a significant contribution. ...this comprehensive and detailed work is
really a very valuable addition to the existing literature on the subject...."

The Pioneer, Lucknow

VOLUME VII : THE MUGHUL EMPIRE

"....A comprehensive and balanced history of a momentous period; an exacting task
ably fulfilled. ...A notable volume in a notable series, the work is a finely integrated a r
well brought-out history of a remarkable time...." Nagpur Times, Nagp.

VOLUME VIII : THE MARATHA SUPREMACY

"....The editors have done a commendable job in bringing out this volume in which
the political history of the period has been dealt with in a scholarly manner...."

Tne National Herald, New Delhi

VOLUME IX : BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY AND
INDIAN RENAISSANCE, PART I

"....The volumeris an exhaustive study of the British rule. ...Its impact on the
cultural, social and educational life in the country.... This is an important publication for
students of Indian history...." The Hitavada, Nagpur

VOLUME X : BRITISH PARAMOUNTCY AND
INDIAN RENAISSANCE, PART II

"....This volume, like its predecessors, is a mine of information and brings to light
numerous significant facts and developments in the last century.. ..It maintains the high
standards set by the earlier volumes...." Sunday Standard, Bombay

VOLUME XI : STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM

"....The present volume covers the momentous period 1905-1947. It gives a detailed
account not only of political developments, but also of such other essential topics as
administration, education, art and literature...."

"Unique in the annals of modern Indian scholarship...."

Sunday Standard, Bombay

ISBN-978-81-7276-431-9

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